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Ahmad S. Al-Adsani
Omid Beik
Multiphase
Hybrid
Electric
Machines
Applications for Electrified Powertrains
Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines
Ahmad S. Al-Adsani • Omid Beik
Multiphase Hybrid Electric

Machines
Applications for Electrified Powertrains
Ahmad S. Al-Adsani Omid Beik
Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer
Technology, Public Authority for Applied Engineering
Education and Training (PAAET) McMaster University
College of Technological Studies (CTS) Hamilton, ON, Canada
Kuwait City, Kuwait
ISBN 978-3-030-80434-3 ISBN 978-3-030-80435-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80435-0
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Development of road vehicles through electrified powertrains without compromising

their power capability, efficiency, performance, reliability, safety, driving range, and
cost has been the center of attention in academia and industry. This book is a user-
friendly reference and attractive subject for researchers and undergraduate and
graduate engineers who are interested in multiphase, permanent magnet and hybrid
machine topologies with a specific application in electric and hybrid electric
vehicles.
This book begins with an overview and principals of classical electric machine
operation, magnetic modeling, and characteristics of materials. Various classical
electric machine topologies, including brushed DC, and different AC machines are
discussed in Chap. 1.
Chapter 2 discusses hybrid electric machine concept together with a review of
different hybrid machine topologies, indicating their operational philosophy, advan-
tages, and disadvantages.
Chapter 3 presents a hybrid permanent magnet (HPM) machine topology that is
selected and analyzed in terms of its geometry, excitation field technique, back-
EMF, and developed electromagnetic torque for both no-load and on-load opera-
tions. The HPM topology consists of two different synchronous machines, a perma-
nent magnet (PM) and a wound field (WF) machine that are coupled on the same
rotor shaft, rotate with the same speed, and share the same multiphase stator.
Chapter 4 discusses an overview of multiphase electric machines. AC and
rectified DC output voltage waveforms of three- and nine-phase systems with
associated power electronics are presented. A comparison of three- and two nine-
phase machine winding, rectification characteristics, and losses for both HPM and
PM machine topologies is presented in Chap. 4.
Chapter 5 presents an overview of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), their powertrains, and on-board energy sources. Different battery
technologies are discussed, and in the case of HEVs the feasibility of disconnecting
the internal combustion engine (ICE) from the electric drivetrain is studied. Driving
range, fuel economy, and emissions are evaluated over different driving cycles, and
at different vehicle powertrain hybridization ratios (HR) in Chap. 5.
v
vi Preface
In Chap. 6, a dynamic model of vehicle powertrain that includes a HPM generator

integrated into an ICE in an SHEV while considering a load demand is presented.
The ICE/HPM generator output power control scheme is modeled while maintaining
ICE efficiency within its optimal region. Several operating scenarios for the HPM
generator excitation scheme are assessed, and the HPM generator is characterized
utilizing a 32-phase brushless excitation scheme. In addition, different cases, such as
normal, boost, and buck functionality of HPM machine operation, are analyzed, and
a choice of the most appropriate operation mode has been selected to regulate the
total back-EMF via a WF excitation current control.
Dr. Al-Adsani wishes to express his sincere gratitude toward his wife, and the
authors extend special thanks to Dr. Nigel Schofield at the University of Hudders-
field for his valuable inputs and to the team at Springer for their care during the book
production.
Kuwait City, Kuwait Ahmad S. Al-Adsani

Toronto, ON, Canada Omid Beik
Contents
1 General Electric Machine Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Magnetic Circuit Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Magnetic Field Distribution and Flux Density . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Ferromagnetic Materials and Magnetization Curves . . . . . 3
1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Brushed DC and AC Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Brushless AC Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Switch Reluctance Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of WF
Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of PM
Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Hybrid Electric Machine Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 PM Synchronous Machine with Claw Pole
Field Excitation (PSCPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Toroidal-Stator Transverse-Flux Machine (TSTFM) . . . . . 21
2.3.3 Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Machine (HESM) . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 Synchronous Permanent Magnet Hybrid AC
Machine (SynPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.5 Consequent Pole Permanent Magnet Hybrid
Excitation Machine (CPPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.6 Field Controlled Torus-NS (FCT-NS) Machine . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.7 Dual-Rotor Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.8 Imbricated Hybrid Excitation Machine (IHEM) . . . . . . . . 33
vii
viii Contents
2.3.9 Series Double Excited Synchronous Machine

(SDESM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.10 Switch Reluctance Machine with Stator Field
Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.11 Dual-Stator Hybrid Excited Synchronous
Wind Generator (DSHESG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4 Summary of Surveyed Literature on HPM Machines . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Hybrid Permanent Magnet Machine Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Machine Volume Envelope Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2.1 PM Machine Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.2 PM Machine Stator Winding Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.3 Stator Winding Fill Factor and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.4 Finite Element Method Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.5 Machine Back-EMF Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.6 PM Machine Analysis Via EMC Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 WF Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.1 WF Rotor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.2 WF to PM Split Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.3 Comparative Analysis of WF Rotor Designs . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4 HPM Machine Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.1 Torque Prediction and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.2 Synchronous Inductance and Winding Resistance . . . . . . 73
3.5 HPM Machine Final Design Model Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.1 Rotor PM Demagnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.2 Core Loss Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.6 HPM Machine Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6.1 General Principle of the Lumped Parameter Method . . . . . 81
3.6.2 Conduction Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.6.3 Convection Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6.4 Radiation Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6.5 HPM Machine Thermal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.7 Comparison Between PM and Four HPM Machine
Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4 Multiphase HPM Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1 Overview on Multiphase Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1.1 Multiphase Windings Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.1.2 Rectified Voltage due to Three- and Nine-Phase
HPM Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2 Nine-Phase HPM Generator Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.1 Nine-Phase Winding Layout and Back-EMF . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.2 Back-EMF and Torque Waveform Harmonics
Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Contents ix
4.2.3 Synchronous Inductance Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

4.2.4 Construction of HPM Machines Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.5 Resistance and Inductance Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3 Analysis Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3.1 General dq Mathematical Model of HPM Generator . . . . . 115
4.3.2 Simulation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4 Three- and Nine-Phase HPM Generator System Studies . . . . . . . . 119
4.4.1 Impact on Synchronous Inductance and Rectifier . . . . . . . 121
4.4.2 System Sensitivity to Generator Synchronous
Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4.3 DC-Link Voltage Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5 Loss Audit of Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5.2 Core Loss Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.5.3 Passive and Active Converter Loss for HPM
and PM Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5 Electric and Hybrid Electric Powertrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2 Overview of EVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.1 EV Powertrain Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.2 Battery Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3 Overview of HEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.3.1 HEV Powertrain Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4 Vehicle Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle (SHEV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1 ZEBRA Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.5.2 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.5.3 Engine-Mounted Multiphase HPM Generator . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6 Electric Vehicle Range Extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6.2 Literature Review of EV Range Extender Studies . . . . . . . 160
5.7 ICE/HPM Generator Range Extender in SHEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.7.1 Vehicle Traction Machine Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.7.2 Hybridization Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.3 Range Extender Sizing in SHEV Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.4 Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6 Operation and Characterization of Multiphase HPM
Generator in SHEV Powertrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.2 HPM Machine Back-EMF Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2.1 Control Strategy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.2.2 DC-link Design Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
x Contents
6.3 HPM Machine Output Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

6.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.3.2 HPM Generator Operating Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.3.3 Energy Loss Prediction for Two Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . 187
6.3.4 Solving Final Choice with Full Simulation Model . . . . . . 189
6.3.5 Thermal Analysis Results of the Investigated
HPM Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.4 HPM Machine Characterization Using Brushless Excitor . . . . . . . . 194
6.4.1 32-Phase Brushless Excitation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4.2 Performance Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.4.3 Efficiency Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter 1
General Electric Machine Theory
1.1 Magnetic Circuit Principles
In electric machines, a magnetism phenomenon is utilized to build an electromotive

force (EMF) to supply an electric load, as in generators, or to drive a mechanical load
as in motors. In electric devices, four basic principles can describe how magnetic
field is used [1]:
(i) In a current-carrying conductor, a magnetic field is produced around that
conductor.
(ii) In transformer action, a time changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil
if it passes on it.
(iii) In generator action, a moving conductor in the presence of a magnetic field
induces a voltage and hence current flows through that conductor.
(iv) In motor action, a current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field
has an electromotive force induced on it.
1.1.1 Magnetic Field Distribution and Flux Density
The magnetic field that is created by current-carrying conductors based on Ampere’s

right-hand rule, as in Fig. 1.1a, shows a right hand with the thumb pointing in the
direction of current flow, while the magnetic field is rotating in the direction of the
other fingers. Notice in Fig 1.1b that the symbol ⨂ denotes a cross-sectional view of
the conductor carrying the current into the paper, while the symbol ⦿ denotes the
current flow out of the paper. A magnetic field intensity (H ) is characterized as an
effort a current is putting into establishing a magnetic field. The field intensity due to
excitation DC current (I), which passes in a coil with (N ) turns through magnetic
circuit path length (Lc), is calculated in (1.1) [2]. The strength of a magnetic field flux
density (B) is governed by H and core material, as in (1.2). μ represents the magnetic
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

A. S. Al-Adsani, O. Beik, Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80435-0_1
2 1 General Electric Machine Theory
Fig. 1.1 Magnetic field

direction due to a current-
carrying conductor coil (a)
Current-carrying conductor
coil and right-hand rule (b)
Magnetic flux direction for
in and out of the page
current directions
permeability of the material. A convenient way of representing the magnetizability

of materials is by comparing material permeability to the permeability of free space
(μo ¼ 4π 107 H/m), which is referred to as relative permeability (μr). Note in the
magnetic circuit that the flux density is governed by the flux (φ) and the cross-
sectional area (A) of the medium that it is passing through, as in (1.4).
NI
H¼ ð1:1Þ
Lc
B ¼ μH ð1:2Þ
μ
μr ¼ ð1:3Þ
μo
φ
B¼ ð1:4Þ
A
By considering the simple core shape in Fig. 1.1a, the magnetic path in the core
has a uniform shape, which has a reluctance value that depends on the path length,
core permeability, and cross-sectional area as in (1.5). The reluctance in the magnetic
circuit is like the resistance in the electric circuit, where one governs the flow of flux
and the flow of current, respectively, as in Fig. 1.2. In the magnetic circuit, the coil
has NI quantity that is called magnetomotive force (MMF). However, for permanent
magnet (PM) materials, the MMF is calculated as in (1.7), where Hc is the PM core
field intensity and Lc is the PM core length (thickness).
1.1 Magnetic Circuit Principles 3
Fig. 1.2 Electric and its magnetic circuit analogy (a) Electric circuit (b) Magnetic circuit
L
R ¼ ð1:5Þ
μA
MMF ¼ NI ð1:6Þ
MMF ¼ H c Lc ð1:7Þ
1.1.2 Ferromagnetic Materials and Magnetization Curves
When the magnetic circuit is divided into sections of materials that easily allow flux
line path to be formed, this is called ferromagnetic materials (FERMMs). In
FERMMs, there are atoms, and each atom has its own magnetic moment direction,
which is separated by a domain wall in each crystal boundary, as in Fig. 1.3a. These
magnetic moments tend to align in the same direction over domains containing many
atoms when they are subjected to a magnetic field intensity [2]. As H increases
further and further, more domain directions will align until all the domains are in the
same direction and when the material is magnetized to the maximum extent (satu-
ration region), as shown in Fig. 1.3a. Here, if the majority of the domains are in the
same directions after the applied field is removed, the material is said to be perma-
nently magnetized. Another important phenomenon that occurs in FERMMs is
called hysteresis. Hysteresis is described by referring to a typical B–H curve in
Fig. 1.3a. When a current flows through a coil warped around a ferromagnetic core,
MMF will then be created. As the MMF increases, so does H until the core saturates,
which is presented by point o to point a in Fig. 1.3a. Now, if the current decreased to
zero, the MMF and hence field intensity will go to zero. However, flux density will
not go to zero, which is presented by point a to point b in Fig. 1.3a. Here, the core
remains magnetized, even though the applied current and field intensity have gone to
zero. The magnetism that remains in the core is called residual magnetism, and this
effect creates a permanent magnet. If the applied current is reversed and slowly
increases in the negative direction, the flux density will be driven to zero, as
presented by point b to c in Fig. 1.3a. The negative field intensity needed to drive
B to zero is called coercive force, as presented by point c in Fig. 1.3a. As the current
Fig. 1.3 General hysteresis loops for FERMMs (a) B versus H hysteresis loop showing path major
points (b) Soft ferromagnetic materials (c) Hard ferromagnetic materials
is made more negative, the core will eventually saturate and the flux density will
have a polarity opposite to that in the original case, as presented by point d in
Fig. 1.3a. Finally, if the current is reduced to zero and then made positive again, the
curve will join up with the original curve passing through points e and f [2], where
this closed loop joining points a, b, c, d, e, and f is called a hysteresis loop.
Thus, a PM material is typically a metal alloy, which after being subjected to field
intensity retains a substantial residual flux density (Br). In order to reduce the flux
density to zero, an H field direction opposite in sense to the original magnetizing
field must be applied. This impressed field magnitude must have a value (Hc) known
as the coercive force.
Here, materials magnetism can be categorized as permanent or temporary based
on their ability to be magnetized and hold their magnetism or their magnetism
1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals 5
Fig. 1.4 Different cuts of PM materials available in the market [3] (a) Ferrite (b) Neodymium–
Iron–Boron (NdFeB) (c) Samarium–Cobalt (SmCo) (d) Aluminum–Nickel–Cobalt (AlNiCo)
(Magnetic materials: Goudsmit Magnetics, the Netherlands)
Fig. 1.5 Hard and soft

permanent magnet
demagnetization curves
vanishes as the DC supply source of the conductor that carries the current is turned
off [1]. Magnetic materials are relatively easy to magnetize since their relative
permeability values are high. FERMMs are classified as soft, in which the most
common magnetic materials include steels, iron, nickel, aluminum, cobalt, and rare-
earth elements. Fig. 1.3b illustrates the expected hysteresis loop behavior for the soft
FERMMs. Hard FERMMs, which have the expected hysteresis loop as in Fig. 1.3c,
comprise the permanent magnet materials such as alnico, the alloys of cobalt with
rare-earth elements such as samarium, copper–nickel alloys, chromium steels, and
other metal alloys. Fig. 1.4 shows different permanent magnet materials with special
cuts found in the market. In Fig. 1.5, the B–H demagnetization curves for several soft
and hard magnetic materials with different grades are illustrated. The PM material
grade is a number, which is specified after material type, to show different curves for
the same material based on cost, magnetic performance, and operational temperature
resistance.
1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals
Electric machines are considered electromechanical power converters, such that they
convert mechanical power into electrical, as in generators, and convert electrical into
mechanical energy, as in motors. For generators, a source of mechanical power is
Fig. 1.6 Fundamental

concepts associated with
electrical/mechanical
systems
required to rotate the machine shaft (prime mover), via applied torque (T ), at a fixed
or variable speed (ω) to develop an electromotive force (voltage difference) at the
machine terminals (v) and vice versa for motor action as illustrated in Fig. 1.6.
Hence, the electric field is considered the coupled medium between generation and
motor output quantities. The electric machines differ in their internal magnetic
source type, construction, and operation. In this chapter, the source of the magnetic
field in general electric machines and their stator and rotor geometry are discussed.
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies
Electric machines consist of two major parts: stator and rotor. Stator is the stationary
part that does not move during operation, while the rotor is free to move and it can be
the inner or outer part of the machine. Both stator and rotor parts are made of
FERMMs that are discussed in the previous section. The stator accommodates the
alternating current (AC) conductors in slots that are cut on the inner periphery and in
some machines topologies in the outer periphery of the rotor structure. The coupling
between stator and rotor fields can be increased by selecting a low reluctance
material, which increases the flux density through the machine’s active parts. The
classification of various electrical machine topologies focuses on the machines with
or without commutators together with synchronous and asynchronous AC machines
types, as shown in Fig. 1.7. The utilization of these machine topologies in the
industry is subjected to meet the designer target in terms of efficiency, power
density, and cost while their usage ranges from light- to heavy-duty loads.
1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies 7
Fig. 1.7 Classical electric machine common classifications
1.3.1 Brushed DC and AC Machines
Direct current (DC) machines have essential features that made them continually find
application because of the relative simplicity and flexibility of their drive systems
compared with AC machines. In brushed DC machine topology, as in Fig. 1.8,
having a higher number of stator salient poles causes core saturation; hence, two,
four, and six poles are common. Their field winding is placed on the salient stator,
and the armature winding is placed on the round rotor. Through the field winding, a
DC current is applied to produce the flux, which presents the major component in the
general induced voltage formula. Such that, the induced voltage (e) in a conductor of
length (l) moving with linear velocity (v) in a non-time-varying magnetic flux
density is given in (1.8) [1, 4]. A unidirectional terminal voltage can be applied
through a brush and mechanical commutator assembly. For a single coil in DC
machines, a commutator action is to provide a full-wave rectification, and by
Fig. 1.8 Radial view for two and four salient pole brushed DC machines topology. (a) Two salient
pole (b) Four salient pole
assuming sinusoidal flux distribution, the voltage waveform between brushes can be
transformed to a DC or average voltage (Ea) value between brushes as in (1.9) [4],
where ω represents the machine rotational speed.
e ¼ Blv ð1:8Þ
Z π
1 2
Ea ¼ ωNφ sin ωtd ðωt Þ ¼ ωNφ ð1:9Þ
π 0 π
DC machine working principle lays on the current flow through a coil within a
magnetic field, and then a magnetic force is produced to generate a torque that rotates
the rotor through four field excitation design topologies to display a wide variety of
volt-ampere or speed-torque characteristics for both dynamic and steady-state oper-
ation [4]. In DC generators, the field excitation topologies are called (i) separately
excited, (ii) shunt, (iii) series, (iv) cumulative compound (adds shunt and series
effect), and (v) differential compounded (subtract shunt and series effect) generator
[4]. Generally, these DC generator schemes are compared by their terminal voltage
regulation. Unlike DC motors, which are compared based on their speed regulation
capability. DC motors are driven from DC power supply. Unless otherwise specified,
the input voltage to a DC motor is assumed to be constant because that assumption
simplifies the analysis of motor comparison. Also, DC motors have five field
excitation topologies: (i) separately excited, (ii) shunt, (iii) series, (iv) compound,
and (v) permanent magnet [1].
However, brushed AC machines, as in Fig. 1.9, differ from DC machines in their
armature winding location. Their armature windings are almost always located on
the stator, while their field windings are located on the rotor. Generally, there are two
magnetic fields presented: magnetic field from rotor circuit DC current excitation
and another magnetic field from stator circuit. The interaction of these two magnetic
fields produces a torque in the machine, just like two PMs near each other that will
experience a torque that causes them to line up. The rotating magnetic field from the
Fig. 1.9 Radial view for two and four salient pole brushed three-phase AC machine topology. (a)
Two pole (b) Four pole
rotor field windings of an AC machine induces a three-phase set of AC voltages,

which are shifted by 120 electrical, into the stator armature windings calculated as
in (1.10). Conversely, a three-phase set of currents in the stator armature windings
produces a rotating magnetic field, which interacts with the rotor magnetic field,
producing torque in the machine [1]. Hence, the relationship between electrical angle
(θe) and the mechanical angle (θm) for AC machines with a number of poles (P) is
given in (1.11). Similarly, the relationship between electrical frequency ( fe) and the
mechanical frequency ( fm) of magnetic field rotation is given in (1.12). Note that it is
also possible to relate the electrical frequency in hertz to the resulting mechanical
speed (nm) of the magnetic fields in revolutions per minute (RPM) as in (1.13).
ea ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωtÞ

eb ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωt 120o Þ ð1:10Þ
ec ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωt 240o Þ
P
θ e ¼ θm ð1:11Þ
2
P
fe ¼ f ð1:12Þ
2 m
nm P
fe ¼ ð1:13Þ
120
There are two rotor types, salient and nonsalient (round), in wound field
(WF) synchronous generators. The rotors are subjected to changing magnetic fields,
and it is constructed of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses. Rotor DC field
winding can be supplied by DC source through slip rings and brushes as in Fig. 1.9,
or it can be through a special DC source mounted directly on the shaft of the
synchronous generator. Slip rings and brushes are applied for small synchronous
machines because no other methods are cost-effective [5]. On the other hand, large
generators and motors and brushless exciters are used to supply the DC field current
to the machine. A brushless exciter is a small AC generator with its field circuit
mounted on the stator and its armature circuit on the rotor [4]. By controlling the
small DC field current of the exciter generator, the rotor DC field winding of the
main WF synchronous generator is regulated.
1.3.2 Brushless AC Machines
An induction machine (IMs) is one in which AC current is supplied to the stator

directly and to the rotor by induction or transformer action. As in the synchronous
machine, the stator winding is like the synchronous generator discussed in the
previous section. When excited from a balanced three-phase source, it produces a
magnetic field in the air-gap rotating at synchronous speed as determined by the
numbers of poles and the applied stator voltage frequency. In IM topology, there are
two rotor types: squirrel-cage and wound rotor [4]. In this section, only the squirrel-
cage rotor is considered, as shown in Fig. 1.10. Compared with the wound rotor type,
Fig. 1.10 Radial view for brushless three-phase squirrel-cage IM machine topology
Fig. 1.11 Radial view for round and salient four-pole brushless three-phase PM machine topology.
(a) Salient PM rotor (b) Nonsalient PM rotor
the squirrel-cage rotor winding does not require slip rings and brushes; however, it
consists of conducting bars embedded in slots in the rotor iron core and short-
circuited at each end by conducting end rings. The squirrel-cage motor is substan-
tially a constant speed motor having a few percent drops in speed (slip) from no load
to full load. Different classes of squirrel-cage machines are presented in the literature
based on the effective resistance of the rotor-cage circuit [4]. Such that, the effect of
using these rotor-cage classes dictates machine torque-speed characteristics. Hence,
the extreme simplicity and raggedness of the squirrel-cage construction are excep-
tional advantages of this type of IM.
As for the brushless machine types, permanent magnet AC machines or brushless
PM machines are occasionally built to operate as synchronous machines with
rotating field winding replaced by a PM. Fig. 1.11 illustrates the brushless three-
phase PM synchronous machine having either salient or nonsalient PM rotor type.
The flux paths due to a four-pole PM AC machine that links stator phase coils with
rotor magnetic field are shown in Fig. 1.11a. Knowing that, if a constant torque is
exerted on the shaft to run the machine at a constant speed, this provides generator
action. On the other hand, if the three-phase winding is excited using a semicon-
ductor control switching pattern, then the machine is operating as a motor.
1.3.3 Switch Reluctance Machines
In terms of electric machine construction, switch reluctance machines (SRMs) are

considered a simple and rigid machine type. Their excitation winding is placed in the
salient or nonsalient stator only, where they always have salient magnetic rotor
shape. They operate using generated flux linkage due to stator applied current; its
path between stator and rotor tries to generate maximum torque through a tendency
Fig. 1.12 Radial view for brushless SRM topology showing two stator poles to rotor poles ratio.
(a) 4/2 SRM (b) 6/4 SRM
to align rotor with the stator-produced flux linkage [4], as shown in Fig. 1.12. For the
control, the rotor position sensing is required in order to properly energize the stator
phase windings to produce torque. The SRM needs to be designed such that the
stator winding inductance varies with rotor position, while the stator core of SRM
requires high permeability magnetic material. The torque characteristics of SRM are
governed by the saliency of stator and rotor, which enhances the difference between
maximum and minimum inductances [4].
In SRMs, the torque is proportional to the magnitude of the phase current and
does not depend on its direction. Hence, unidirectional current can be used to supply
the stator winding through solid-state switches. Therefore, for motor drive, only half
of the solid-state switches are required to energize the stator phase through a single
current direction, which reduces the control electronics by half compared with the
other machine drive system [4], such as in brushless PM machines. The zero torque
position in the SRM cannot be presented if the ratio between the stator poles (SP) to
rotor poles is not an integer. For instance, SP/P for 6/4 SRM is 1.5, and hence there
will not be a simultaneous alignment of stator phase inductance.
However, in some instances, a SRM with an integer pole ratio is desirable; in this
case, the elimination of zero torque is attained by constructing the machine with an
asymmetric rotor [4]. Therefore, the rotor pole width is made wider than that of the
stator. In general, when a given phase is excited, the torque is such that the rotor is
pulled to the nearest position of maximum flux linkage. As excitation is removed
from this phase and the next phase is excited, the rotor is then pulled to a new
maximum flux-linkage position [4].
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields 13
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields
As discussed in the previous sections, the wound field (WF) and PM rotor types of
AC synchronous machines provide rotating magnetic fields that produce the three-
phase set of voltages in the stator coils as given in (1.10). The excitation field in the
WF rotor type is supplied by the DC voltage source through slip rings and brushes,
as in Fig. 1.9. While the PM rotor type does not need that, it instead requires spatial
arranging of soft or hard PM material, which can be accommodated on the rotor core
in common ways known as surface-mounted magnets, inset magnets, buried mag-
nets with radial magnetization, and buried magnets with circumferential magnetiza-
tion [5]. Note that, in this book, surface-mounted magnet rotor type is chosen for the
synchronous PM machine topology, as in Fig. 1.11.
1.4.1 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of WF

Synchronous Machines
By Ampere’s law, the current in a coil of wire wrapped around a ferromagnetic

material core produces a magnetic flux in the core. In a magnetic path representation,
the reluctance is the counterpart of electrical circuit resistance, and its unit is ampere-
turns per weber (A•t/Wb), while the MMF in magnetic path representation is
analogous to EMF voltage in an electrical circuit and its unit is ampere-turns (A•t).
The magnetic path representation translates the magnetic field behavior within
electric machine parts to a simplified manner, which otherwise is complex to analyze
for machine design process, as will be seen in detail in Chap. 3.
Assume that a concentrated stator winding is employed when the number of stator
slots is equal to the number of rotor poles. By considering a sectional view of a WF
synchronous machine, here the flux does not behave in a simple manner since there
are different ferromagnetic rotor and stator materials in addition to air-gap and
different cross-sectional flux path areas. Therefore, different cross-section path
reluctances are calculated using (1.5). Machine active parts are the parts through
which magnetic flux is passing causing generation of EMF voltage and electromag-
netic torque. There are nine different reluctances and one rotor coil MMF, which is
calculated as in (1.6), in the considered machine section. The flux-linkage path
reluctances are represented by left side stator yoke (R sy1), right side stator yoke
(R sy2 ), stator tooth (R st ), stator tooth tip (R stt ), air-gap (R g ), rotor tooth tip (R rtt ),
rotor tooth (R rt ), left rotor yoke (R ry1 ), and right rotor yoke (R ry2 ), as illustrated in
Fig. 1.13. Note, air-gap reluctance is very large compared with the other core
sections’ reluctances due to very low air permeability value. Hence, Kirchhoff’s
voltage law (KVL) can then be used to calculate the magnetic flux linkage.
Fig. 1.13 Magnetic flux

path representation of a WF
synchronous machine
section
Fig. 1.14 Magnetic flux

path representation of a PM
synchronous machine
section
1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields 15
1.4.2 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of PM

Synchronous Machines
Given the same concentrated winding assumptions for the PM machine topology as
in WF machines, different cross-section path reluctances are calculated using (1.5).
There are eight different reluctances and one rotor PM MMF, which is calculated as
in (1.7), in the considered machine section. For the stator and air-gap of the PM
machine section, the flux-linkage path reluctances are similar to those found in the
WF machine case, while the PM rotor reluctances are represented by rotor PM (R m),
left rotor yoke (R ry1 ), and right rotor yoke (R ry2 ), as illustrated in Fig. 1.14. Again,
KVL can be used to calculate the magnetic flux linkage that will be shown in detail in
Chap. 3.
Chapter 2
Hybrid Electric Machine Concept
2.1 History
As the demand for less expensive and more efficient electrified powertrain grows,
the need for optimized electric machines becomes more apparent. An interesting
electric machine topology that leads to simplified powertrains is hybrid excitation
electric machines. In hybrid excitation machines, there exist two magnetic fields.
This provides a flexible field control capability with an acceptable power density and
without the need for an expensive power converter control system.
Different methods of hybrid excitation field regulation topologies, including a
PM combined with a WF excitation, have been considered in the literature [6–15,
16–39]. By combining PM and WF excitation, here referred to as hybrid PM (HPM)
machine, the advantages of both PM and WF synchronous machines are utilized.
The HPMs can be classified based on their magnetic excitation field paths (series or
parallel) and based on their place in the machine stationary, rotary or both parts, as in
Fig. 2.1.
2.2 Hybrid Electric Machine Classification
For HPM machine topologies, there are at least two excitation field sources that
provide the net machine excitation. In general, a PM source provides the main
excitation, and a wound field component acts to regulate the machine flux distribu-
tion either by boosting or by weakening the PM field depending on the direction of
the wound field DC excitation current. The DC field winding may be placed on the
rotor part of the machine as the PMs [22, 23, 33, 39], which necessitates slip rings
and brushes or an exciter, or on the stator [17–22, 24, 26, 28, 31, 37–39].
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 17

A. S. Al-Adsani, O. Beik, Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80435-0_2
18 2 Hybrid Electric Machine Concept
Fig. 2.1 General

classification of HPM
machines
Fig. 2.2 Cross sections of the permanent magnet synchronous machine with claw pole field
excitation (PSCPF) [16]
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies
For the HPM machines to operate as a variable voltage generator, the range of
air-gap flux density variation has to be designed to match the anticipated application
requirements. A number of HPM machine topologies have been reported in the
literature in recent years. The reported HPM machine topologies will be reviewed
next. An assessment will be made for each topology with a view of arriving at a
topology that will be studied in the following chapters.
2.3.1 PM Synchronous Machine with Claw Pole Field

Excitation (PSCPF)
PM synchronous machine with claw pole field excitation (PSCPF) is briefly

discussed by Zhao and Yan [16], where machine components and the associated
flux linkages are detailed; Fig. 2.2 shows the machine cross section. The PSCPF is
composed of two parts, one called the main part and the other the assistant part. Both
2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies 19
Fig. 2.3 Flux path of the

(PSCPF) machine as
reported in [16]
Fig. 2.4 Simplified construction figure of HESG as reported in [17] (a) Axial section view (b)
Radial section view
parts of the machine share one common stator. Referring to Fig. 2.2, the assistant
part is composed of components 2–5; these represent the claw pole structure. The
field winding is placed on the stator; therefore, slip rings and brushes are not
required.
When current flows through the field winding (component 5), the magnetic path
of the DC flux is through the inner cylinder of component 3 (axial); the bottom of
component 3 (radial); the outer cylinder of component 3 (axial); the air-gap δ1
(radial); plane magnet pole (axial); the main air-gap δ (radial); stator iron core
(radial); air-gap δ (radial); claw pole magnet pole 2 (radial); magnetic shaft (axial);
air-gap δ2 (radial); and inner cylinder of component 3. The magnetic path of the PM
is through the claw pole magnet pole; air-gap δ (radial); stator iron core; air-gap δ
(radial); claw-plane magnetic pole; PM (N pole); and rotor iron core and PM
(S pole), as illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
Zhao and Yan also discussed an improved PSCPF machine, referred to as the
hybrid excitation synchronous generator (HESG), as illustrated in Fig. 2.4. It is
Fig. 2.5 A new type hybrid excitation claw pole synchronous machine (HECPSG) components
[40]
Fig. 2.6 HECPSG machine

assembly [40]
basically a similar structure to that of the PSCPF, the dissimilarity being that the
latter has clapboard inserts that are made of nonmagnetic material. The clapboard
introduces an air-gap and thus reduces the coupling between the PM and wound field
excitation, making the two fields independent of each other. For both the PSCPF and
HESG designs, the PM and wound field excitations act independently; that is, they
are magnetically in parallel.
In 2007, Chao-hui et al. [18] presented a study of a new HPM machine based on
the HESG topology called the hybrid excitation claw pole synchronous generator
(HECPSG). The structure of the HECPSG is shown in Figs. 2.5 and 2.6.
The stator of the HECPSG consists of multiphase windings. The claw poles of the
rotor are magnetized by a cylindrical wound coil and a cylinder-shaped permanent
magnet, which is axially magnetized. The flux under one pole pair consists of two
Table 2.1 HESPSG advantages and disadvantages

Field
Advantages Disadvantages path
(1) Good flux weakening [18] (1) Rotor structure is Parallel
(2) The structure of the claw pole is helpful to arrange more relatively complex*
magnet poles when the rotor diameter is relatively small
[18]
(3) Slip rings and brushes are not required [18]
Note: Deduced by the author (*)
Reported in the literature [18]
parts: one is produced by the permanent magnets and the other produced by the coil
exciting current [18]. The magnetic field from one claw pole passes through the
air-gap and stator core and back to another claw pole. No detailed discussion is given
for the interaction between the PM and winding fields, that is, potential for demag-
netization, heating effects, and reaction effects. Furthermore, the contribution from
each field source to the stator-induced back-EMF is not discussed. Table 2.1 sum-
marizes the advantages and disadvantages of the HECPSG topology.
2.3.2 Toroidal-Stator Transverse-Flux Machine (TSTFM)
Spooner et al. [19]. discussed hybrid excitation of AC and DC machines for rail
traction and engine-mounted generators. Transverse-flux AC synchronous machines
are excited by means of a simple DC coil mounted on the stator, as shown in
Fig. 2.7a. Consequently, they are naturally brushless, they are reported to have
low rotor losses (since the rotor has no permanent magnet poles), and they are
mechanically suited to very high speed. However, the authors do not consider high-
frequency losses that may occur in the solid rotor poles. The basic machine cross-
section schematic is illustrated in Fig. 2.7a, consisting of two stator sections joined
by a soft-magnetic outer casing and separated by the field coil. The rotor has two
similar sections, one in each stator section and mutually displaced in space, in this
case by 180 mechanical. Each rotor section has a salient structure, Fig. 2.7b. The
field coil DC current establishes a set of north poles on rotor Sect. 1 and a set of south
poles on rotor Sect. 2, as illustrated in Fig. 2.7b. Each stator coil encloses both stator
core sections and experiences alternate north and south rotor poles as the rotor turns.
The flux-linking of a stator coil is equivalent to that in a conventional radial field
machine design of half the total core length [19] since there are empty spaces
between the rotor soft-magnetic iron poles. A major problem for designers is the
provision of sufficient magnetic material to carry flux between the two rotor sections.
Furthermore, there is a substantial leakage flux when the stator sections are faced by
the large effective air-gap of the “empty” or high reluctance rotor sections.
Fixing magnets in the empty spaces of each rotor section, as shown in Fig. 2.7c,
provides a pole opposite to those established by the field winding and enhances the
Fig. 2.7 Transverse-flux machine components as reported by Spooner et al. [19] (a) Machine cross
section (b) Machine soft-magnetic rotor (c) Machine rotor with saliency and permanent magnets
mechanical rotational symmetry (balance). The flux that passes through the machine
shaft due to the permanent magnets is subtracted from that due to the excitation field
current and so makes possible a greater flux-per-pole for each rotor section. The
required field current can thus be reduced from the design of Fig. 2.7b, and leakage
flux is also reduced [19]. Thus, transverse-flux machine arrangements appear to be
an attractive option for small- and medium-size generators [19].
Spooner et al. [40] presented a rotary toroidal version of the transverse-flux
hybrid excitation machine, based on the work of Evans and Eastham transverse-
flux AC machine topology. The machine construction is illustrated in Fig. 2.8,
showing a toroidal wound stator core of multiphase windings, DC field winding
located inside the toroidal core, and two rotating discs with alternate permanent
magnet and soft-magnetic poles. The flux-linkage paths throughout the machine
parts due to both the PM’s and stationary field coil are illustrated in Fig. 2.9. If the
two rotor poles are only provided by PMs, the flux path can be traced from one rotor
plate containing north pole magnets, crossing the air-gap into the toroidal stator, and
then traveling circumferentially across the second air-gap into the south magnet pole
on the opposite plate, through the plate into the shaft and back to the first plate to
Fig. 2.8 Toroidal

transverse-flux machine
reported by Spooner et al.
[19]
close the loop at the north pole [20], as shown in Fig. 2.9a. A modification to the
design of Fig. 2.9a has soft-magnetic poles between the respective north and south
PM poles, as illustrated in Fig. 2.11b [19], resulting in additional flux paths. Thus,
flux from the north pole on the right-hand side plate crosses to the stator but then
comes back to the same rotor disc via the soft iron pole [20], as shown in Fig. 2.9b. In
this case, flux does not generally pass through the rotor shaft. However, during the
operation of the machine, flux travels through both paths, subject to reluctance
variation in the shaft. Finally, there is a third flux path due to the field excitation
coil that drives flux through the rotor shaft, rotor plate, iron poles, air-gap, stator, and
the second iron poles on the opposite disc [20], as illustrated in Fig 2.9b, c for both
strengthening and weakening modes, respectively. The toroidal transverse-flux
machine configurations are brushless machines generating an AC output that is
modified by the DC field winding excitation current [21]. For both transverse-flux
topologies illustrated in Figs. 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9, the main PM field and moderating
wound field are magnetically in parallel, their advantages and disadvantages being
noted in Table 2.2.
2.3.3 Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Machine (HESM)
Naoe and Fukami discussed the structure of a hybrid excitation synchronous

machine (HESM) [22]. The machine has a conventional AC stator and a two-part
rotor construction where each part is separated by an air-gap. One rotor part has PM
excitation and the other part wound field excitation. Each rotor part is independent of
the other and, in the case reported, is of radial field design. The HESM is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 2.10. The flux produced by the field winding is designed not to
pass through the PMs because of their large reluctance, thus keeping the field
Fig. 2.9 Flux paths in the

toroidal transverse-flux
machine, as reported by
Spooner et al. [19]. (a) Flux
paths due to PMs alone;
without rotor iron poles (b)
Flux paths due to both PMs
and DC field excitation in
strengthening mode; with
rotor iron poles (c) Flux
paths due to both PMs and
DC field excitation in
weakening mode; with rotor
iron poles
winding MMF low [22]. Hence, the machine air-gap flux can be modified by the field
winding current direction and magnitude. The PM and rotor wound field excitation
sources are magnetically in parallel. Table 2.3 summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the HESM topology.
Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of toroidal-stator transverse-flux machine topologies

Field
(1) Control is relatively simple [19] (1) The magnetic path of the electrical Parallel
(2) The short axial length makes this excitation is relatively large, which neces-
machine suitable for directly mounting to sitates relatively high excitation MMF*
an engine shaft replacing, in part, the (2) Mechanics are complex*
flywheel [19] (3) The design magnetic field of the toroi-
(3) Slip rings and brushes are not required dal is restricted by the machine diameter
[19] [19]
Fig. 2.10 Structure of the

HESM with a two-part rotor
[22]
Table 2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the HESM

Field
(1) Machine is simple in structure (1) Slip rings and brushes exist, which Parallel
[22] increases complexity and maintenance costs*
(2) Short magnetic path [22]
(3) The air-gap flux can be easily
controlled by the field current [22]
2.3.4 Synchronous Permanent Magnet Hybrid AC Machine

(SynPM)
The synchronous permanent magnet hybrid AC machine (SynPM) was presented by

Xiaogang and Lipo [23]. The machine is a combination of four PM poles and two
wound field excitation poles on the same rotor, as illustrated in Fig. 2.11. The PM
poles provide the major part of air-gap flux, while the wound field excitation poles
act as a flux regulator to adjust the air-gap flux distribution. By appropriate connec-
tion of the stator coils and rotor winding excitation, the net phase flux linkage and
hence back-EMF may be weakened or strengthened. Considering one of the stator
Fig. 2.11 Cross section of the of SynPM machine reported by Xiaogang and Lipo, showing one
phase belt of the stator winding [40]
Fig. 2.12 Back-EMF of

one coil of the phase belt
winding [40]
phase belt coils, the coil back-EMFs for the three excitation modes are as shown in
Fig. 2.12, while Fig. 2.13 illustrates the corresponding open circuit flux lines due to
positive, zero, and negative DC field currents. A phase belt is formed by connecting
three coils of the same phase in series, as shown in Fig. 2.11; thus, the resulting
phase back-EMFs for the cases of positive, zero, and negative field winding current
are as shown in Fig. 2.14. Slip rings and brushes are required for this machine
topology. For the machine discussed, excitation produces around 67% of the total
air-gap flux [23]. The flow of the flux is radial for both PM and DC field windings,
which are magnetically acting in parallel. Table 2.4 summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the SynPM topology.
Fig. 2.13 Flux lines of the six-pole SynPM machine presented by Xiaogang and Lipo [40]. (a) Full
positive field current (b) Zero field current (c) Full negative field current
2.3.5 Consequent Pole Permanent Magnet Hybrid Excitation

Machine (CPPM)
Tapia et al. discussed a consequent pole permanent magnet hybrid excitation

machine [24–25]. The machine combines fixed PM excitation with variable flux
via a field winding fixed in the stator. The machine is similar to the transverse-flux
machine reported by Spooner et al. [19]. However, Tapia et al. discussed a greater
number of design options and discussed the design in greater depth. The machine
consists of a rotor divided into two sections, each section having radially magnetized
surface-mounted permanent magnets interleaved with laminated iron poles, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.15a. The magnetization of each rotor section is shifted 1-pole-
pitch with respect to the other section.
The stator is composed of two laminated tooth sections inside a solid outer soft
magnet yoke. A conventional three-phase AC winding is located in slots around the
periphery of the inner stator diameter, and a circumferential field winding is placed
between the two stator sections, as illustrated in Fig. 2.15a. The field winding is
excited by DC current. For no field current, the machine excitation is due to the rotor
PMs alone and is essentially radial, each PM linking with a consequent soft iron pole
on the same machine half. When excited with positive current, the flux generated by
the field winding flows in a direction such that it adds to the PM flux and the flux
closes its path in the same half stator, as illustrated in Fig. 2.15b. If the field current is
negative, the direction of the air-gap flux is as shown in Fig. 2.15c. Figure 2.15d
shows further views of the CPPM components. The stator and rotor yokes provide a
low reluctance path for the axial flux, which is considered an important feature of the
machine operation. The current of the field winding is externally controlled in order
to provide variable excitation.
Fig. 2.14 Example of

resultant coil and phase
back-EMF for different field
winding excitation
conditions [40]. (a) Back-
EMF of one circuit with full
positive excitation (b) Back-
EMF of one circuit with zero
excitation (c) Back-EMF of
one phase with full negative
excitation
Table 2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the SynPM

Field
(1) Machine is comparatively simple in (1) Slip rings and brushes exist [23] Parallel
structure* (2) The combination of four-pole or
(2) In addition, it is easy to fabricate short two-pole field flux in field weakening,
magnetic paths. A high power density is with the six-pole stator flux, will result in
suggested, but no data are quoted* a number of space and time-harmonic
components and undesirable torque pul-
sations and vibration [23]
(3) At high speed, when the field is
weakened, a high iron loss in the stator
might appear*
Fig. 2.15 Consequent pole PM hybrid excitation machine (CPPM) [40]. (a) Magnetic structure of
the CPPM machine [25] (b) Magnetizing effect of the field flux (c) Demagnetizing effect of the field
flux (d) 3 kW CPPM prototype
Fig. 2.16 Field controlled Torus-NS machine (FCT-NS) [40]. (a) Machine components (b) Stator
assembly (c) Rotor assembly
2.3.6 Field Controlled Torus-NS (FCT-NS) Machine
Aydin et al. discussed an axial flux machine designed to improve the flux weakening
operation of the previously reported axial flux, toroidal PM machines [26]. The
machine is essentially an axial field version of the CPPM and was referred to as the
field controlled Torus-NS (FCT-NS) machine. The machine construction consists of
two outer rotor discs carrying axially magnetized permanent magnets alternatively
placed with slotted magnetic iron pole pieces. There are two slotted stator cores, an
inner and outer core, realized by tape wound laminations inserted with multiphase
AC windings and a DC field winding between the stator inner and outer cores, as
illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.16. Variations on the FCT-NS design were
presented by Lipo and Aydin [27, 28].
Figure 2.17 shows the main flux direction of a two-pole portion of the FCT
machine at the average diameter [26] (a); rotor flux directions (b); air-gap flux
directions (c); and operating principle of the FCT machine (d) for zero (i), positive
(ii), and negative (iii) field current. Figure 2.17e shows the FCT stator and rotor
components. Figure 2.18 illustrates schematics of the single-rotor-single-stator
topology (a); the NN- and NS-type double-rotor-single-stator (b and c); double-
stator-single-rotor (d); and multistage (e) concepts.
Figure 2.19 illustrates the hardware of the NN-type FCAFPM machine as
reported in the literature. The CPPM and variants are all parallel permanent magnet
and wound field magnetic designs. Table 2.5 summarizes the advantages and
disadvantages of the CPPM and variants as reported in [24–29].
2.3.7 Dual-Rotor Machine
Amara et al. proposed a dual-rotor machine that is composed of two rotors placed
together (one wound and the other with PMs) inside the same stator assembly, as
shown in Fig. 2.20. The design employs juxtaposed magnetic circuits that, according
Fig. 2.17 Field controlled Tours-NS type (FCT-NS) [40]. (a) Main flux direction of the FCT
machine [26] (b) Rotor flux directions [26] (c) Air-gap flux directions (d) Operating principle (e)
FCT rotor and stator components
to the authors, avoids the risk of PM demagnetization [30]. Flux weakening is

achieved via excitation of the wound rotor to create a flux opposite to that created
by the rotor PMs [30]. The design is similar in form to the HESM presented in Sect.
2.3.3 [22] but having slightly different rotor topologies.
Fig. 2.18 Reported combinations of the FCAFPM machines [40]. (a) Single-rotor-single-stator (b)
NN-type double-rotor-single-stator (c) NS-type double-rotor-single-stator (d) Double-stator-single-
rotor (e) Multistage
Fig. 2.19 NN-type FCAFPM machine reported in [40]. (a) Stator view pre-impregnation (b)
Complete stator assembly (c) Rotor assembly
2.3.8 Imbricated Hybrid Excitation Machine (IHEM)
Amara et al. also proposed an imbricated hybrid excitation machine (IHEM), as

illustrated in Fig. 2.21. The rotor is composed of two magnetically isolated parts, one
containing the PM excitation, and the other is used to direct flux created by an
Table 2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of CPPM and variants as reported in [24–29]
Field
(1) Control of the CPPM is convenient (1) Additional DC winding in the stator Parallel
(2) The air-gap flux can be controlled reduces the power density, such that the
without affecting the magnetization char- additional air-gap surface associated with
acteristics of the PMs this winding does not participate in the
(3) A wide range of air-gap flux control energy conversion process
can be obtained with a low DC excitation
field ampere-turn requirement
(4) Slip rings and brushes are not required
Fig. 2.20 Dual-rotor

machine [40]
Fig. 2.21 Imbricated hybrid excitation machine (IHEM) [40]. (a) Machine cross section (b) Rotor
structure
excitation coil that is located on either the rotor or the stator, the latter case avoiding
all sliding contacts. The stator is composed of two identical parts linked by a yoke, as
shown in Fig. 2.21a. The main goal of this design was to ensure that the flux created
by the excitation winding does not pass through the PM; hence, the possibility of
demagnetization is greatly reduced [30].
Furthermore, Vido et al. proposed two improved versions of the IHEM [31], the
(i) homopolar and (ii) bipolar hybrid excitation synchronous machines, HHESM and
BHESM, respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 2.22. Cross-sectional schematics of both
prototypes are shown in Fig. 2.22. The rotors consist of three parts, one a solid core,
one part laminated core, and a set of permanent magnets. The schematics show an
axial cut of the stator and rotor for both prototypes, which are six-pole pairs. The two
machine rotors have the same dimensions. By comparing the two topologies, it can
be observed that the lateral permanent magnets are not present in the BHESM
prototype [31].
The various flux paths created by excitation coils, lateral PMs (side magnets), and
azimuth PMs may be divided into two categories: homopolar and bipolar flux paths.
The homopolar flux path represents a flow of flux through machine parts in axial and
radial directions. The bipolar design has flux paths in either radial or axial direction.
Therefore, the flux generated by the field DC coils has only one path, which is
homopolar in nature, as shown in Fig. 2.23a. Moreover, the homopolar path for the
lateral PMs can be observed in Fig. 2.23a. The flux generated by the PMs has two
distinct paths, one of which is bipolar, as shown in Fig. 2.23b, c, which creates north
and south poles under the active parts [32]. The flux path generated by the azimuth
PMs is primarily oriented perpendicular to the axial direction of the machine [32]. A
portion of the flux generated by the lateral PMs is oriented in the axial direction of
the machine via the rotor flux collector, as shown in Fig. 2.23c. In other words, the
fluxes created by either the PMs or the wound field excitation that exhibits a
homopolar path only give rise to one type of pole (either north or south), depending
on the direction in which the magnets are magnetized and the polarity of current in
the DC field coils [32]. Flux only passes once through the air-gap under the active
part, and then it returns first via the stator end shields and then via the rotor flux path,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.23d [32]. Figure 2.24a shows flux paths created by the DC
field coils for the BHESM design. This bipolar configuration passes through two
annular excitation coils. Each coil acts in one polarity of pole [31]. The flux created
by an excitation coil goes through active parts and an air-gap (homopolar path).
Figure 2.24b shows the bipolar flux path created by PMs, where this bipolar flux
passes through active parts and air-gap, creating north and south poles. Figure 2.24c
shows the PM leakage flux path, which is not through the active parts and hence does
not contribute to torque production [31]. Figure 2.25 shows homopolar flux paths
created by PMs, as reported in [31]. For homopolar hybrid excitation machines, the
total flux passing through the stator windings exhibits a DC component, while for
bipolar hybrid excitation machines, the total flux passing through the armature
windings does not have a DC component [31]. Thus, although air-gap flux control
is effective for both the HHESM and BHESM machines, the DC current excitation
efficiency is better for the HHESM because of the solid rotor core parts [31]. For the
HHESM operating with enhanced excitation flux, magnetic saturation occurs when
the magnetic pole in which the DC excitation is acting is saturated, even if the other
pole is still not saturated [32]. However, for the BHESM, magnetic saturation occurs
only when both magnetic poles are saturated, from which the authors conclude that
the BHESM has a wider excitation flux variation [32]. The efficiency of the hybrid
Fig. 2.22 Homopolar and bipolar hybrid excitation synchronous machines [40]. (i) Schematic
(i) Schematic (ii) Prototype rotor details (ii) Prototype rotor details (iii) Prototype stator and rotor
(iii) Rotor laminations (a) First prototype machine (HHESM) (b) Second prototype machine
(BHESM)
Fig. 2.23 HHESM various flux paths due to deferent excitations [40]. (a) Homopolar flux path due
to DC coils (b) Bipolar flux path (azimuthal magnets) (c) Bipolar flux path due to PMs (d)
Homopolar flux path due to PMs
excitation is better for the HHESM than it is for the BHESM design because of the
leakage flux path, as shown in Fig. 2.24c [31], which does not contribute to torque
production. Table 2.6 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the IHEM
topology.
2.3.9 Series Double Excited Synchronous Machine (SDESM)
Fodoren et al. present the series double excited synchronous machine (SDESM) that
has series excitation circuits [33, 34]. The parallel excitation circuit reported in some
of the previously presented topologies suffer from the drawback of construction
complexity [33]. The main advantage of the SDESM appears in applications where
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very lady. They found the body picturesquely disposed in a pool of
blood, the unconscious hand still grasping the hilt of the sword that
had been drawn in honor of the maiden. “Ah, beauteous friend!”
exclaims the lady, “how dearly hast thou paid for my love! The good
and the joy we have shared have only brought thee death.
Beauteous friend, courteous and wise, valiant, heroic, good knight in
every guise, since thou has lost thy youth for me in this manner, in
this strait, and in this agony, as it clearly appears, what else remains
for me to suffer for thy sake, unless that I should keep you
company? Friend, friend, thy beauty has departed for the love of me,
thy flesh lies here bloody. Friend, friend, we were both nourished
together. I knew not what love was when I gave my heart to love
thee,” &c., &c., &c. “Young friend,” continues the lady, “thou wert my
joy and my consolation: for to see thee and to speak to thee alone
were sufficient to inspire joy, &c., &c., &c. Friend, what I behold slays
me, I feel that death is within my heart.” The lady then took up the
bloody sword, and requested Melyadus to look after the honorable
interment of the knight on that spot, and that he would see her own
body deposited by her “friend’s” side, in the same grave. Melyadus
expressed great astonishment at the latter part of the request, but as
the lady insisted that her hour was at hand, he promised to fulfil all
her wishes. Meanwhile the maiden knelt by the side of the dead
knight, held his sword to her lips, and gently died upon his breast.
Gyron said it was the wofullest sight that eye had ever beheld; but all
courteous as Gyron was, and he was so to such a remarkable
degree that he derived a surname from his courtesy, I say that in
spite of his sympathy and gallantry, he appears to have had a quick
eye toward making such profit as authors could make in those days,
from ready writing upon subjects of interest. Before another word
was said touching the interment of the two lovers, Gyron intimated
that he would write a ballad upon them that should have a universal
circulation, and be sung in all lands where there were gentle hearts
and sweet voices. Gyron performed what he promised, and the
ballad of “Absdlon and Cesala,” serves to show what very rough
rhymes the courteous poet could employ to illustrate a romantic
incident. Let it be added that, however the knights may sometimes
have failed in their truth, this was very rarely the case with the ladies.
When Jordano Bruno was received in his exile by Sir Philip Sidney,
he requited the hospitality by dedicating a poem to the latter. In this
dedication, he says: “With one solitary exception, all misfortunes that
flesh is heir to have been visited on me. I have tasted every kind of
calamity but one, that of finding false a woman’s love.”
It was not every knight that could make such an exception. Certainly
not that pearl of knights, King Arthur himself. What a wife had that
knight in the person of Guinever? Nay, he is said to have had three
wives of that name, and that all of them were as faithless as ladies
well could be. Some assert that the described deeds of these three
are in fact but the evil-doings of one. However this may be, I may
observe summarily here what I have said in reference to Guinever in
another place. With regard to this triple-lady, the very small virtue of
one third of the whole will not salubriously leaven the entire lump. If
romance be true, and there is more about the history of Guinever
than any other lady—she was a delicious, audacious, winning,
seductive, irresistible, and heartless hussy; and a shameless! and a
barefaced! Only read “Sir Lancelot du Lac!” Yes, it can not be
doubted but that in the voluminous romances of the old day, there
was a sprinkling of historical facts. Now, if a thousandth part of what
is recorded of this heart-bewitching Guinever be true, she must have
been such a lady as we can not now conceive of. True daughter of
her mother Venus, when a son of Mars was not at hand, she could
stoop to Mulciber. If the king was not at home, she could listen to a
knight. If both were away, esquire or page might speak boldly without
fear of being unheeded; and if all were absent, in the chase, or at the
fray, there was always a good-looking groom in the saddle-room with
whom Guinever could converse, without holding that so to do was
anything derogatory. I know no more merry reading than that same
ton-weight of romance which goes by the name of “Sir Lancelot du
Lac.” But it is not of that sort which Mrs. Chapone would recommend
to young ladies, or that Dr. Cumming would read aloud in the Duke
of Argyll’s drawing-room. It is a book, however, which a grave man a
little tired of his gravity, may look into between serious studies and
solemn pursuits—a book for a lone winter evening by a library-fire,
with wine and walnuts at hand; or for an old-fashioned summer’s
evening, in a bower through whose foliage the sun pours his adieu,
as gorgeously red as the Burgundy in your flask. Of a truth, a man
must be “in a concatenation accordingly,” ere he may venture to
address himself to the chronicle which tells of the “bamboches,”
“fredaines,” and “bombances,” of Guinever the Frail, and of Lancelot
du Lac.
We confess to having more regard for Arthur than for his triple-wife
Guinever. As I have had occasion to say in other pages, “I do not like
to give up Arthur!” I love the name, the hero, and his romantic deeds.
I deem lightly of his light o’love bearing. Think of his provocation both
ways! Whatever the privilege of chivalry may have been, it was the
practice of too many knights to be faithless. They vowed fidelity, but
they were a promise-breaking, word-despising crew. On this point I
am more inclined to agree with Dr. Lingard than with Mr. Hallam.
Honor was ever on their lips, but not always in their hearts, and it
was little respected by them, when found in the possession of their
neighbor’s wives. How does Scott consider them in this respect,
when in describing a triad of knights, he says,
“There were two who loved their neighbor’s wives,

And one who loved his own.”
Yet how is it that knights are so invariably mentioned with long-

winded laudation by Romish writers—always excepting Lingard—
when they desire to illustrate the devoted spirit of olden times? Is it
that the knights were truthful, devout, chaste, God-fearing? not a jot!
Is it because the cavaliers cared but for one thing, in the sense of
having fear but for one thing, and that the devil? To escape from
being finally triumphed over by the Father of Evil, they paid largely,
reverenced outwardly, confessed unreservedly, and were absolved
plenarily. That is the reason why chivalry was patted on the back by
Rome. At the same time we must not condemn a system, the
principles of which were calculated to work such extensive
ameliorations in society as chivalry. Christianity itself might be
condemned were we to judge of it by the shortcomings of its
followers.
But even Mr. Hallam is compelled at last, reluctantly, to confess that
the morals of chivalry were not pure. After all his praise of the
system, he looks at its literature, and with his eye resting on the tales
and romances written for the delight and instruction of chivalric
ladies and gentlemen, he remarks that the “violation of marriage
vows passes in them for an incontestable privilege of the brave and
the fair; and an accomplished knight seems to have enjoyed as
undoubted prerogatives, by general consent of opinion, as were
claimed by the brilliant courtiers of Louis XV.” There was an especial
reason for this, the courtiers of Louis XV. might be anything they
chose, provided that with gallantry they were loyal, courteous, and
munificent. Now loyalty, courtesy, and that prodigality which goes by
the name of munificence, were exactly the virtues that were deemed
most essential to chivalry. But these were construed by the old
knights as they were by the more modern courtiers. The first took
advantages in combat that would now be deemed disloyal by any but
a Muscovite. The second would cheat at cards in the gaming
saloons of Versailles, while they would run the men through who
spoke lightly of their descent. So with regard to courtesy, the knight
was full of honeyed phrases to his equals and superiors, but was as
coarsely arrogant as Menschikoff to an inferior. In the same way,
Louis XIV., who would never pass one of his own scullery-maids
without raising his plumed beaver, could address terms to the ladies
of his court, which, but for the sacred majesty which was supposed
to environ his person, might have purchased for him a severe
castigation. Then consider the case of that “first gentleman in
Europe,” George, Prince of Wales: he really forfeited his right to the
throne by marrying a Catholic lady, Mrs. Fitzherbert, and he freed
himself unscrupulously from the scrape by uttering a lie. And so
again with munificence; the greater part of these knights and
courtiers were entirely thoughtless of the value of money. At the Field
of the Cloth of Gold, for instance, whole estates were mortgaged or
sold, in order that the owners might outshine all competitors in the
brilliancy and quality of their dress. This sort of extravagance makes
one man look glad and all his relatives rueful. The fact is that when
men thus erred, it was for want of observance of a Christian
principle; and if men neglect that observance, it is as little in the
power of chivalry as of masonry to mend him. There was “a perfect
idea” of chivalry, indeed, but if any knight ever realized it in his own
person, he was, simply, nearly a perfect Christian, and would have
been still nearer to perfection in the latter character if he had studied
the few simple rules of the system of religion rather than the stilted
and unsteady ones of romance. The study of the latter, at all events,
did not prevent, but in many instances caused a dissoluteness of
manners, a fondness for war rather than peace, and a wide
distinction between classes, making aristocrats of the few, and
villains of the many.
Let me add here, as I have been speaking of the romance of
“Lancelot du Lac,” that I quite agree with Montluc, who after
completing his chronicle of the History of France, observed that it
would be found more profitable reading than either Lancelot or
Amadis. La Noue especially condemns the latter as corrupting the
manners of the age. Southey, again, observes that these chivalric
romances acquired their poison in France or in Italy. The Spanish
and Portuguese romances he describes as free from all taint. In the
Amadis the very well-being of the world is made to rest upon
chivalry. “What would become of the world,” it is asked in the twenty-
second book of the Amadis, “if God did not provide for the defence of
the weak and helpless against unjust usurpers? And how could
provision be made, if good knights were satisfied to do nothing else
but sit in chamber with the ladies? What would then the world
become, but a vast community of brigands?”
Lamotte Levayer was of a different opinion. “Les armes,” he says,
when commenting upon chivalry and arms generally; “Les armes
detruisent tous les arts excepté ceux qui favorisent la gloire.” In
Germany, too, where chivalry was often turned to the oppression of
the weak rather than employed for their protection, the popular
contempt and dread of “knightly principles” were early illustrated in
the proverb, “Er will Ritter an mir werden,” He wants to play the
knight over me. In which proverb, knight stands for oppressor or
insulter. In our own country the order came to be little cared for, but
on different grounds.
Dr. Nares in his “Heraldic Anomalies,” deplores the fact that mere
knighthood has fallen into contempt. He dates this from the period
when James I. placed baronets above knights. The hereditary title
became a thing to be coveted, but knights who were always held to
be knights bachelors, could not of course bequeath a title to child or
children who were not supposed in heraldry to exist. The Doctor
quotes Sir John Ferne, to show that Olibion, the son of Asteriel, of
the line of Japhet, was the first knight ever created. The personage
in question was sent forth to battle, after his sire had smitten him
lightly nine times with Japhet’s falchion, forged before the flood.
There is little doubt but that originally a knight was simply Knecht,
servant of the king. Dr. Nares says that the Thanes were so in the
north, and that these, although of gentle blood, exercised the offices
even of cooks and barbers to the royal person. But may not these
offices have been performed by the “unter Thans,” or deputies? I
shall have occasion to observe, subsequently, on the law which
deprived a knight’s descendants of his arms, if they turned
merchants; but in Saxon times it is worthy of observation, that if a
merchant made three voyages in one of his own ships, he was
thenceforward the Thane’s right-worthy, or equal.
Among the Romans a blow on the ear gave the slave freedom. Did
the blow on the shoulder given to a knight make a free-servant of
him? Something of the sort seems to have been intended. The title
was doubtless mainly but not exclusively military. To dub, from the
Saxon word dubban, was either to gird or put on, “don,” or was to
strike, and perhaps both may be meant, for the knight was girt with
spurs, as well as stricken, or geschlagen as the German term has it.
There was striking, too, at the unmaking of a knight. His heels were
then degraded of their spurs, the latter being beaten or chopped
away. “His heels deserved it,” says Bertram of the cowardly Parolles,
“his heels deserved it for usurping of his spurs so long.” The sword,
too, on such occasions, was broken.
Fuller justly says that “the plainer the coat is, the more ancient and
honorable.” He adds, that “two colors are necessary and most highly
honorable: three are very highly honorable; four commendable; five
excusable; more disgraceful.” He must have been a gastronomic
King-at-Arms, who so loaded a “coat” with fish, flesh, and fowl, that
an observer remarked, “it was well victualled enough to stand a
siege.” Or is the richest coloring, but, as Fuller again says, “Herbs
vert, being natural, are better than Or.” He describes a “Bend as the
best ordinary, being a belt athwart,” but a coat bruised with a bar
sinister is hardly a distinction to be proud of. If the heralds of George
the Second’s time looked upon that monarch as the son of Count
Königsmark, as Jacobite-minded heralds may have been malignant
enough to do, they no doubt mentally drew the degrading bar across
the royal arms, and tacitly denied the knighthood conferred by what
they, in such foolish case, would have deemed an illegitimate hand.
Alluding to reasons for some bearings, Fuller tells us that, “whereas
the Earls of Oxford anciently gave their ‘coats’ plain, quarterly gules
and or, they took afterward in the first a mullet or star-argent,
because the chief of the house had a falling-star, as it was said,
alighting on his shield as he was fighting in the Holy Land.”
It is to be observed that when treating of precedency, Fuller places
knights, or “soldiers” with seamen, civilians, and physicians, and
after saints, confessors, prelates, statesmen, and judges. Knights
and physicians he seems to have considered as equally terrible to
life; but in his order of placing he was led by no particular principle,
for among the lowest he places “learned writers,” and “benefactors to
the public.” He has, indeed, one principle, as may be seen, wherein
he says, “I place first princes, good manners obliging all other
persons to follow them, as religion obliges me to follow God’s
example by a royal recognition of that original precedency, which he
has granted to his vicegerents.”
The Romans are said to have established the earliest known order of
knighthood; and the members at one time wore rings, as a mark of
distinction, as in later times knights wore spurs. The knights of the
Holy Roman Empire were members of a modern order, whose
sovereigns are not, what they would have themselves considered,
descendants of the Cæsars. If we only knew what our own Round
Table was, and where it stood, we should be enabled to speak more
decisively upon the question of the chevaliers who sat around it. But
it is undecided whether the table was not really a house. At it, or in it,
the knights met during the season of Pentecost, but whether the
assembly was collected at Winchester or Windsor no one seems
able to determine; and he would impart no particularly valuable
knowledge even if he could.
Knighthood was a sort of nobility worth having, for it testified to the
merit of the wearer. An inherited title should, indeed, compel him
who succeeds to it, to do nothing to disgrace it: but preserving the
lustre is not half so meritorious as creating it. Knights bachelors were
so called because the distinction was conferred for some act of
personal courage, to reward for which the offspring of the knight
could make no claim. He was, in this respect, to them as though he
had been never married. The knight bachelor was a truly proud man.
The word knecht simply implied a servant, sworn to continue good
service in honor of the sovereign, and of God and St. George. “I
remain your sworn servant” is a form of epistolary valediction which
crept into the letters of other orders in later times. The manner of
making was more theatrical than at the present time; and we should
now smile if we were to see, on a lofty scaffold in St. Paul’s, a city
gentleman seated in a chair of silver adorned with green silk,
undergoing exhortation from the bishop, and carried up between two
lords, to be dubbed under the sovereign’s hand, a good knight, by
the help of Heaven and his patron saint.
In old days belted earls could create knights. In modern times, the
only subject who is legally entitled to confer the honor of chivalry is
the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland; and some of his “subjects” consider it
the most terrible of his privileges. The attempt to dispute the right
arose, perhaps, from those who dreaded the exercise of it on
themselves. However this may be, it is certain that the vexata
questio was finally set at rest in 1823, when the judges declared that
the power in question undoubtedly resided in the Lords Lieutenant,
since the Union, as it did in the viceroys who reigned vicariously
previous to that period. According to the etiquette of heraldry, the
distinctive appellation “Sir” should never be omitted even when the
knight is a noble of the first hereditary rank. “The Right Honorable Sir
Hugh Percy, Duke of Northumberland,” would have been the proper
heraldic defining of his grace when he became Knight of the Garter,
for it is a rule that “the greater dignity doth never drown the lesser,
but both stand together in one person.”
A knight never surrendered his sword but to a knight. “Are you knight
and gentleman?” asked Suffolk, when, four hundred years ago, he
yielded to Regnault: “I am a gentleman,” said Regnault, “but I am not
yet a knight.” Whereupon Suffolk bade him kneel, dubbed him
knight, received the accustomed oaths, and then gave up his old
sword to the new chevalier.
Clark considered that the order was degraded from its exclusively
military character, when membership was conferred upon
gownsmen, physician, burghers, and artists. He considered that civil
merit, so distinguished, was a loss of reputation to military knights.
The logic by which he arrives at such a conclusion is rather of the
loosest. It may be admitted, however, that the matter has been
specially abused in Germany. Monsieur About, that clever
gentleman, who wrote “Tolla” out of somebody else’s book, very
pertinently remarks in his review of the fine-art department of the
Paris Exhibition, that the difference between English and German
artists is, that the former are well-paid, but that very few of them are
knights, while the latter are ill-paid and consequently ill-clothed; but,
for lack of clothes, have abundance of ribands.
Dr. Nares himself is of something of the opinion of Clark, and he
ridicules the idea of a chivalric and martial title being given to
brewers, silversmiths, attorneys, apothecaries, upholsterers, hosiers,
tailors. &c. He asserts that knighthood should belong only to military
members: but of these no inconsiderable number would have to be
unknighted, or would have to wait an indefinite time for the honor
were the old rule strictly observed, whereby no man was entitled to
the rank and degree of knighthood, who had not actually been in
battle and captured a prisoner with his own hands. With respect to
the obligation on knights to defend and maintain all ladies,
gentlewomen, widows, and orphans; the one class of men may be
said to be just as likely to fulfil this obligation, as the other class.
France, Italy, and Germany, long had their forensic knights, certain
titles at the bar giving equal privileges; and the obligations above
alluded to were supposed to be observed by these knights—who
found esquires in their clerks, in the forensic war which they were for
ever waging in defence of right. Unhappily these forensic chevaliers
so often fought in defence of wrong and called it right, that the actual
duty was indiscriminately performed or neglected.
It has often been said of “orders” that they are indelible. However
this may be with the clergy, it is especially the case with knights. To
whatever title a knight might attain, duke, earl, or baron, he never
ceased to be a knight. In proof too that the latter title was considered
one of augmentation, is cited the case of Louis XI., who, at his
coronation, was knighted by Philip, Duke of Burgundy. “If Louis,”
says an eminent writer (thus cited by Dr. Nares), “had been made
duke, marquis, or earl, it would have detracted from him, all those
titles being in himself.”
The crown, when it stood in need of the chivalrous arms of its
knights, called for the required feudal service, not from its earls as
such, but from its barons. To every earldom was annexed a barony,
whereby their feudal service with its several dependent duties was
alone ascertained. “That is,” says Berington, in his Henry II., “the
tenure of barony and not of earldom constituted the legal vassal of
the crown. Each earl was at the same time a baron, as were the
bishops and some abbots and priors of orders.”
Some of these barons were the founders of parish churches, but the
terms on which priest and patron occasionally lived may be seen in
the law, whereby patrons or feudatarii killing the rector, vicar, or clerk
of their church, or mutilating him, were condemned to lose their
rights; and their posterity, to the fourth generation, was made
incapable of benefice or prelacy in religious houses. The knightly
patron was bound to be of the same religious opinions, of course, as
his priest, or his soul had little chance of being prayed for. In later
times we have had instances of patrons determining the opinions of
the minister. Thus as a parallel, or rather in contrast with measures
as they stood between Sir Knight and Sir Priest, may be taken a
passage inserted in the old deeds of the Baptist chapel at Oulney. In
this deed the managers or trustees injoined that “no person shall
ever be chosen pastor of this church, who shall differ in his religious
sentiments from the Rev. John Gibbs of Newcastle.” It is rather a
leap to pass thus from the baronial knights to the Baptist chapels,
but the matter has to do with my subject at both extremities. Before
leaving it I will notice the intimation proudly made on the tombstone
in Bunhill Fields Cemetery, of Dame Mary Page, relict of Sir George
Page. The lady died more than a century and a quarter ago, and
although the stone bears no record of any virtue save that she was
patient and fearless under suffering, it takes care to inform all
passers-by, that this knight’s lady, “in sixty-seven months was tapped
sixty-six times, and had taken away two hundred and forty gallons of
water, without ever repining at her case, or ever fearing its
operation.” I prefer the mementoes of knight’s ladies in olden times
which recorded their deeds rather than their diseases, and which told
of them, as White said of Queen Mary, that their “knees were hard
with kneeling.”
I will add one more incident, before changing the topic, having
reference as it has to knights, maladies, and baptism. In 1660, Sir
John Floyer was the most celebrated knight-physician of his day. He
chiefly tilted against the disuse of baptismal immersion. He did not
treat the subject theologically, but in a sanitary point of view. He
prophesied that England would return to the practice as soon as
people were convinced that cold baths were safe and useful. He
denounced the first innovators who departed from immersion, as the
destroyers of the health of their children and of posterity.
Degeneracy of race, he said, had followed, hereditary diseases
increased, and men were mere carpet-knights unable to perform
such lusty deeds as their duly-immersed forefathers.
There are few volumes which so admirably illustrate what knights
should be, and what they sometimes were not, as De Joinville’s
Chronicle of the Crusades of St. Louis—that St. Louis, who was
himself the patron-saint of an order, the cross of which was at first
conferred on princes, and at last on perruquiers. The faithful
chronicler rather profanely, indeed, compares the royal knight with
God himself. “As God died for his people, so did St. Louis often peril
his life, and incurred the greatest dangers, for the people of his
kingdom.” After all, this simile is as lame as it is profane. The truth,
nevertheless, as it concerns St. Louis, is creditable to the illustrious
king, saint, and chevalier. “In his conversation he was remarkably
chaste, for I never heard him, at any time, utter an indecent word,
nor make use of the devil’s name; which, however, now is very
commonly uttered by every one, but which I firmly believe, is so far
from being agreeable to God, that it is highly displeasing to him.” The
King St. Louis, mixed water with his wine, and tried to force his
knights to follow his example, adding, that “it was a beastly thing for
an honorable man to make himself drunk.” This was a wise maxim,
and one naturally held by a son, whose mother had often declared to
him, that “she would rather he was in his grave, than that he should
commit a mortal sin.” And yet wise as his mother, and wise as her
son was, the one could not give wise religious instructors to the
latter, nor the latter perceive where their instruction was illogical.
That it was so, may be discerned in the praise given by De Joinville,
to the fact, that the knightly king in his dying moments “called upon
God and his saints, and especially upon St. James, and St.
Genevieve, as his intercessors.”
It is interesting to learn from such good authority as De Joinville, the
manner in which the knights who followed St. Louis prepared
themselves for their crusading mission. “When I was ready to set
out, I sent for the Abbot of Cheminon, who was at that time
considered as the most discreet man of all the White Monks, to
reconcile myself with him. He gave me my scarf, and bound it on me,
and likewise put the pilgrim’s staff in my hand. Instantly after I quitted
the castle of Joinville, without even re-entering it until my return from
beyond sea. I made pilgrimages to all the holy places in the
neighborhood, such as Bliecourt, St. Urban, and others near to
Joinville. I dared never turn my eyes that way, for fear of feeling too
great regret, and lest my courage should fail on leaving my two fine
children, and my fair castle of Joinville, which I loved in my heart.”
“One touch of nature makes the whole world kin,” and here we have
the touch the poet speaks of. Down the Saône and subsequently
down the Rhone, the crusaders flock in ample vessels, but not large
enough to contain their steeds, which were led by grooms along the
banks. When all had re-embarked at Marseilles and were fairly out at
sea, “the captain made the priests and clerks mount to the castle of
the ship, and chant psalms in praise of God, that he might be
pleased to grant us a prosperous voyage.” While they were singing
the Veni Creator in full chorus, the mariners set the sails “in the
name of God,” and forthwith a favorable breeze sprang up in answer
to the appeal, and knights and holy men were speedily careering
over the billows of the open sea very hopeful and exceedingly sick. “I
must say here,” says De Joinville, who was frequently so disturbed
by the motion of the vessel, so little of a knight, and so timid on the
water as to require a couple of men to hold him as he leant over the
side in the helpless and unchivalrous attitude of a cockney landsman
on board a Boulogne steamer—“I must say,” he exclaims—sick at
the very reminiscence, “that he is a great fool who shall put himself
in such dangers, having wronged any one, or having any mortal sins
on his conscience; for when he goes to sleep in the evening, he
knows not if in the morning he may not find himself under the sea.”
This was a pious reflection, and it was such as many a knight,
doubtless, made on board a vessel, on the castle of which priests
and clerks sang Veni Creator and the mariners bent the sail “in the
name of God.” But whether the holy men did not act up to their
profession, or the secular knights cared not to profit by their
example, certain it is that in spite of the saintly services and
formalities on board ship, the chevaliers were no sooner on shore,
than they fell into the very worst of practices. De Joinville, speaking
of them at Damietta, remarks that the barons, knights, and others,
who ought to have practised self-denial and economy, were wasteful
of their means, prodigal of their supplies, and addicted to
banquetings, and to the vices which attend on over-luxuriant living.
There was a general waste of everything, health included. The
example set by the knights was adopted by the men-at-arms, and
the debauchery which ensued was terrific. The men were reduced to
the level of beasts, and wo to the women or girls who fell into their
power when out marauding. It is singular to find De Joinville
remarking that the holy king was obliged “to wink at the greatest
liberties of his officers and men.” The picture of a royal saint winking
at lust, rapine, and murder, is not an agreeable one. “The good king
was told,” says the faithful chronicler, “that at a stone’s throw round
his own pavilion, were several tents whose owners made profit by
letting them out for infamous purposes.” These tents and tabernacles
of iniquity were kept by the king’s own personal attendants, and yet
the royal saint winked at them! The licentiousness was astounding,
the more so as it was practised by Christian knights, who were
abroad on a holy purpose, but who went with bloody hands, unclean
thoughts, and spiritual songs to rescue the Sepulchre of Christ from
the unworthy keeping of the infidel. Is it wonderful that the enterprise
was ultimately a failure?
De Joinville himself, albeit purer of life than many of his comrades,
was not above taking unmanly advantage of a foe. The rule of
chivalry, which directed that all should be fair in fight, was never
regarded by those chivalrous gentlemen when victory was to be
obtained by violating the law. Thus, of an affair on the plains before
Babylon, we find the literary swordsman complacently recording that
he “perceived a sturdy Saracen mounting his horse, which was held
by one of his esquires by the bridle, and while he was putting his
hand on his saddle to mount, I gave him,” says De Joinville, “such a
thrust with my spear, which I pushed as far as I was able, that he fell
down dead.” This was a base and cowardly action. There was more
of the chivalrous in what followed: “The esquire, seeing his lord
dead, abandoned master and horse; but, watching my motions, on
my return struck me with his lance such a blow between my
shoulders as drove me on my horse’s neck, and held me there so
tightly that I could not draw my sword, which was girthed round me. I
was forced to draw another sword which was at the pommel of my
saddle, and it was high time; but when he saw I had my sword in my
hand, he withdrew his lance, which I had seized, and ran from me.”
I have said that this knight who took such unfair advantage of a foe,
was more of a Christian nevertheless than many of his fellows. This
is illustrated by another trait highly illustrative of the principles which
influenced those brave and pious warriors. De Joinville remarks that
on the eve of Shrove-tide, 1249, he saw a thing which he “must
relate.” On the vigil of that day, he tells us, there died a very valiant
and prudent knight, Sir Hugh de Landricourt, a follower of De
Joinville’s own banner. The burial service was celebrated; but half-a-
dozen of De Joinville’s knights, who were present as mourners,
talked so irreverently loud that the priest was disturbed as he was
saying mass. Our good chronicler went over to them, reproved them,
and informed them that “it was unbecoming gentlemen thus to talk
while the mass was celebrating.” The ungodly half-dozen, thereupon,
burst into a roar of laughter, and informed De Joinville, in their turn,
that they were discussing as to which of the six should marry the
widow of the defunct Sir Hugh, then lying before them on his bier! De
Joinville, with decency and common sense “rebuked them sharply,
and said such conversation was indecent and improper, for that they
had too soon forgotten their companion.” From this circumstance De
Joinville tries to draw a logical inference, if not conclusion. He makes
a sad confusion of causes and effects, rewards and punishments,
practice and principle, human accidents and especial interferences
on the part of Heaven. For instance, after narrating the mirth of the
knights at the funeral of Sir Hugh, and their disputing as to which of
them should woo the widow, he adds: “Now it happened on the
morrow, when the first grand battle took place, although we may
laugh at their follies, that of all the six not one escaped death, and
they remained unburied. The wives of the whole six re-married! This
makes it credible that God leaves no such conduct unpunished. With
regard to myself I fared little better, for I was grievously wounded in
the battle of Shrove Tuesday. I had besides the disorder in my legs
and mouth before spoken of, and such a rheum in my head it ran
through my mouth and nostrils. In addition I had a double fever
called a quartan, from which God defend us! And with these
illnesses was I confined to my bed for half of Lent.” And thus, if the
married knights were retributively slain for talking about the wooing
of a comrade’s widow, so De Joinville himself was somewhat heavily
afflicted for having undertaken to reprove them! I must add one more
incident, however, to show how in the battle-field the human and
Christian principle was not altogether lost.
The poor priest, whom the wicked and wedded knights had
interrupted in the service of the mass by follies, at which De Joinville
himself seems to think that men may, perhaps, be inclined to laugh,
became as grievously ill as De Joinville himself. “And one day,” says
the latter, “when he was singing mass before me as I lay in my bed,
at the moment of the elevation of the host I saw him so exceedingly
weak that he was near fainting; but when I perceived he was on the
point of falling to the ground, I flung myself out of bed, sick as I was,
and taking my coat, embraced him, and bade him be at his ease,
and take courage from Him whom he held in his hand. He recovered
some little; but I never quitted him till he had finished the mass,
which he completed, and this was the last, for he never celebrated
another, but died; God receive his soul!” This is a pleasanter picture
of Christian chivalry than any other that is given by this picturesque
chronicler.
Chivalry, generally, has been more satirized and sneered at by the
philosophers than by any other class of men. The sages stigmatize
the knights as mere boasters of bravery, and in some such terms as
those used by Dussaute, they assert that the boasters of their valor
are as little to be trusted as those who boast of their probity. “Defiez
vous de quiconque parle toujours de sa probité comme de
quiconque parle toujours de bravoure.”
It will not, however, do for the philosophers to sneer at their martial
brethren. Now that Professor Jacobi has turned from grave studies
for the benefit of mankind, to the making of infernal machines for the
destruction of brave and helpless men, at a distance, that very
unsuccessful but would-be homicide has, as far as he himself is
concerned, reduced science to a lower level than that occupied by
men whose trade is arms. But this is not the first time that
philosophers have mingled in martial matters. The very war which
has been begun by the bad ambition of Russia, may be traced to the
evil officiousness of no less a philosopher than Leibnitz. It was this
celebrated man who first instigated a European monarch to seize
upon a certain portion of the Turkish dominion, whereby to secure an
all but universal supremacy.
The monarch was Louis XIV., to whom Leibnitz addressed himself, in
a memorial, as to the wisest of sovereigns, most worthy to have
imparted to him a project at once the most holy, the most just, and
the most easy of accomplishment. Success, adds the philosopher,
would secure to France the empire of the seas and of commerce,
and make the French king the supreme arbiter of Christendom.
Leibnitz at once names Egypt as the place to be seized upon; and
after hinting what was necessary, by calling his majesty a “miracle of
secresy,” he alludes to further achievements by stating of the one in
question, that it would cover his name with an immortal glory, for
having cleared, whether for himself or his descendants, “the route for
exploits similar to those of Alexander.”
There is no country in the memorialist’s opinion the conquest of
which deserves so much to be attempted. As to any provocation on
the part of the Turkish sovereign of Egypt, he does not pause to
advise the king even to feign having received cause of offence. The
philosopher goes through a resumé of the history of Egypt, and the
successive conquests that had been made of, as well as attempts
against it, to prove that its possession was accounted of importance
in all times; and he adds that its Turkish master was just then in such
debility that France could not desire a more propitious opportunity for
invasion. This argument shows that when the Czar Nicholas touched
upon this nefarious subject, he not only was ready to rob this same
“sick man,” the Turk, but he stole his arguments whereby to illustrate
his opinions, and to prove that his sentiments were well-founded.
“By a single fortunate blow,” says Leibnitz, “empires may be in an
instant overthrown and founded. In such wars are found the
elements of high power and of an exalted glory.” It is unnecessary to
repeat all the seductive terms which Leibnitz employs to induce
Louis XIV. to set his chivalry in motion against the Turkish power.
Egypt he calls “the eye of countries, the mother of grain, the seat of
commerce.” He hints that Muscovy was even then ready to take
advantage of any circumstance that might facilitate her way to the
conquest of Turkey. The conquest of Egypt then was of double
importance to France. Possessing that, France would be mistress of
the Mediterranean, of a great part of Africa and Asia, and “the king of
France could then, by incontestable right, and with the consent of the
Pope, assume the title of Emperor of the East.” A further bait held
out is, that in such a position he could “hold the pontiffs much more
in his power than if they resided at Avignon.” He sums up by saying
that there would be on the part of the human race, “an everlasting
reverence for the memory of the great king to whom so many
miracles were due!” “With the exception of the philosopher’s stone,”
finally remarks the philosopher, “I know nothing that can be imagined
of more importance than the conquest of Egypt.”
Leibnitz enters largely into the means to be employed, in order to
insure success; among them is a good share of mendacity; and it
must be acknowledged that the spirit of the memorial and its objects,
touching not Egypt alone, but the Turkish empire generally, had been
well pondered over by the Czar before he made that felonious
attempt in which he failed to find a confederate.
The original of the memorial, which is supposed to have been
presented to Louis XIV. just previous to his invasion of Holland—
and, as some say, more with the intention of diverting the king from
his attack on that country, than with any more definite object—was
preserved in the archives of Versailles till the period of the great
revolution. A copy in the handwriting of Leibnitz was, however,
preserved in the Library at Hanover. Its contents were without doubt
known to Napoleon when he was meditating that Egyptian conquest
which Leibnitz pronounced to be so easy of accomplishment; a copy,
made at the instance of Marshal Mortier for the Royal Library in
Paris, is now in that collection.
The suggestion of Leibnitz, that the seat, if not of universal
monarchy, at least of the mastership of Christendom, was in the
Turkish dominions, has never been forgotten by Russia; and it is
very possible that some of its seductive argument may have
influenced the Czar before he impelled his troops into that war, which
showed that Russia, with all its boasted power, could neither take
Silistria nor keep Sebastopol.
But in this fragmentary prologue, which began with Lingard and ends
with Leibnitz, we have rambled over wide ground. Let us become
more orderly, and look at those who were to be made knights.
THE TRAINING OF PAGES.
“What callest thou Page? What is its humor?
Sir; he is Nobilis ephebus, and
Puer regius, student of Knighthood,
Breaking hearts and hoping to break lances.”— Old Play.
I have in another chapter noticed the circumstance of knighthood

conferred on an Irish prince, at so early an age as seven years. This
was the age at which, in less precocious England, noble youths
entered wealthy knights’ families as pages, to learn obedience, to be
instructed in the use of weapons, and to acquire a graceful habit of
tending on ladies. The poor nobility, especially, found their account in
this system, which gave a gratuitous education to their sons, in
return for services which were not considered humiliating or
dishonorable. These boys served seven years as pages, or varlets—
sometimes very impudent varlets—and at fourteen might be regular
esquires, and tend their masters where hard blows were dealt and
taken—for which encounters they “riveted with a sigh the armor they
were forbidden to wear.”
Neither pages, varlets, nor household, could be said to have been
always as roystering as modern romancers have depicted them.
There was at least exceptions to the rule—if there was a rule of
roystering. Occasionally, the lads were not indifferently taught before
they left their own homes. That is, not indifferently taught for the
peculiar life they were about to lead. Even the Borgias, infamous as
the name has become through inexorable historians and popular
operas, were at one time eminently respectable and exemplarily
religious. Thus in the household of the Duke of Gandia, young
Francis Borgia, his son, passed his time “among the domestics in
wonderful innocence and piety.” It was the only season of his life,
however, so passed. Marchangy asserts that the pages of the middle
ages were often little saints; but this could hardly have been the case
since “espiègle comme un page,” “hardi comme un page,” and other
illustrative sayings have survived even the era of pagedom. Indeed,
if we may believe the minstrels, and they were often as truth-telling
as the annalist, the pages were now and then even more knowing
and audacious than their masters. When the Count Ory was in love
with the young Abbess of Farmoutier, he had recourse to his page
for counsel.
“Hola! mon page, venez me conseiller,

L’amour me berce, je ne puis sommeiller;
Comment me prendre pour dans ce couvent entrer?”
How ready was the ecstatic young scamp with his reply:—
“Sire il faut prendre quatorze chevaliers,

Et tous en nonnes il vous les faut habiller,
Puis, à nuit close, à la porte il faut heurter.”
What came of this advice, the song tells in very joyous terms, for
which the reader may be referred to that grand collection the “Chants
et Chansons de la France.”
On the other hand, Mr. Kenelm Digby, who is, be it said in passing, a
painter of pages, looking at his object through pink-colored glasses,
thus writes of these young gentlemen, in his “Mores Catholici.”
“Truly beautiful does the fidelity of chivalrous youth appear in the
page of history or romance. Every master of a family in the middle
ages had some young man in his service who would have rejoiced to
shed the last drop of his blood to save him, and who, like Jonathan’s
armor-bearer, would have replied to his summons: ‘Fac omnia quæ
placent animo tuo; perge quo cupis; et ero tecum ubicumque
volueris.’ When Gyron le Courtois resolved to proceed on the
adventure of the Passage perilleux, we read that the valet, on
hearing the frankness and courtesy with which his lord spoke to him,
began to weep abundantly, and said, all in tears, ‘Sire, know that my
heart tells me that sooth, if you proceed further, you will never return;
that you will either perish there, or you will remain in prison; but,
nevertheless, nothing shall prevent me going with you. Better die
with you, if it be God’s will, than leave you in such guise to save my

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Multiphase Hybrid Electric Machines:

Applications for Electrified Powertrains

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Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles James D.

Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell

Linear Electric Machines, Drives, and MAGLEVs Handbook

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Design Fundamentals 3rd

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Hybrid Excited Synchronous Machines: Topologies, Design

Primary Mathematics 3A Hoerst

Multiphase Hybrid Electric

ISBN 978-3-030-80434-3 ISBN 978-3-030-80435-0 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Development of road vehicles through electriﬁed powertrains without compromising

In Chap. 6, a dynamic model of vehicle powertrain that includes a HPM generator

Kuwait City, Kuwait Ahmad S. Al-Adsani

1 General Electric Machine Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.3.9 Series Double Excited Synchronous Machine

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6.3 HPM Machine Output Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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The magnetic ﬁeld that is created by current-carrying conductors based on Ampere’s

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Fig. 1.1 Magnetic ﬁeld

permeability of the material. A convenient way of representing the magnetizability

1.1.2 Ferromagnetic Materials and Magnetization Curves

Fig. 1.5 Hard and soft

1.2 Electric Machine Fundamentals

Fig. 1.6 Fundamental

1.3 Overview of Classical Electric Machine Topologies

Fig. 1.7 Classical electric machine common classiﬁcations

1.3.1 Brushed DC and AC Machines

rotor ﬁeld windings of an AC machine induces a three-phase set of AC voltages,

ea ðtÞ ¼ ωNφ sinðωtÞ

1.3.2 Brushless AC Machines

An induction machine (IMs) is one in which AC current is supplied to the stator

1.3.3 Switch Reluctance Machines

In terms of electric machine construction, switch reluctance machines (SRMs) are

1.4 WF and PM Synchronous Machine Excitation Fields

1.4.1 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of WF

By Ampere’s law, the current in a coil of wire wrapped around a ferromagnetic

Fig. 1.13 Magnetic ﬂux

Fig. 1.14 Magnetic ﬂux

1.4.2 Magnetic Flux Path Representation of PM

2.2 Hybrid Electric Machine Classiﬁcation

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Fig. 2.1 General

2.3 Different Hybrid Machine Topologies

2.3.1 PM Synchronous Machine with Claw Pole Field

PM synchronous machine with claw pole ﬁeld excitation (PSCPF) is brieﬂy

Fig. 2.3 Flux path of the

Fig. 2.6 HECPSG machine

Table 2.1 HESPSG advantages and disadvantages

2.3.2 Toroidal-Stator Transverse-Flux Machine (TSTFM)

Fig. 2.8 Toroidal

2.3.3 Hybrid Excitation Synchronous Machine (HESM)