Production technology summary questions:

1. What is machining, and what are its basic elements according to the lecture notes?

Answer: Machining is a manufacturing process that utilizes a sharp cutting tool to remove material and
achieve the desired part shape. The basic elements of machining operations, as per the lecture notes,
include the workpiece, tool, and chip.

2.Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of machining based on the lecture notes.

Answer: According to the lecture notes, machining offers the advantage of being applicable to a variety
of work materials, allowing for the creation of complex part shapes and achieving dimensional accuracy
and good surface finishes. However, it is wasteful of material due to the generation of chips, and it tends
to be time-consuming compared to alternative shaping processes like casting or forging.

3.Identify and describe the three most common types of machining operations mentioned in the lecture
notes.

Answer: The lecture notes mention three common types of machining operations: turning, drilling, and
milling. Turning involves the use of a cutting tool with a single edge to create cylindrical shapes. Drilling
is used to create round holes using rotating drill bits. Milling utilizes a rotating tool with multiple cutting
edges to generate plane or straight surfaces.

4. Explain the concept of cutting tools classification as discussed in the lecture notes.
Answer: According to the lecture notes, cutting tools are classified into two basic types: single-point
tools and multiple-cutting-edge tools. Single-point tools have one cutting edge and are commonly used
in operations like turning, while multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and are
typically used in drilling and milling operations.

5.What are the key factors influencing chip formation in metal machining, as per the lecture notes?

Answer: The lecture notes outline several factors influencing chip formation, including cutting speed,
feed, and depth of cut. Additionally, the rake angle of the cutting tool plays a significant role in
determining the chip's thickness and geometry.

6. Describe the forces acting on the chip and tool during metal machining, according to the lecture
notes.

Answer: The lecture notes discuss forces such as friction force, normal force to friction, shear force, and
normal force to shear. These forces play crucial roles in chip formation and tool wear during machining
operations.
7.Explain the concept of specific energy in machining, as mentioned in the lecture notes.

Answer: Specific energy, as discussed in the lecture notes, refers to the amount of power required to
remove a unit volume of material during machining. It is typically measured in units such as N-m/mm^3
or J/mm^3 and provides insights into the efficiency and effectiveness of machining processes.

8.What is the significance of cutting temperature in machining, according to the lecture notes?

Answer: Cutting temperature, as highlighted in the lecture notes, is crucial as it affects tool life, surface
finish, and dimensional accuracy of machined parts. It is primarily influenced by cutting speed, feed rate,
and tool material, and understanding and controlling cutting temperature is essential for optimizing
machining processes.

9.Differentiation between Roughing Cuts and Finishing Cuts in Machining:

Roughing cuts involve removing large amounts of material quickly, typically with high cutting speeds and
depths of cut, to shape the workpiece close to its final dimensions. Finishing cuts, however, are
performed at slower speeds and shallower depths to achieve the desired surface finish and dimensional
accuracy of the final part.

10.Machine Tools and their Functions in Machining:

Machine tools are equipment used to shape or machine materials into desired forms through material
removal processes. They hold and support the workpiece securely, guide the cutting tool accurately,
provide necessary power and motion to the tool, and control machining parameters like speed, feed,
and depth of cut.

11.Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining:

The theory of chip formation in metal machining explains that material is sheared off from the
workpiece due to the relative motion between the cutting tool and the workpiece. This shearing action
occurs along a primary shear plane, leading to the formation of a chip with specific geometric
characteristics.

12.Four Basic Types of Chips in Machining and their Differences:

The four basic types of chips in machining are continuous, discontinuous, continuous with built-up edge
(BUE), and discontinuous with BUE. They differ in their geometry, material properties, and the presence
of a built-up edge. Continuous chips are long and continuous, while discontinuous chips are shorter and
fragmented. Chips with BUE have a layer of workpiece material adhered to the rake face of the cutting
tool.
13.Forces Acting on the Chip and Tool during Metal Machining:

During metal machining, various forces act on the chip and tool, including cutting force, thrust force,
frictional force, and chip-tool interface forces. Cutting force is directed along the cutting edge and is
responsible for material removal, while thrust force helps maintain tool position. Frictional forces occur
at the chip-tool interface, influencing chip formation and tool wear.

14.Concept of Shear Stress and its Importance in Machining:

Shear stress refers to the force per unit area acting parallel to the plane of material deformation. In
machining, shear stress plays a crucial role in determining material removal rate, chip formation, and
tool wear. Understanding and controlling shear stress are essential for optimiz ing machining processes
and achieving desired outcomes.

15.Merchant Equation and its Significance in Machining:

The Merchant equation relates cutting forces, cutting geometry, and shear plane angles in metal
machining. It helps predict cutting forces based on parameters like rake angle, shear angle, and cutting
edge radius. Understanding the Merchant equation aids in optimizing cutting conditions and tool
geometry for improved machining performance.

16.Calculation of Power in Machining and its Implications:

Power in machining is calculated based on cutting force, cutting speed, and material removal rate. It
represents the rate at which work is done during machining. Higher power consumption may indicate
increased cutting forces or inefficient machining conditions, prompting optimization efforts to improve
efficiency and reduce costs.

17.Definition of Specific Energy in Machining and its Significance:

Specific energy in machining refers to the amount of energy required to remove a unit volume of
material during the cutting process. It is typically measured in units of energy per unit volume, such as
joules per cubic millimeter (J/mm^3). Specific energy is significant because it helps assess the efficiency
of the machining process and evaluate the performance of cutting tools. Lower specific energy values
indicate more efficient material removal and can lead to reduced tool wear and longer tool life.

18.Factors Influencing Cutting Temperature and Methods to Measure it:

Cutting temperature is influenced by various factors, including cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut,
material properties, tool geometry, and cutting fluid usage. Methods to measure cutting temperature
include thermocouples embedded in the tool or workpiece, infrared thermography, and finite element
analysis simulations. These methods provide insights into temperature distribution, tool wear, and
potential issues like thermal damage to the workpiece.

19.Explanation of the Tool-Chip Thermocouple Method and its Relevance in Machining:

The tool-chip thermocouple method involves embedding a thermocouple in both the cutting tool and
the chip during machining to directly measure the temperature at the cutting interface. This method
provides real-time data on temperature variations during cutting, allowing for better understanding and
control of the machining process. By monitoring temperature changes, machinists can adjust cutting
parameters, tool materials, and cooling strategies to optimize performance and prevent thermal
damage to the workpiece and tool.

20.Discussion of the Speed-Temperature Relationship as Determined by K. Trigger:

K. Trigger's research established a relationship between cutting speed and cutting temperature in metal
machining. Higher cutting speeds typically result in increased cutting temperatures due to the greater
heat generated by the cutting process. This relationship is important for understanding the thermal
aspects of machining and optimizing cutting conditions to achieve desired outcomes. By controlling
cutting speed and other parameters, machinists can manage temperature rise, minimize thermal effects,
and enhance machining efficiency and quality.

21. What are the distinguishing characteristics of rotational and non-rotational machining processes, as
outlined in the notes?

Answer: Rotational machining involves cylindrical or disk-like workpieces with material removal from a
rotating workpart, while non-rotational machining involves block-like or plate-like workpieces with
linear motions combined with rotating or linear tool motions.

22. Can you differentiate between generating and forming operations in machining? Provide examples
for each.

Answer: Generating operations depend on the feed trajectory of the cutting tool to impart shape to the
work surface, while forming operations shape the part directly using the geometry of the cutting tool.
Examples of generating operations include straight turning, taper turning, and contour turning, while
form turning, drilling, and broaching are examples of forming operations.

23.Outline the various operations related to turning as described in the notes. How do they vary from
one another?

Answer: Operations related to turning include facing, taper turning, contour turning, form turning,
chamfering, cutoff, threading, boring, drilling, and knurling. These operations differ based on the specific
geometry they impart to the workpiece and the cutting techniques involved.

24.What are the critical cutting conditions to be considered in turning operations, and how are they
calculated, as per the notes?
Answer: Cutting conditions in turning include rotational speed, depth of cut, feed, and machining time.
These parameters are calculated based on formulas provided in the notes, considering factors such as
cutting speed, original and final diameters, and feed rate.

25. Explain the methods used for holding workpieces in a lathe machine according to the notes. When is
each method typically employed?

Answer: Workpieces in a lathe machine can be held between centers, using a chuck, collet, or faceplate.
The choice of method depends on factors such as the workpiece geometry, stability requirements, and
machining operations to be performed.

26.Provide a brief overview of the operations related to drilling as outlined in the notes.

Answer: Operations related to drilling include reaming, tapping, counter-boring, countersinking, center
drilling, and spot facing. Each operation serves a specific purpose, such as enlarging holes, adding
internal threads, or creating flat surfaces.

27. Enumerate the types of milling operations discussed in the notes and describe their distinguishing
features.

Answer: The types of milling operations include peripheral milling (plain milling) and face milling, with
variations such as slab milling, slotting, end milling, profile milling, pocket milling, and surface
contouring. Each type has unique characteristics based on the direction of cutter motion and the
geometry of the workpiece.

28. What is the difference between up milling and down milling in peripheral milling operations, as per
the notes?

Answer: Up milling, also known as conventional milling, involves cutter motion opposite to the feed
direction, while down milling, or climb milling, involves cutter motion in the same direction as the feed.
These techniques result in differences in chip formation and cutting tool engagement.

29. Describe the primary classifications of milling machines according to the notes. What are the
distinctive features of each type?

Answer: The primary classifications of milling machines include horizontal and vertical milling machines,
with variations such as knee-and-column, bed type, planer type, tracer mills, and CNC milling machines.
Each type has specific spindle orientations and structural designs suited for different machining tasks.
30.How do machining centers differ from turning centers, as explained in the notes? What are their
respective functions?

Answer: Machining centers are primarily used for multiple machining operations under CNC control,
focusing on rotating spindle operations like milling and drilling. In contrast, turning centers specialize in
turning-type operations with single-point tools, such as facing, taper turning, and threading.

31.What are the requirements and applications of high-speed machining (HSM) according to the notes?

Answer: High-speed machining (HSM) involves using cutting speeds significantly higher than those used
in conventional machining operations. Requirements for HSM include high-speed spindles, high feed
rate capability, CNC motion controls with look-ahead features, balanced cutting tools, and effective
coolant delivery and chip control systems. Applications of HSM include aerospace, automotive, and die
and mold industries.

32.Explain the significance of cutting conditions in milling operations according to the notes. How are
these conditions determined?

Answer: Cutting conditions in milling operations, including cutting speed, feed, feed rate, rate of
material removal, and time of machining, play a crucial role in determining machining efficiency and
surface quality. These conditions are calculated based on formulas considering parameters such as s

33.: What are the key components involved in metal cutting, and why is understanding their forces
important?

Answer: In metal cutting, forces like FC (Tangential component), FX (Axial component), and FY (Radial
component) play crucial roles. FC, being the main or major force, determines cutting power
consumption. FY, although not as large in magnitude, can lead to dimensional inaccuracies and
vibrations. FX, although larger than FY, is generally the least harmful and significant. Understanding
these forces is essential for optimizing machining processes and tool design.

34: How is a Merchant's force circle diagram constructed, and what information does it provide?

Answer: To construct a Merchant's force circle diagram, begin by setting up an x-y axis labeled with
forces, with the origin at the center of the page. Draw the cutting force (FC) horizontally and the
tangential force (FT) vertically. Next, draw the resultant (R) of FC and FT and enclose it with a circle. By
extending lines representing the cutting tool and chip, along with their respective angles, additional
forces like shear force (FS) and normal force (FN) can be determined. The Merchant's force circle
provides insights into various forces acting during metal cutting, aiding in force analysis and tool design.
35: How are cutting forces and velocities calculated, and why are they important in machining?

Answer: Cutting forces and velocities are calculated using trigonometric equations and velocity
diagrams. These calculations are crucial for understanding the mechanics of metal cutting, determining
power consumption, and optimizing machining parameters. Forces such as FC, FX, and FY, along with
cutting velocities, provide valuable information for designing efficient machining processes and selecting
appropriate cutting parameters.

36: What assumptions are made when using Merchant's force circle for force analysis?

Answer: Assumptions include constant cutting velocity, sharp cutting tool edges throughout the process,
no sideways flow of the chip, absence of built-up edge, constant chip width, and rigid, perfectly plastic
work material. These assumptions simplify force analysis using Merchant's force circle, allowing for
quick and reasonably accurate determination of cutting forces.

37: Discuss the advantages and limitations of using Merchant's force circle in metal cutting analysis.

Answer: Merchant's force circle offers advantages such as easy and quick determination of various
forces involved in machining, estimation of friction at the chip-tool interface, and development of
equations relating different forces. However, its limitations include validity only for orthogonal cutting,
providing apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction, and being based on single shear plane theory.

38: How is cutting power consumption and specific energy requirements evaluated in machining
processes?

Answer: Cutting power consumption is determined by calculating the total cutting power, which
includes shearing power required and friction losses. Specific energy requirement, indicating the
amount of energy needed to remove unit volume of material, is also crucial. Both parameters are
influenced by cutting forces, velocities, and tool-material interactions.

39: Using the example provided, explain the process of calculating cutting force (F), normal force (N),
and coefficient of friction (μ) using Merchant's force circle.
Answer: In the given example, cutting force (F) and normal force (N) can be determined from intercepts
in the Merchant's force circle diagram. By dividing these intercepts by the chosen scale, the values of F
and N can be obtained. The coefficient of friction (μ) can then be calculated by dividing F by N. This
process allows for the estimation of various forces involved in metal cutting.

39: How is the dynamic yield shear strength of the work material calculated in metal cutting?

Answer: The dynamic yield shear strength (τs) of the work material is determined using suitable
expressions based on factors such as shear area and ultimate tensile strength. For ductile materials,
equations involving chip compression ratio and shear angle are used, while for brittle materials,
approximations based on Brinell hardness number (BNH) and ultimate tensile strength are employed.

40: What are the primary sources of heat generation and dissipation in cutting processes?

Answer: Heat in cutting processes primarily arises from tool deformation, friction on the cutting face,
and friction on the tool flank. This heat is dissipated through mechanisms such as chip removal, coolant
application, heat transfer to the workpiece, and absorption by the cutting tool.

41: Discuss the role and importance of cutting fluids in metal removal processes.

Answer: Cutting fluids serve multiple purposes in metal removal processes, acting as coolants,
lubricants, and chip removers. They help extend tool life by reducing friction and heat generation,
improving surface finish, and preventing built-up edge formation. Water-soluble oils are commonly used
as cutting fluids, mixed with water to enhance cooling and lubrication properties, ultimately optimizing
machining efficiency and tool performance.spindle speed, number of teeth on the cutter, workpiece
dimensions, and approach allowances

42: What are the fundamental aspects of cutting tool technology, and why are they crucial in machining
operations?

Answer: Cutting tool technology encompasses two primary aspects: tool material and tool geometry
optimization. These are critical because they directly influence the tool's ability to withstand forces,
temperatures, and wear during machining processes.

Models of Cutting Tool Failure:

43: Could you explain the three models of cutting tool failure discussed in the lecture and the conditions
leading to each type of failure?

Answer: The lecture describes fracture failure, temperature failure, and gradual wear as the three
models of cutting tool failure. Fracture failure occurs due to excessive cutting force, while temperature
failure results from high temperatures softening the tool material. Gradual wear, the preferred mode,
occurs through continual wearing of the cutting edge.

Preference for Gradual Wear:

44: Why is gradual wear preferred over fracture or temperature failure in cutting tools, and what impact
does it have on tool life?

Answer: Gradual wear is preferred because it allows for the longest possible use of the tool, leading to
economic advantages. Unlike fracture or temperature failure, gradual wear enables controlled tool
degradation, enhancing both tool life and workpiece quality.

Significance of Tool Wear:

45: Discuss the significance of tool wear in machining processes and identify the two main types of tool
wear mentioned in the lecture.

Answer: Tool wear is a significant concern in machining, as it directly impacts productivity, surface finish,
and dimensional accuracy. The lecture highlights two main types of tool wear: crater wear and flank
wear.

Measurement of Tool Wear:

46: How is tool wear typically measured, and what methods were discussed in the lecture? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each method?

Answer: Tool wear can be measured using various methods such as loss of material, grooving and
indentation, optical microscopy, SEM, and Talysurf. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages
in terms of accuracy, complexity, and cost
47Different Regions in a Tool Wear Growth Curve:

Answer: In a typical tool wear growth curve, three regions can be identified: the break-in period, steady-
state wear region, and failure region. The break-in period is characterized by rapid initial wear, followed
by a period of uniform wear known as the steady-state wear region. Finally, in the failure region, wear
accelerates, leading to eventual tool failure.
48.Factors Affecting Slope of Tool Wear Curve:

Answer: The slope of the tool wear curve in the steady-state wear region is influenced by factors such as
cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut. Higher cutting speeds generally result in increased wear rates,
impacting the slope of the curve.

49.Impact of Cutting Speed on Tool Flank Wear:

Answer: Cutting speed affects tool flank wear by influencing the rate of tool wear. Higher cutting speeds
often lead to increased tool flank wear due to elevated temperatures and contact stresses. Considering
cutting speed is crucial in machining operations as it directly impacts tool life and machining efficiency.

50.Explanation of Taylor's Tool Life Equation:

Answer: Taylor's tool life equation relates cutting speed (V), tool life (T), and material constants (C, n). It
suggests that higher cutting speeds result in shorter tool lives. The equation helps predict tool life based
on cutting parameters, facilitating optimization of machining processes for enhanced productivity and
cost-effectiveness.

51.Alternative Tool Life Criteria:

Answer: Alternative tool life criteria used in production machining include visual inspection of tool wear,
the fingernail test, changes in sound during machining, chip morphology, surface finish degradation,
increased power consumption, workpiece count, and cumulative cutting time. These criteria offer
practical alternatives to measuring flank wear, catering to different machining environments and
operator preferences.

52.Properties of Cutting Tool Materials and Tool Failure:

Answer: Cutting tool materials require properties such as toughness, hot hardness, and wear resistance
to withstand machining conditions and avoid tool failure. These properties directly relate to the modes
of tool failure, including fracture, temperature failure, and gradual wear, which are influenced by factors
such as cutting forces and temperatures.

53.Characteristics and Applications of HSS Cutting Tools:

Answer: High-speed steel (HSS) cutting tools, including predecessors like plain carbon steel and
Mushet’s steel, offer high toughness and hot hardness. HSS tools are widely used in various machining
applications, especially for complex geometries like drills, taps, milling cutters, and broaches. They are
heat-treatable and often coated for improved performance, making them popular among machinists for
their versatility and ease of customization.

54.Composition, Manufacturing Process, and Applications of Cast Cobalt Alloys:

Composition: Cast cobalt alloys typically consist of cobalt (40-50%), chromium (25-35%), tungsten (15-
29%), and trace amounts of other elements. These alloys are designed to provide high hardness and
wear resistance.

Manufacturing Process: Cast cobalt alloys are produced by casting in graphite molds, followed by
grinding to achieve the desired shape and cutting edge sharpness.

Applications: Cast cobalt alloys find applications in machining operations where higher cut ting speeds
are desired compared to high-speed steel (HSS). They offer better wear resistance than HSS but are not
as wear-resistant as cemented carbides. These alloys are suitable for turning, milling, and other cutting
operations on various materials, including steels and cast irons.

55.Comparison of Cemented Carbides, Cermets, and Coated Carbides:

Cemented Carbides: Made of tungsten carbide (WC) particles bonded together with cobalt (Co) or other
metallic binders. Known for high hardness, excellent wear resistance, and good toughness. Widely used
in machining operations on steels, stainless steels, and non-ferrous metals.

Cermets: Composite materials consisting of ceramic (such as TiC, TiN, or TiCN) particles in a metallic
binder (often nickel or molybdenum). Offer good wear resistance and high-temperature stability,
making them suitable for finishing and semi-finishing operations on steels and cast irons.

Coated Carbides: Cemented carbide inserts coated with thin layers of wear-resistant materials like
titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), or aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Coatings improve tool life and
performance, especially in high-speed machining and difficult-to-machine materials.

56.Differences and Advantages of Coated Carbides Over Uncoated Cemented Carbides:

Differences: Coated carbides have a thin layer of wear-resistant coating applied to the cemented carbide
substrate, whereas uncoated cemented carbides lack this coating. The coating provides additional
protection against wear and improves cutting performance.

Advantages: Coated carbides offer several advantages over uncoated cemented carbides, including
increased tool life, reduced friction and cutting forces, improved surface finish, and higher cutting
speeds. The coating acts as a barrier against wear mechanisms, enhancing tool durability and
productivity in machining operations. Coated carbides are particularly beneficial when machining hard
and abrasive materials or operating at high speeds.

Coated carbides are distinguished from uncoated cemented carbides by the presence of a thin layer of
wear-resistant coating applied to the substrate. This coating serves as a protective barrier against
abrasive wear and chemical reactions during machining operations. In contrast, uncoated cemented
carbides lack this additional protective layer.
57.The advantages of coated carbides in machining operations are manifold:

Enhanced Tool Life: The wear-resistant coating extends the tool's lifespan by safeguarding it against
premature wear and damage caused by abrasive forces. Consequently, coated carbides require less
frequent replacement, resulting in reduced tooling costs and increased operational efficiency.

Reduced Friction and Cutting Forces: Coated carbides exhibit lower frictional resistance during
machining, leading to diminished cutting forces and energy consumption. This reduction in friction
enhances tool performance, minimizes heat generation, and promotes smoother cutting action,
ultimately improving machining accuracy and surface finish quality.

Improved Surface Finish: By mitigating tool wear and minimizing built-up edge formation, coated
carbides yield superior surface finishes on machined components compared to uncoated counterparts.
This results in enhanced workpiece aesthetics and dimensional precision, reducing the need for
secondary finishing operations.

Higher Machining Speeds: The presence of a wear-resistant coating enables coated carbides to
withstand higher cutting speeds without compromising tool integrity. This facilitates increased
machining productivity, shorter cycle times, and higher throughput in manufacturing processes.

Optimized Performance in Challenging Materials: Coated carbides excel in machining difficult-to-

machine materials, including hardened steels, high-temperature alloys, and abrasive composites. The
protective coating enhances thermal and chemical stability, ensuring sustained cutting edge
performance even under severe machining conditions.