Activity 1

SAFETY IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY

Safety is a prime concern in the chemistry laboratory. All the activities must be done exactly
as described in the laboratory instructions and other safety rules, as specified in this manual, must
be followed.

Objectives: At the end of this exercise, you should be able to:

1. observe the proper way and safest conditions in doing laboratory work.
2. identify the correct ways of performing activities in the laboratory by practicing
the do’s and don’ts in the Chemistry laboratory.
3. attain skills in the laboratory knowing the safety measures and the do’s and
don’ts in the Chemistry laboratory.

A. Personal Safety Precautions

1. Wear a laboratory gown to protect your clothes against explosions, splattering chemicals and
spillage.
2. Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes at all times. Fashion contact lenses should not be
worn.
3. Tie back long hair. Long hair can accidentally fell into flames or chemicals. Many hair sprays,
gels, mousses, etc. are flammable! Loose, long hair can also block your vision, which can lead
to accidents.
4. Do not wear clothing which is loose enough to knock over containers on the work bench or
drag or dip into flames or chemicals.
5. Wear clothing (shirt, blouse, or dress) which covers and protects your chest, belly, sides, back,
shoulders and upper arms. No shorts or mid-length skirts are allowed.
6. Wear comfortable shoes which cover and protect your feet completely. Low-heeled shoes with
non-slip soles are preferable. Three hours of walking and standing on a hard tile floor can leave
your feet very tired and sore if you wear uncomfortable shoes.
7. Do not wear valuable jewelry while working in the laboratory. Chemicals which are harmless
to your body may be capable of damaging jewelry. Take your jewelry off and store it in your
purse or bag before beginning any experiment.

B. Laboratory Safety Precautions

1. Read the directions carefully before performing an activity. Safety precautions must be
strictly followed all through out the laboratory period. If the directions are not clear to you,
consult your instructor.
2. Never allow student to alter procedure. It must be the teacher who will be responsible for
any changes.
3. If the water supply in your laboratory is not available, let each group provide their own
container filled with water.
4. Be considerate of other by not bringing bottles of chemicals to your desk. Leave them on
the common chemicals shelf.
5. Read the label twice before using any chemical. Wrong chemicals may cause explosions.
6. Never use unlabeled chemicals. It might be poisonous or might cause a violent or
dangerous reaction when mixed other chemicals.
 7. Do not lay the stopper of a bottle on the table to avoid contamination. When you remove
the glass stoppers from bottles, hold the stopper between the index and the middle finger
of your pouring hand if it is a winged-top stopper; if it is a flat-top stopper, lay the stopper
upside down on the table.
8. Never insert spatula or medicine dropper into a reagent bottle. Use a dropper or spatula
provided for each reagent bottle.
9. When filling a pipette, always use a rubber aspirator. Never pipette by mouth.
10. Always withdraw the exact amount of chemical that you need. Never return the excess
chemical to the bottle.
11. Always return the reagent bottle to the tray from where it was taken and return to the
stockroom after the laboratory activity. Do not leave it on the working area.
12. Never taste chemicals.
13. The odor of any unfamiliar substance should be determined with caution using a hand to
waft or fan the vapor towards the nose to determine the smell.
14. Always add acid to water while mixing continuously, never water to acid.
15. Any chemical spilled on the table must be cleaned up at once. If it is an acid, neutralize by
sprinkling powdered sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO₃) on it. When bubbling ceases,
allow the spillage to be absorbed by a dirty rag and air dry. Neutralize bases with dilute
acid or vinegar and clean in the same way as with acids. If you spill any acid on the skin,
wash with plenty of water.
16. When heating liquids, never point the mouth of the test tube towards anybody.
17. Never look into the test tube or flask containing boiling liquid or while reagents are mixed.
18. Never use laboratory glassware for drinking purposes. Drinking and eating in the
laboratory are prohibited.
19. Smoking is NOT allowed in the laboratory.
20. Never pick up broken glass with bare hands! Get a broom and dust pan. Sweep the broken
glass into the dust pan and dump it into the specially marked containers provided in
laboratory.
21. Report all accidents (even minor injuries) to your instructor.

C. Safety Equipments

1. First Aid Kit. One first aid kit is located in the clinic. It contains gauze, adhesive bandages,
antibiotic ointment, etc. If any injury occurs which cannot be handled with these supplies, then
you can be escorted to the clinic to receive treatment from the health care professionals, or can
wait in the laboratory for an Emergency Medical Service (EMS) team if the injury is severe.
2. Fume Hoods. The fume hoods are large cabinets which have sliding glass doors in front. Fume
hoods are used to protect you from harmful fumes, gases and odors. The fume blood has an air
duct in its ceiling which is attached to a powerful fan. When the fan is turned on, the air in the
fume hood is pulled through the duct, carrying away any harmful fumes or smoke.
3. Safety showers. Safety showers are located in laboratory and be sure you know where they are
and how to operate before an accident happens. Note. If chemicals get onto your body, you
should quickly remove any contaminated clothing and rinse yourself off in a safety shower.
4. Fire extinguishers. There are fire extinguishers outside the outside the laboratory. Notice how
they are attached to the wall, and what you would have to do to get them off of the wall. Read
the instructions on the side of the fire extinguisher so you will be familiar with their use. If you
ever need to use a fire extinguisher, remember the acronym PASS- Pull the pin, Aim the nozzle
at the base of the fire, Squeeze the lever/handle, and Sweep from side to side across the base
of the fire! When the fire is out, clean up the area! Note: Never spray a person with a fire
extinguisher.
5. Fire Alarm. If a fire alarm sounds you must evacuate the building!
D. Emergency Measures

Report all accidents to the laboratory instructor immediately, no matter how minor it may
be.

1. Small chemical spill. Wipe liquid spills with tissue papers and dispose of them as your
instructor suggests. Solids should be dissolved in water, if possible, and wiped. Otherwise,
sweep them with a broom and a dust pan and dispose them as your instructor suggests. In all
cases, after the chemical spill has been wiped, rinse the area with water to make sure that all
residual chemicals have been removed.
2. Large chemical spill. Move away from the area of the spill. Warn the people around and
immediately call your instructor! Let the expert handle the clean-up!
3. Chemical splash or broken glass in your face, goggles on. Always wear goggles during
laboratory period. In case chemicals splash in your face, call your instructor for help and do
not remove your goggles. Go to the eye wash station and rinse your face quickly with the
goggles still on. Then remove the goggles and rinse your face again.
4. Chemical splash or broken glass in your face, goggles off. It his sort of accident happens. You
may not be able to see well enough to go to the eye wash station on your own. Yell for help
and cooperate with anyone who comes to your aid.
5. Large splash of dangerous chemical on your clothing and/or body. Quickly follow this
procedure while continuously yelling for help:
a. Move away from the area where the spill occurred.
b. Call loudly for help and to warn others to stay away from the spill!
c. Remove any contaminated clothing.
d. Use the safety shower. (the treatment for chemical exposure is 15 minutes under cold
running water, or as long as you can stand it.)
6. Small, open fire. If you have a small fire, move away from the fire and call for help! You can
use a fire extinguisher to put off the fire. When the fire is extinguished, clean the area!
7. Large fire. Call for help and leave the area immediately! The fire alarm will probably sound
and when it does, evacuate the building and inform everyone where the fire is located. In case
of fire, the safety of persons must be the first concern. Try to extinguish the fire if you can. If
not, call the fire department and go to a safe place. Do not panic.
8. Clothing on fire. When a person’s clothing catches fire, roll him over on the floor to smother
the flame. Use a blanket or jute sack if available. If near a shower, roll the person under; then
turn on the shower valve. Never let him stand. This is to prevent injury to the respiratory
passage and eyes by the flames that would naturally rise and envelop the head. Never use the
fire extinguisher of any type on a person. It may be toxic and may damage the eyes or skin.
9. Fire Alarm. If a fire sounds, you must evacuate the building immediately! To evacuate properly,
you should quickly and calmly do the following:
a. Turn off all flames from all sources and unplug any hot plates or other electric
equipment you are using.
b. Take your bag and purse with you. We never know whether the evacuation will last for
5 minutes or longer.
c. Walk calmly out the door, down the hall, down the stairs, and away from the building.
First-Aid in the Laboratory
Situation Safe Response

Burns Flush with cold water.

Cuts & Bruises Treat as directed by instructions included in the first aid kit.

Fainting Provide person with fresh air, have him recline in a position so that
his head is lower than his body; if necessary, provide CPR.

Turn off all flame from all sources and gas jets, wrap person in fire
Fire blanket; use fire extinguisher to put off fire. DO NOT use water to
put out fire. Do not use fire extinguisher on person.

Foreign Matter in Eyes Flush about 15 minutes with plenty of water then go to the doctor.

Poisoning Note the suspected poisoning agent, contact the teacher for
antidote. Seek medical attention immediately.

Severe bleeding Apply pressure or compress directly to the wound and get medical
attention immediately.

For a direct on human

body: 1. Wash area with plenty of water, use safety shower if needed.
2. Use sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda).
1. Spills, general 3. Use boric acid or vinegar.
2. Acid burns
3. Base burns

• Neutralize acids with powdered sodium hydrogen carbonate

(sodium bicarbonate/baking soda), or bases with vinegar (5%
Acid/Base Spill acetic acid solution).
For a spill not directly on • Avoid inhaling vapors.
human body. • Spread diatomaceous earth to absorb the neutralized chemical.
• Sweep and dispose as hazardous waste.

• Immediately leave the contaminated area.

Mercury Spill • Close interior doors and windows, and heating and air
conditioning vents in the incident room.
• Open exterior doors and windows for proper air ventilation.
E. Common Safety Symbols

The common safety symbols are intentionally accepted (Globally Harmonized

System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, United Nations New York and Geneva,
2005).

Flammable Explosive Corrosive Poison

Oxidizer Low Level Severe Chronic Environmental

Hazard Hazard Hazard

Radioactive Compressed gas Dangerously Biohazard

reactive
 Activity 6
NOMENCLATURE

A large number of inorganic compounds are known today. These compounds are divided
into four categories: ionic compounds; molecular compounds; acids, bases and salts; and hydrates.

Over the years, chemist have devised clear, systematic ways of naming chemical
substances. The rules are accepted worldwide, facilitating communication among chemists and
providing a useful way of labeling an overwhelming variety of substances.

Objectives: At the end of the activity, you should be able to:

1. identify the cation and anion of the given formula.

2. name and write the formula of a compound.
3. classify inorganic compounds into binary or ternary, ionic or molecular, acids,
bases, or salts and hydrates.

A. Naming of Compounds

1. Ionic compounds are made up of cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions). With
the important exception of the ammonium ion, NH₄⁺, cations are derived from metal ions.
Metal cations take their name from the elements, For example,

Element Name of Cation

Na sodium Na⁺ sodium ion (or sodium cation)
Mg magnesium Mg2⁺ magnesium ion (or magnesium cation)
Al aluminum Al3⁺ aluminum ion (or aluminum cation)

Anions on the other hand, are mostly derived from nonmetals. For naming anions, use the
name of the nonmetal, however change the ending to ide.

For example:

Element Name of the Anion

-
Br bromine Br bromide
O oxygen O2- oxide
N nitrogen N3- nitride

A. Binary compounds are compounds formed from just two elements. For binary compounds
the first element we write is the metal cation followed by the nonmetallic anion. Thus,
NaCl is named as sodium chloride.

For transition metals, which can form more than one type of cation, it is necessary to
distinguish one from the other. Two systems are used to differentiate these cations:

i. Classical System. This system assigns the ending “‒ous” to the cation with
the lowest positive charge, and the ending “‒ic” to the cation with the
highest positive charge.

Fe2+ ferrous ion Fe3+ ferric ion

 The names of the compounds that these ions form with chlorine would be:

FeCl2 ferrous chloride FeCl3 ferric chloride

ii. Stock system. This system differentiates the cations by writing the charge of the cation
in parenthesis using Roman Numerals right after the name of the metal. For example,
manganese (Mn) atom can assume several different positive charges.

Mn2+: MnO Manganese (II) oxide

Mn3+: Mn2O3 Manganese (III) oxide
Mn4+: MnO2 Manganese (IV) oxide
Fe2+: FeCl2 Iron (II) chloride
Fe3+: FeCl3 Iron (III) chloride

• In keeping with modern practice, the use of the stock system in naming
inorganic compound is favored.

B. Ternary compounds are compounds consisting of more than two elements. Most ternary
compounds are made up of several atoms). Some polyatomic ions have specific names
which must be memorized so that they can be recognized on sight. The “‒ide” ending is
also used for certain polyatomic anion, such as hydroxide (OH-) and cyanide (CN-). Thus,
the compounds LiOH and KCN are named as lithium hydroxide and potassium cyanide,
respectively. Another example of ternary ionic compound is ammonium chloride (NH4Cl).
In this case, the cation (NH4+) is made up of two different elements.

II. Molecular compounds contain discrete molecular units. Many inorganic molecular
compounds are binary compounds made up of only two elements. Naming binary molecular
compounds is similar to naming binary ionic compounds. Most binary compounds contain the
atoms of two non-metals bonded together by covalent bonds. The elements in the compound are
named and written in the following order:

B Si C P N H S I Br Cl O F

The name of the element whose symbol appears first is written in full followed by the root
of the name of the second element joined to the suffix ‒ide. Greek or Latin numerical prefixes are
attached at the beginning of the name of each element to indicate the number of atoms of that
element in the molecule.

Prefix Meaning Prefix Meaning

mono- 1 hexa- 6
di- 2 hepta- 7
tri- 3 octa- 8
tetra- 4 nona- 9
penta- 5 deca- 10

Examples: CO Carbon monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide

NO Nitrogen dioxide N2O2 Dinitrogen trioxide
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride SO2 Sulfur dioxide
Cl2O2 Dichlorine heptoxide SO3 Sulfur trioxide
The following guidelines are helpful when you name compounds with prefixes:
(a) The prefix “mono-” may be omitted for the first element. For example, SO2 is named sulfur
dioxide, rather than monosulfur dioxide. The absence of a prefix for the first element usually
implies that there is one atom of that element present in the molecule.
(b) For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For examples, N2O4 may be
called dinitrogen tetroxide, rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide. An exception to the use of Greek
prefixes involves molecular compounds containing hydrogen.

B2H6 = diborane CH4= methane SiH4 = silane

4. Acids, Bases, and Salts

1. Acids are substances that yield hydrogen ion, H4, when dissolved in water. The names of
the acids are based on the ions produced.

The rules in naming acids in the aqueous solution are as follows:

(1) If the anion name ends in ‒ide, the prefix hydro- is attached to the root of the anion name
followed by the ending ‒ic acid.

(2) Some acids are derived from ternary salts with oxyanions. Oxyanions are binary ions in
which one element is oxygen. If the name of the oxyanion ends in ‒ate, the name of the
acid is the root name of the anion with the suffix ‒ic and is followed by the word acid.

(3) If the name of the oxyanion ends in ‒ite, the suffix ‒ous acid is attached to the root name
of the ion.

Examples:

Anion Formula Anion Name Acid Formula Name of Acid

Cl1- Chloride ion HCl Hydrochloric acid

SO32- Sulfite ion H2SO3 Sulfurous acid
SO42- Sulfate ion H2SO4 Sulfuric acid

In its pure state, the acid is named by using the word hydrogen followed by the name of
the anion.

Examples:
H2S Hydrogen sulfide H2SO4 Hydrogen sulfate

2. A base can be described as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in
water. Some examples are:

NaOH Sodium hydroxide KOH Potassium hydroxide

Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide Al(OH)3 Aluminum hydroxide

Ammonia, NH3, a molecular compound in the gaseous or pure liquid state, is also classified
as a common base. When ammonia dissolves in water, NH3 reacts partially with H2O, to
yield NH42 and OH- ions. Thus, it is properly classified as a base.
 3. Salts are formed when acids react with bases. These compounds are named by indicating
the name of the metal ion followed by the name of the anion.

Example:
NaCl Sodium chloride BaSO4 Barium sulfate
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate AgNO3 Silver nitrate

5. Hydrates are compounds that have a specific member of water molecule attached to them. For
example, in its normal state, each unit of Copper (II) sulfate has five water molecules
associated with it. The systematic name of this compound is Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate,
and its formula is written as CuSO4-5H2O. The water molecules can be driven off by heating.
When this occurs, the resulting composed is CuSO4, which is sometimes called anhydrous
Copper (II) sulfate, where ‘anhydrous” means that the compound no longer has water molecule
associated with it.

Some compounds are better known by their common names rather than by their systematic
chemical names.
Formula Common Name Chemical Name
H2O Water Dihydrogen oxide
NH3 Ammonia Trihydrogen nitride
CO2 Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide
NaCl Table salt Sodium chloride
N2O Laughing gas Dinitrogen oxide (nitrous oxide)
CaCO3 Marble, chalk, limestone Calcium carbonate
CaO Quicklime Calcium oxide
Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide
NaHCO3 Baking soda Sodium hydrogen carbonate/Sodium
bicarbonate
Na2CO3 – 10H2O Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate
MgSO4 – 7H2O Epsom salt Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Mg(OH)2 Milk of Magnesia Magnesium hydroxide

B. Writing Formulas

The writing of formulas requires knowledge of the symbols of elements and their
oxidation number/s or the charges on the ions the elements forms. A correctly written formula
must always show that the algebraic sum of the total oxidation numbers is equal to zero. Below
are some elements (except ammonium, NH4+) and their common oxidation numbers.

H +1 Mg +2 Al +3 F -1 S -2
Li +1 Ca +2 Cu +1 & +2 Cl -1 N -3
Na +1 Ba +2 Hg +1 & +2 Br -1
K +1 Zn +2 Fe +2 & +3 I -1
NH4 +1 Cd +2 Sn +2 & +4 O -2

Some common polyatomic ions and their names.

Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula

Acetate CH3COO- Carbonate CO3-2 Permanganate MnO4-
Perchlorate ClO4- Chromate CrO4-2 Phosphate PO4-3
Chlorate ClO3- Dichromate Cr2O2-2 Silicate SiO3-2
Chlorite ClO2- Hydroxide OH- Peroxide O2-2
Hypochlorite ClO- Nitrate NO3- Oxalate C2O4-2
 In writing formulas, the symbol of the cation (+) ion is written first, then followed by the
symbol of the anion (-). The oxidation number of the cation is written as subscript of the anion. In
the same manner, the oxidation number of the anion is written as subscript of the cation. The
subscripts seen in chemical formulas indicate the number of atoms of each element in the formula.

Example: For the compound, aluminum oxide

Aluminum ion has +3 charge and Oxygen has a -2 charge.

+3 -2 +3(2) -2(3) +6 -6=0

Al O Al O Al2O3

It can now be clearly seen for the algebraic sum to be equal to zero, the correct
formula for the aluminum oxide is Al2O3. When the ions have the same oxidation numbers
they unite in a one is to ratio. For the polyatomic ions use parenthesis whenever necessary
such as:

+1 +2 +1(2) +2(1) +2 +2 = 0
NH4 SO3 NH4 SO3 NH4 SO3 (NH4)2SO3
 Activity No. 6
RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Chemical kinetics is the study of chemical reaction rates, how reaction rates are controlled, and the
pathway or mechanism by which reaction precedes from its reactants to its products.

A reaction may be fast or slow. The speed of a certain chemical reaction depends upon the
following factors: nature, concentration and surface area of the reactants, reaction temperature,
and presence of a catalyst or inhibitor.

Some substances may be more reactive than others and undergo rapid chemical changes. The
reaction of sodium and water is a very rapid exothermic reaction. The corrosion of iron metal is
much slower. Increase in the temperature, increases the rate of a chemical reaction. The added
heat increases the number of collisions between the reactant molecules and increases kinetic
energy. The kinetic energy is converted into an internal energy that is distributed throughout the
collision system. The increased internal energy increases the probability for the weaker bonds to
be broken and new bonds to be formed.

Increase in the concentration of a reactant, increases the reaction rate. A catalyst increases the rate
of a chemical reaction without undergoing any net chemical change.

Objectives:
1. To define rate of chemical reaction.
2. To identify and explain the factors which determine the rate of chemical reaction.
3. To cite important applications where rate of chemical reaction is used.

Reagents: 6.0M HCI, 3.0M HCI, 1.5M HCI, Mg ribbon, 0.01M KMnO4, saturated
H2C2O4 solution, untarnished iron nails, 6.0 M H2SO4, 1% MnSO4, mossy tin

Apparatus: 30-mL test tube, test tube rack, 10-mL graduated cylinder, 150-mL beaker, 400-
beaker, alcohol lamp, test tube holder, thermometer, dropper, platform balance, wire gauze, tripod

Procedure:
A. Nature of Reactants
1. Into 2 separate test tubes place 1 .0 mL each of 3.0 M HCI.
2. Weigh approximately equal amounts of Mg and Sn
(a) To one of the test tube drop a piece of Mg ribbon and record the time it will take for it
to be completely dissolved
(b) To the other test tube add a piece of mossy tin.
3. Record the time it will take for the reaction to proceed to completion.

B. Concentration of the Reactants

1. Place 1.5 mL of 6.0M HCI, 3.0M HCI, and 1.5M HCI in 3 separate test tubes.
2. Drop a 0.5 cm Mg ribbon to each test tube.
3. Record the time it takes for the Mg to be consumed.

C. Temperature
1. Place 1.0 ml of an acidified KMnO4 solution into 3 test tubes. Label the test tubes as test
tube 1, 2, and 3,
 2. Drop a piece of untarnished iron nail to each test tube.
3. Set aside test tube 1. Heat the contents of test tube 2 and 3 in a water bath.
4. Record the time and temperature it takes for each of the solution to decolorize.

D. Effect of Catalyst
1. Place 1.0 mL each of saturated H2C2O4 solution into 2 separate test tubes, then add 5 drops
of water and 5 drops of H2SO4.
2. To both test tubes add 5 drops of KMnO4 solution.
3. Add 5 drops of MnSO4 solution to one test tube.
4. Record the time it takes for the solution to decolorize.
 Activity 4

DETERMINATION OF pH VALUES of SOLUTIONS

Bronsted-Lowry Theory defines an acid that can donate a proton (hydrogen ion, H+) and a base
that can accept a proton. Thus any proton donor is an acid, and a proton acceptor is a base. This
concept is generally illustrated when HCI reacts with water as shown in figure 1.

conjugate base-acid pair

HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + Cl-

conjugate acid-base pair

Figure 1. An acid-base reaction.

Since HCI donated its proton and becomes CI- (conjugate base) then HCI is an acid. H2O is a
base because it accepted a proton and becomes H3O+ (conjugate acid). In the Bronsted-Lowry
Theory, every acid-base reaction creates its conjugate acid-base pair. Furthermore, HCI is known
as a stronger acid and as the arrow indicates in figure 1, the equilibrium in this reaction lies far to
the right.

Furthermore, an acid-base reaction is also known as a neutralization reaction that formed two
products, the salt and water. This salt can be neutral, acidic and basic salt. The formation of these
three types of salt depends on the four cases of an acid-base reaction that depend on the strength
of the acid and base. A reaction of strong acid and strong base and vice versa will produce a
neutral salt (i.e. NaCI from NaOH and HCI). A reaction of strong base (NaOH) and weak acid
(CH3COOH) will give a basic salt (CH3COO-Na+). On the other hand, a reaction of strong acid
(HCI) and weak base (NH3) will generate an acidic salt (NH4CI).

There are monoprotic acids and polyprotic acids (diprotic or triprotic acids) that depend on the
number of proton that an acid can give up. Monoprotic acids include HCI, HNO3, HCOOH and
CH3COOH wherein the donated hydrogens are bolded. Polyprotic acids include H2SO4 , H2CO3
and H3PO4-.

The ion product of water, Kw, for its self-ionization reaction (H2O + H2O ⇄ H3O+ + OH-) can
be written as

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]

The value of Kw at 25 °C is 1 x 10-4 be applied to any aqueous (water) solution. An aqueous

solution can be acidic, basic or neutral solution depending on the concentration of hydronium ion
(H3O+) and hydroxide ion (OH-). An acidic solution has high concentration of H3O+ ( [H3O+ > 1
x 10-7 ); basic solution has high concentration of OH- ( [H3O+ < 1 x 10-7 ) and neutral solution has
equal concentration of H3O+and OH- .

P.L. Sorensen introduced the pH scale to measure the strength of an aqueous acidic and basic
solutions. The pH of a solution is defined by the equation:

pH = - log [H3O+]

The bracket, [ ], implies molar concentration of H3O+, that is in molarity, M. In a neutral solution
like pure water, the [H3O+] is 1 x 10-7 M and the logarithm of this is -7 and, thus, the pH of pure
water is 7. In a 0.001M hydrochloric acid, the [H3O+] = 1 x 10-3 M. Its pH is 3, In general the
 pH of solutions that are acidic is less than 7 and basic solution has a pH greater than 7. The
pH scale range from pH 0 to pH 14 and the relationship of pH and pOH can be found using this
equation:

pKw = pH + pOH
where pKw = - log [ Kw ] = - log ( 1 x 10-14 ) = 14.
In a 0.1M solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH), the [OH-] is 1 x 10-1 M since this electrolyte
is completely ionic. Its pOH is 1 using the formula of pOH = - log [OH-]. This basic solution
has a pH of 13.

The pH of the solution can be determined either through instrument (pH meter) or colored
organic substances generally known as pH indicators. The determination of the solution's pH
through pH indicators can be measured, although less precisely, by litmus paper, pH indicator
paper and acid-base indicator (e.g. methyl orange, romthymol blue and phenolphthalein).

An indicator is useful in a limited range of pH. Methyl orange, for example, is red at pH 3 and
the shade of color remains the same in more acidic solutions. At pH 4 its color is orange, and at
pH 5, yellow. In more basic solutions the yellow color remains. The range of usefulness
of methyl orange indicator is, therefore, between pH 3 and pH 5.

Below are the three classifications of pH indicators and their characteristic colors in solutions
at varying pH. The methyl orange indicator is considered as acidic indicator since color change
occurs at pH range of 3.1 to 4.5. On the other hand, phenolphthalein is a basic indicator since
color change occurs at pH range of 8.3 to 10.0. Since the color change of bromthymol blue
occurs in acid region (pH 6) and base region (pH 7.6), then bromthymol blue is an acidic-basic
indicator

pH Indicators Classification Acidic Solution Basic Solution

Litmus Paper red red blue

blue red blue
pH Indicator Color of the paper indicator is compared with a color chart that
Paper ranges from pH 0 to pH 14.
methyl orange red yellow
(pH 3.1 – 4.5)
Acid-Base bromthymol blue (pH 6.0 yellow blue
Indicator – 7.6)
Pnenolphthalein colorless red/pink
(pH 8.3 – 10.0)

Objectives:
1. To determine the color change of the three acid-base indicators: methyl orange,
bromthymol blue and phenolphthalein and litmus paper.
2. To identify an acid, base and the three types of salt (neutral, acidic and basic) based
on the color change of three acid-base indicators.
3. To write chemical formulas.
4. To establish the specific pH range in which the color changes for each acid-base
indicator.
5. To convert between H+ concentration and pH values solutions, and H+ concentration to
OH- concentration.
6. To identify strong and weak acids or bases based on pH values.
 Reagents:
20 mL 3M nitric acid 60 mL 0.1 M acetic acid
20 mL 5M acetic acid 60 mL 0.1 M hydrochloric acid
20 mL 1M aluminum chloride 15 mL Methyl orange
20 mL 1M sodium chloride 15 mL Bromthymol blue
20 mL 1M sodium bicarbonate 15 mL Phenolpthalein
20 mL 1M disodium phosphate 10 strips Red litmus paper
20 mL 3M sodium hydroxide
60 mL 0.1 M acetic acid

Apparatus: 2 spot plates, 11 droppers, 6 of 10-mL test tubes, 1 test tube brush, 1 test tube rack,
1 of 10-mL graduated cylinder, 1 stirring rod.

Procedure:

1. Determining the color change of acid-base indicators and litmus paper and pH
range of acid-base indicators.

Table 4.1 shows the aqueous solutions with their corresponding pH to be tested using the acid-base
indicators and litmus paper.

Table 4.1 Aqueous solutions with their pH values

pH Aqueous solutions
0 3 M nitric acid
3 5 M acetic acid
5 1 M aluminum chloride
7 1 M sodium chloride
8 1 M sodium bicarbonate
10 1 M sodium carbonate
12 1 M disodium phosphate
14 3 M sodium hydroxide

a. Using two sets of cleaned and dried spot plate, label the column with the pH range
specified in Table 4.1 (pH 0, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, and 14) and each row with the acid-base
indicator (methyl orange, MO, bromthymol blue, BB, and phenolphthalein, PH, as
shown in Figure 4.1.
A
pH 0 3 5 7 8 10 12 14

MO

BB
B
PH

Figure 4.1. Experimental set-up of the spot plate: (A), pH range of the aqueous solutions; (B) row,
the acid-base indicators.
 b. Place 1 drop of nitric acid to cavity #1, 1 drop of acetic acid to cavity #2, 1 drop of
aluminum chloride to cavity #3, 1 drop of sodium chloride to cavity #4, 1 drop of sodium
bicarbonate to cavity #5, 1 drop of sodium carbonate to cavity #6 of disodium phosphate
to cavity #7 and 1 drop of sodium hydroxide to cavity #8.
c. Carefully add 1 drop of methyl orange in the first row of each cavity (numbered 1-8) of the
spot plates; 1 drop of bromothymol blue in the second row and finally 1 drob of
phenolphthalein in the third row of each cavity of the spot plates.
d. Record the specific color change of each pH for the three acid-based indicators on the
worksheet provided.
e. Rinse the spot plate with tap water in the sink and dry with a paper towel .
f. Add one drop of acetic acid, sodium chloride and disodium phosphate in each cavity
numbered 1-3 of the spot plate. Using a forceps, dip a 1-cm long red litmus paper into the
solution. Record the color change of the litmus paper.
g. Repeat the procedure f replacing the red litmus paper with blue litmus paper.

Data Analysis

1. Write the chemical formula of the aqueous solution

2. Given the different color changes of each acid-base indicator, evaluate there results by
classifying the aqueous solution as an acid, base, neutral salt, acidic salt and basic salt.
3. Provide the observed color changes, the pH range based on the given pH of the aqueous
solutions and classify of the indicators as acidic, basic, or acidic-base indicator.

2. Determining Approximate pH of a solution

a. Measure three (3) mL of 0.1 M acetic acid into a test tube. Add two (2) drops of
phenolphthalein. If a red color appears, the pH is greater than 9.
b. If the solution in (a) remains colorless, add 2 drops of bromthymol blue. A blue color
indicates pH 7 while yellow color indicates of pH.
c. Measure another 3 mL of 0.1 M acetic into a test tube and add 2 drops of methyl orange.
A yellow color indicates pH 5; orange, pH 4; if red. pH 3 or less.
d. If the solution in ( c ) I red with methyl orange, measure another 3 mL of 0.1 M acetic
acid into a test tube and add 2 drops of bromthymol blue. A red color indicates pH 1
while yellow color indicates pH 5; orange, pH 4; if red, pH 3 or less
e. Repeat procedure 2a to 2d, replacing 0.1 M acetic acid with 0.1 M acetic acid with 0.1
M hydrochloric acid.
 Activity 8

MOLAR SOLUBILITY & COMMON -ION EFFECT

Slightly soluble (or "insoluble") salts have very limited solubility in water and their saturated
solutions exist due to dynamic equilibrium between the solid salt and its ions in solution. However,
because the salt is only slightly soluble, the concentrations of ions in the solution are low. For
example, in a saturated silver sulphate- ions in solution lies far to the left because of the low
solubility of silver sulphate, Ag2SO4, solution, the dynamic equilibrium between the solid Ag2SO4
and the Ag+ and SO42- ions in solution lies far to the left because of the low solubility of silver
sulphate.

Ag2SO4(s) ⇌ 2Ag+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

The mass action for this system is: [Ag+]2[SO42-]

As Ag₂SO₄ is a solid, its concentration is constant and, therefore, does not appear in the mass action
expression. At equilibrium, the mass action expression equals Ksp, called the solubility product
or, more simply, the equilibrium constant for this slightly soluble salt.

The molar solubility of Ag2SO4, determined experimentally, is 1.4 x 10-2 mol/L. This means that
in 1.0 L of a saturated Ag₂SO₄ solution, only 1.4 x 102 mol of silver sulphate dissolves, forming
2.8 x 10-2 mol of Ag and 1.4 x 10-2 mol of SO42-. The solubility product of silver sulphate equals
the product of the molar concentrations of the ions, each raised to the power of its coefficient in
the balanced equation:

Ksp = [Ag+]2[SO42-] = [2.8 x 10-2]2[1.4 x 10-2] = 1.1 x 10-5

According to LeChâtelier's principle, when an ion, common to the salt, is added to the saturated
solution, the equilibrium for the salt shifts to compensate for the added ions; that is, it shifts to the
left to favor the formation of more of the solid salt. This effect, caused by the addition of an ion
common to an existing equilibrium, is called the common-ion effect. As a result of the common-
ion addition and the corresponding shift in the equilibrium, fewer moles of the salt dissolve in
solution, lowering the molar solubility of the salt.

Objectives:
1. To determine the molar solubility and the solubility constant of calcium hydroxide.
2. To determine the effect of a common ion on the molar solubility of calcium hydroxide

Reagents: solid Ca(OH)2, standardized 0. M HCI solution, methyl orange indicator solution, solid
CaCI2∙2H2O

Apparatus: platform balance, stirring rod, 125-mL Erlenmeyer flask, spatula, 100-mL graduated
cylinder, set-up for titration (50-mL buret, iron stand, buret clamp) or other alternative, 25-mL
pipet, 100-mL beaker, medicine dropper, test tube brush, iron ring, aspirator, filter paper, funnel

Procedure:
A. Molar Solubility and Solubility Product of Calcium Hydroxide
1. Prepare a saturated Ca(OH)2 solution 1 week before the experiment by adding
approximately 3 g of Ca(OH)2 to 120 mL of boiled, distilled water in a 125-mL Erlenmeyer
flask. Stir the solution and stopper the flask.
 2. Allow the solid Ca(OH)2 to remain settled on the bottom of the flask. Carefully [try not to
disturb the finely divided Ca(OH)2 solid] decant about 90 mL of the saturated Ca(OH)2
solution into a second 125-mL flask.
3. Prepare a clean, 50-mL buret for titration. Rinse the clean buret and tip with three 5-mL
portions of the standardized 0.05 M HCI solution and discard. Fill the buret with
standardized 0.05 M HCI (standardization may be done or approximate concentration can
just be noted for calculation purposes), remove the air bubbles in the buret tip, and, after
10-15 seconds, read and record the initial volume, "using all certain digits (from the
labelled calibration marks on the buret) plus one uncertain digit (the last digit which is the
best estimate between the calibration marks)." Record the actual concentration of the 0.05
M HCI on the Data Sheet. Place a sheet of white paper beneath the receiving flask.
4. Rinse a 25-mL pipet twice with 2-mL portions of the saturated Ca(OH)2 solution and
discard. Pipet 25 mL of the saturated Ca(OH)2 solution into a 125-mL flask and add 2 drops
of methyl orange indicator.
5. Titrate the Ca(OH)2 solution with the standardized HCI solution to the methyl orange
endpoint, where the color changes from yellow to a faint red. Remember the addition of
HCI should stop within one-half drop of the endpoint. After 10-15 seconds of the persistent
endpoint, read and record.
6. Titrate two additional samples of the saturated Ca(OH)2 solution until 1% reproducibility
is achieved.
7. Complete your calculations as outlined on the Data Sheet. The reported values for the Ksp
of Ca(OH)2 will vary from analyst to analyst.

B. Molar of Calcium Hydroxide in the Presence of a common ion

1. Mix 3 g of Ca(OH)2 and 1 g of CaCl2 . 2H2O with 120 mL of boiled, distilled water in a 125-
mL flask 1 week before the experiment. Stir and stopper the flask. Then repeat A3 to A7.
 Activity 9
BUFFER SYSTEM

In many areas of research, chemists need an aqueous solution that resists a pH change when
small amounts of acid or base are added. Biologists often grow cultures that are very susceptible
to changes in pH and therefore a buffered medium is required.

A buffer solution must be able to consume small additions of H3O+ and OH- without undergoing
large pH changes. Therefore, it must have a basic component that can react with the H3O+ and an
acidic component that can react with OH-. Such a buffer solution consists of a weak acid and its
conjugate base (or a weak base and its conjugate acid). This experiment shows that an acetic acid
__
acetate buffer system can minimize large pH changes.

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2-(aq)

The addition of OH- shifts the buffer equilibrium, according to LeChâtelier's principle, to the right
because of its reaction with H3O+, forming H2O. The shift to the right is by an amount that is
essentially equal to the moles of OH- added to the buffer system. Thus, the amount of CH3CO2-
increases and the amount of CH3COOH decreases by an amount equal to the moles of OH- added.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2-(aq)

OH-(aq)

2 H2O(l)

Conversely, the addition of H3O+ from a strong acid to the buffer system causes the equilibrium to
shift left: the H3O+ combines with the acetate ion (a base) to form more acetic acid, an amount
(moles) equal to the amount of H3O+added to the system.

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2-(aq)

As a consequence of the addition of strong acid, the amount of CH3COOH increases and the
amount of CH3CO2- decreases by an amount equal to the moles of strong acid added to the buffer
system.

Objective:
1. To compare the pH changes of a buffered solution to those of an unbuffered solution when varying
amounts of strong acid or base are added to each.

Reagents: 0.1 M CH3COOH, universal indicator or pH indicator paper, 0.1 M NaCH3CO2, 0.10 M
HCI, 0.10 M NaOH, distilled water

Apparatus: 24-well plate or 75-mm test tubes, medicine dropper

Procedure:
A. Preparation of Buffered and Unbuffered Systems
1. Transfer 10 drops of 0.1 M CH3COOH to wells Al and A2 of a 24-well plate, add 3 drops of
universal indicator, and note the color.
2. Compare the color of the solution with the pH color chart for the universal indicator.
3. Add 10 drops of 0.1 M NaCH3C02 to each well.
4. Place 20 drops of distilled water into wells Bl and B2 and add 3 drops of universal indicator.
B. Effect of Strong Acid
1. Transfer 1-2 drops of 0.10 M I-ICI to wells Al and Bl, estimate the pH, and record each pH
change.

C. Effect of Strong Base

1. Transfer 1-2 drops of 0.10 M NaOH to wells A2 and B2, estimate the pH, and record each
pH change.

D. Effect of a Buffer System

1. Explain the effect a buffered system (as compared with an unbuffered system) has on pH
change when a strong acid or strong base is added to it.

1 2

Buffer Buffer
A
+ +

HCl NaOH

Buffer Buffer

+ +
B
HCl NaOH
 Activity 13
STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry refers to the study of quantitative between the amounts of reactants used and
products formed by a chemical reaction. It is simply the math behind chemistry and given enough
information, one can use stoichiometry to calculate masses, and percents within a chemical
equation. It is based on the Law of Conservation of Mass. which states that matter is neither created
nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. The amount of each reactant at the start of chemical reaction
determines how much product can form. All stoichiometric calculations begin with a balanced
chemical equation

A chemical equation is an expression of a chemical process. The equation shows that the
reactants react through some process (→) to form the products. Since they undergo a chemical
process. they are changed fundamentally. Coefficients are used in all chemical equations to show
the relative amounts of each substance present. This amount can represent either the relative
number of molecules, or the relative number of moles.

Given a balanced chemical equation, we can tell the number of moles of reactants and
products. A mole is the amount of pure substance containing the same number of chemical units
as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 (i.e., 6.023 X 1023). This involves the
acceptance of two dictates _ the scale of atomic masses and the magnitude of the gram. A mole
simply represents Avogadro's number (6.022 x 1023 ) of molecules.

Converting between moles and grams of a substance is often important. This conversion
can be easily done when the atomic and/or molecular mass of the substance(s) are known. Given
the atomic or molecular mass of a substance, that mass in grams makes a mole of the substance.

Since they undergo a chemical process, they are changed fundamentally. Sometimes when
reactions occur between two or more substances, one reactant runs out before the other. That is
called the "limiting reagent". Often, it is necessary to identify the limiting reagent in a problem.

Objectives: At the end of this activity, you should be able to:

1. the mass of the reactants and the mass of the products in a chemical reaction and explain
how these masses are related;
2. state the mole ratios from a balanced chemical equation;
3. write the mole ratios for the reaction of sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric acid;
4. identify the limiting and excess reactants in a chemical equation: and
5. calculate the excess amount remaining after the reaction is complete, and the mass of the
product when the amounts of more than one reactants are given.

Apparatus / Materials:
1 triple beam balance/platform balance 1 alcohol lamp
1 evaporating dish 1 tripod
1 medicine dropper 1 wire gauze
1 graduated cylinder (10 ml) 1 watch glass
1 spatula
 Reagents: NaHCO3 (Solid) 10% HCI

Procedure:

CAUTION: Wear safety goggles, laboratory gown and gloves.

1. Weigh together the clean and dry evaporating dish and watch glass. Record this mass in the
data table.
2. Place 1.0 g of NaHCO3 in the evaporating dish. Cover the dish with the watch glass.
3. Measure the mass of the evaporating dish, watch glass and NaHCO3. Record the mass the data
table.
4. Slowly tip the watch glass covering the evaporating dish to add HNO3 drop by drop to NaHCO3
until the bubbling stops and to allow the vapor to escape.
5. Heat the evaporating dish gently until only dry solid remains.
6. Put out the alcohol lamp and allow the apparatus to cool for at least 15 minutes.
7. Determine the mass of the cooled evaporating dish, residue, and watch glass- Record thts ill
the data sheet.

Cleanup and Disposal

1. Dispose of materials as directed by your teacher.

2. Return all laboratory apparatus/materials to the monitors then to the stockroom.
3. Report any broken or damaged apparatus.
4. Wash your hands thoroughly before leaving the laboratory room.
 Experiment # 1
Qualitative Analysis of Cations and Anions

Qualitative analysis is the process of identifying the components of a sample solution by

subjecting it to different chemical tests. The ions in the solution will react to the tests in their own
characteristic way. Some ions will produce a solution with a characteristic color, some will form a
colored precipitate, and some will involve the evolution of gas. Since no two ions will produce the
same set of test results, the identities of the ions in the solution can be determined.

Objectives: At the end of the activity, the student should be able to:

1. identify the ion/s that can be determined by a specific chemical reaction/test,

2. identify the characteristic reaction of an ion to a specific chemical reaction/test, and
3. identify the ions present in the unknown solution.

Reagents

1 mL 1M FeC13 1 mL 1M NH4NO3 10 mL 6M NaOH

2 mL 1M Zn (NO3)2 10 mL 6M NH4OH 2 mL 1M Al(NO3)3
2 mL 1M Mg(NO3)2 2 mL 1M NaCl 1 mL 1M KBr
1 mL 1M Kl 1 mL 1M AgNO3 1 mL 1M Na2SO4
1 ml 6M HCI 2mL 1M BaCl2 1 ml of 1M Na2CO3
1 mL 1M NaHCO3 1 red litmus 1 mL phenolphthalein
20 mL unknown solution

Materials

evaporating dish alcohol lamp droppers

12 test tubes (10mL) test tube holder stirring rod
test tube rack test tube brush

Procedure

In this experiment, the student will observe the characteristic reaction/s of a standard
solution containing the ion of interest to a specific test. The student will conduct the same test to
the unknown solution to determine if the ion is present or not in the unknown.

Tests for Cations

1. Thoroughly clean all the test tubes in this experiment, rinsing them well with distilled water.
2. Test for iron (III) ion, Fe3+.
a) Place 1 ml of 1M FeCl3 in a test tube and add 1 mL of 6M NaOH. Shake gently to mix.
Record your observation.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

3. Test for aluminum ion, Al3+.

Test with NaOH

a) Place 1 ml of 1M Al(NO3)3 in a test tube. Add 2 drops 6M NaOH. Record the changes
you observe. Add more NaOH until a change is observed. Record your observations.
 b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

Test with NH4OH

a) Place I mL of 1M in a test tube. Add 2 drops of 6M NH4OH. Record the changes you
observe. Add more NH4OH. Record your observations.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

4. Test for magnesium ion, Mg2+.

Test with NaOH

a) Place 1 ml of 1M Mg(NO3)2 in a test tube. Add 2 drops of 6M NaOH. Record the
changes you observe. Add more NaOH. Record your observations.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

Test with NH4OH

a) Place 1 ml of 1M Mg(NO3)2 in a test tube. Add 2 drops of 6M NH4OH. Record the
changes you observe. Add more NH4OH. Record your observations.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

5. Test for ammonium ion, NH4+.

a) Place 1 ml.. of NH4NO3 in a test tube.

CAUTION: Sodium hydroxide can cause burns.
b) Add 3 drops of 6M NaOH. Hold the tube containing the ammonium nitrate solution in
a test tube holder.
c) If a precipitate is formed, add NaOH drop by drop, shaking the tube after each drop,
until the precipitate dissolves or until no more precipitate is formed upon the addition
of a drop of NaOH.
d) Gently warm the tube along its sides using a back and forth motion through a burner
flame. Do not allow the solution to boil.
CAUTION: At all times make sure that the opening of the tube is pointed away from
other people.
e) Hold a moistened piece of red litmus paper near the mouth of the test tube (the test will
be spoiled if the solution contacts the litmus paper). Record the changes you observe.
f) Fan the vapors coming out of the tube towards your nose with your hand. Cautiously
sniff the vapors. Record your observations.
g) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

Test for Anions

1. Thoroughly clean all the test tubes in this experiment, rinsing them well with distilled water.

2. Test for chloride ion, Cl-.

a) Place 1 mL of 1M NaCl in a test tube. Add 10 drops of 1M AgNO3 to the tube and
shake to mix. Record your observation.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.
3. Test for bromide ion, Br-.
a) Place I mL of 1M KBr in a test tube. Add 10 drops ofAgNO3 to the tube and shake to
mix. Record the changes you observe.
 b) Add 1mL of 6M NH4OH slowly and shake to mix. Record your observations.
c) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

4. Test for iodide ion, I-.

a) Place 1 ml of 1M Kl- in a test tube. Add 10 drops ofAgNO3 to the tube and shake to
mix. Record the changes you observe.
b) Add 1mL 6M of NH4OH slowly and shake to mix. Record your observations.
c) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

5. Test for sulfate ion, SO42-.

a) Place 1 ml of 1M Na2SO4 in a test tube. Add 10 drops of 1M BaC12 to the tube and
shake to mix. Record the changes you observe.
b) Add 1mL of 6M HCl to the tube and gently shake the tube to mix. Record your
observations.
CAUTION: Hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Do not put your finger over the top of the
tube to cover it.
c) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

6. Test for carbonate ion, CO32-.

Test with HCl

a) Place I ml, of 1M Na2C03 in a test tube. Add 1mL of 6M HCI to the tube slowly.
Record your observation.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

Test with phenolphthalein

a) Place 1 mL of 1M Na2CO3 in a test tube and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein. Record
your observations.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

7. Test for bicarbonate ion, HCO3-.

Test with HCI

a) Place 1 mL of 1M NaHCO3 in a test tube. Add 1 mL of 6M HCI to the tube slowly.
Record your observation.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

Test with phenolphthalein

a) Place 1 mL of 1M NaHCO3 in a test tube and add 2 drops of phenolphthalein. Record
your observations.
b) Repeat the test using the unknown solution.

Questions

1. How will you distinguish between the following ions based on the tests performed?

a. Bromide and iodide ions

b. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions
c. Aluminum and magnesium ions

2. Based on the experiment you have performed, which do you think is more likely to happen,
a false positive or a false negative result? Explain.
 Activity 10
Voltaic Cell

In order to have an electric current, which is transported through matter by the conduction of
electric charge from one point to another, there must be a force and a charge carrier. The force is
usually a battery or some other source of electrical energy. The charge carrier can be either
electrons (as in the case of metals) or ions (as in the case of Ionic solutions or molten salts). The
first cage is called metallic conduction and the second Is electrolytic conduction.

There are two types of electrolytic conductance that may be considered. One is an electrolytic cell,
in which electrical energy causes a chemical reaction to take place. The other one is the voltaic
cell or galvanic cell, in which a chemical reaction produces electrical energy.

In a voltaic or galvanic cell, the oxidation-reduction reaction is carried out in such being transferred
from the reducing agent to the travel through a wire and thus produce an electric current.

One example of a voltaic cell involves zinc metal in a solution containing Cu2+ ions. The overall
reaction that takes place is

Net Reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Figure 10.1. A sample voltaic cell using (a) a porous partition, and (b) a salt bridge.

If the reaction is carried out in such a way that the zinc metal does not come in contact with the
Cu2+ ions, the energy given off may be obtained as electricity. This is done in a cell like that
shown in Fig. 1. In this cell, the solution containing the Cu2+ ions is separated from the solution in
which the zinc metal is placed. The two solutions are separated by a porous plate, as shown in
Fig. 1.a. They can also be separated by a salt bridge, which contains an ionic substance and allows
ions to pass from a solution in one container to a solution in another container, as shown in Fig.
1.b. When the switch in the external circuit is closed, the reaction will begin to take place since
electrons can then pass through the anode to the cathode. The two half-reactions that take place
are

Anode: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− (oxidation)

Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu (reduction)

Objectives:
1. To assemble a voltaic cell;
2. To determine the electromotive force (emf or voltage) of the cells;
3. To calculate the theoretical emf values of the cells.
4. To compare the theoretical and experimental emf values of the cells.

Reagents: 1.0 M solution of each copper (II) nitrate, magnesium nitrate, iron (II) nitrate, and
aluminum nitrate; copper wire, magnesium ribbon, 1-inch iron nail or staple wire, and aluminum
foil;
saturated potassium chloride solution

Apparatus: well-plate, medicine droppers, filter papers, voltmeter, alligator clips for connections,
beakers, rubber gloves, glass rod, scissors, sandpaper (papel de liha), forceps

Procedure:
A. Preparation of sample metals
1. Cut 3 pieces of copper wire (2 cm each) and 1 piece each of magnesium ribbon (2
cm) and aluminum foil (2 cm x 1 cm).
2. Roll the aluminum foil along the longer side.
3. Scrape the oxides formed on the surface of the Mg ribbon and Cu wires using a pair of
scissors or sandpaper.

B. Preparation of Salt Bridge

1. Cut 3 pieces of filter paper with a diameter of 6 cm x 5 cm.
2. Obtain 1 piece of the cut paper and tightly roll the piece of filter paper along the longer
side.
3. Soak the rolled wad of paper in 5 mL saturated KCl solution.
4. After soaking, remove the paper using forceps. Use rubber gloves to ensure the paper is
tightly rolled and excess KCl solution is removed (The filter paper should not be dripping
with KCl solution).
5. Use this filter paper as a salt bridge for your voltaic cell set-up 1 (see Procedure C).
6. Repeat Procedures B2 to B5 for the other two filter papers for voltaic cell set-ups 2 and 3.
C. Voltaic cell set-up
1. Connect the wires to the voltmeter [Note 1].
2. Transfer equal volumes of 1.0M Cu(NO3)2 and 1.0M Mg(NO3)2 solutions to opposite
wells of your well-plate using a dropper.
3. Carefully place the previously prepared salt bridge by immersing one end of the filter
paper to the Cu(NO3)2 solution and the other end to the Mg(NO3)2 solution. Add enough
amounts of the corresponding solution to maintain maximum level of solution in each
plate.
4. Using the alligator clip, attach the red wire of the voltmeter to the Cu metal (cathode) and
black wire to the Mg ribbon (anode).
5. At the same time, immerse the Cu metal in the well containing the Cu(NO3)2 solution
and Mg ribbon in the other well containing the Mg(NO3)2 solution. This will serve as
your set-up 1 (see Fig. 2). Keep the alligator clips out of the solution!
6. Record the potential difference once (5 -10 seconds) of set-up 1.
7. Repeat Procedures C2 to C7 for set-up 2 and set-up 3.Use Fe metal samples (staple wire
or iron nail) for set-up 2 and Al foil for set-up 3 [Notes 2 and 3].

Note:

1. If different voltages are available in your voltmeter , connect one of the wires to less
than 2 V or adjust the voltmeter knob to be able to read the following emf values: Mg-
Cu=1-3 V, Fe-Cu=0.05-0. 10V, Al-Cu=1-3V.

2. Use appropriate solutions for the metals, i.e. Fe(NO3)2 for Fe metal and Al(NO3)2 for Al
metal.
3. A new Cu wire Cu(NO3)2 solution should be used for each set-up.
 Activity 7

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Chemical reactions can be classified as reversible or irreversible reaction. Irreversible reactions

go to completion under any one or a combination of the following conditions:

1. when one of the products of the reaction escapes as a gas.

2. when water is formed as one of the products and
3. when an insoluble solid or a precipitate formed as one of the products of the products of the
reaction, except in the case of complex-ion formation.

Reversible reactions are those in which equilibrium is maintained by the products and reactants
within a system.
The state of equilibrium has the following characteristics: forward reaction is opposed by the
backward reaction such that these tendencies balance each other under a given set of
temperature. pressure, and concentration of reactants and products.

Such reversible reactions are governed by Le Chatelier's principle. which states that in any state
of equilibrium, a stress produced by a change in temperature. pressure (as in the case of gases),
or concentration will cause the equilibrium to shift so as to negate the stress, hence reestablishing
equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium can be exhibited by complex ions. A complex ion is an ion containing a
central metal cation bonded to one or more molecules or ions. A coordination compound typically
consists of a complex ion and counter ion and are conveniently used in studies of chemical
equilibrium because of the brilliant colors they produce.

Copper (Il) sulphate (CuSO4) produces a blue solution in water due to the formation of hydrated
copper (Il) ions. The addition of small amounts of concentrated ammonia solution to a CuSO4
solution leads to the formation of a light-blue precipitate, copper (Il) hydroxide with the ammonia
solution supplying the OH- ions. The reaction is
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
blue solution light-blue precipitate

Further addition of NH3 re-dissolves the light-blue precipitate and produces a dark-blue solution,
due to the formation of the complex ion Cu(NH3)42+.
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) ⇌ + Cu(NH3)42+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
light-blue precipitate dark-blue solution

Cobalt also forms a coordination compound. The two differently colored Co(II) complex ions.
Co(H2O)6]2+ and [COCl4]2-, exist together in equilibrium in solution in the presence of chloride
ions:

Co(H2O)6]2+(aq)(pink) + 4Cl-(aq) ⇌ [COCl4]2-(aq)(blue) + 6H2O(l)

This equilibrium can be disturbed by changing the chloride ion concentration or by changing the
temperature. The color changes accompanying the changes in equilibrium position are as
predicted by Le Chatelier's principle.

Objectives:
1. To distinguish reversible reaction from non-reversible reaction.
2. To identify reactions tend to go to completion by the formation of precipitate, a gas, some
other weakly- ionized substances such as water or a weak acid or base.
3. To determine the effect Of change in concentration and temperature on the equilibrium
reaction.

Reagents:

30 mL 1.0 M CuSO45H2O 40 mL 0.15M CoCl2 in methanol

30 mL Conc. NH4OH 6 pcs mossy zinc (small)
30 mL 0.01 M Pb(NO3)2 40 ml 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3
30 mL 1.0 M K2CrO4 40 mL 0.1 M KSCN
30 mL 6.0 M HCl 20 mL 1.0 M NaOH
30 mL Conc. HCl 100 mL distilled water

Apparatus: 4 of 25-mL test tubes, 10 droppers, 1 stirring rod, 1 test tube holder, 1 test tube brush,
1 test tube rack, 2 of 10-mL graduated cylinder, 1 Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp, 1 wire gauze, 1
tripod

Procedure:
I. Reversible and Irreversible Reactions
A l. Place 2 ml- each of 1.0 M copper sulfate solution into two test tubes.
a. What is the color of the solution?
b. What ion, in solution. is responsible for the color?
2. Reserve one of the test tubes as a reference. To the other tube, add concentrated NH4OH
drop by drop until a change occurs.
a. Describe the change.
b. How does the resulting color compare with the color of the original CuSO4-5H2O
solution?
c. Add more concentrated NH4OH drop by drop until a further change is observed. What
complex ion is responsible for the observable change?
3. To the same tube, containing the complex ion, add distilled water drop by drop until you
observe a change. Compare the result with the reference.
a. How does the result compare with the reference?
b. What ion is now present in solution?
 c. Is the reaction reversible? Cite evidence to support your answer.

B. 1. Measure 1 mL of 0.01 M lead nitrate solution and pour into a test tube. Add 1.0 M potassium
chromate solution dropwise until you observe a change (up to 5 drops).
a. Describe your observations.
b. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
c. Is the reaction reversible or irreversible? Support your answer.
2. Measure 5.0 mL of 6M HCI into a test tube. Drop a small piece of mossy zinc into the tube.
Observe.
a. What is the gas evolved?
b. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
c. Is the reaction reversible or irreversible? Support your answer. What are visible
evidences that will indicate that a reaction is irreversible (or goes to completion)?
Differentiate reversible from irreversible reactions.

II. Complex-Ion Equilibria

1. Prepare Fe(SCN)2+ solution by mixing 0.5 mL of 0.1M Fe(NO3)3 solution with 3 mL of

0.1M KSCN solution in a 100-mL beaker. Add 10 mL of distilled water until the deep-
red color is reduced in intensity. Note the color of the complex formed.
2. To four different test tubes, transfer 2 mL of the diluted Fe(SCN)2+ solution. To the test
tubes, add the following reagents and observe any change in color:

Test Tube 1 - Original solution

Test Tube 2 - 20 drops 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3
Test Tube 3 - 20 drops 0.1M KSCN
Test Tube 4 - 5-6 drops 1.0 M NaOH

3. Compare the relative intensity of the red color of the thiocyanate complex in the fout test
tubes and interpret the results using Le Chatellere’s principle.

III. Temperature-Dependent Equilibrium

1. Place 5 mL of 0.15 M CoCl2 (in methanol) into a small flask. What is the color of the
solution?
2. Add dropwise of concentrated hydrochloric acid until a blue solution is formed, mixing
thoroughly. What color change is observed?If no color change observed, add a few drops
of water or HCI until a change is observed. (Hydrogen ion and chloride ion are both
colorless.)
3. Divide the solution equally among three test tubes. Maintain one test tube at room
temperature, place the second in a boiling-water bath in a fume hood [NOTE: Methanol
vapor is toxic and flammable. If a fume hood is not available, use an inverted funnel
connected to an aspirator to remove the methanol vapor.] and place the third in an ice
bath. Observe.
4. Switch the hot and cold test tubes (after allowing them to return to room temperature) in
order to determine whether the changes are reversible. Record all observations.
5. Write out the equation including heat as a reactant or product and classify the reaction as
either endothermic or exothermic. Interpret your observations by using Le Chatelier's
principle.
 Activity No. 5
SPECIFIC HEAT AND CALORIMETRY

Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes. It
involves the use of a calorimeter. The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor,
meaning heat. It was the Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, the founder of
calorimetry, who first recognized the distinction between heat and temperature.

Specific heat is a physical property of a substance defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius. The property can be determined
using calorimetric method. The method uses a calorimeter, a devise that measures heat changes
occurring in a particular condition. In this method, the hot metal is placed inside the calorimeter
containing water. Inside the calorimeter, the hot metal releases the heat, which in turn is absorbed
by the water and the calorimeter. Heat released from the metal is equal to the heat absorbed by
the calorimeter and the water according to the working equation.

Heat loss = Heat absorbed

Heat loss from the metal = Heat absorbed by the calorimeter + Heat absorbed by water

(qmetal) = (qcal + qwater)

(mmetalCmetalΔtmetaI) = (mcalCcalΔtcal) + (mwaterCwaterΔtwater)

The specific heat of common metals can be found in the table below:
Table 5.1. Specific Heat of Common Metals.
Specific Heat - C
Metal (J/goC) (Cal/g oC)
Aluminum 0.910 0.220
Brass 0.380 0.090
Copper 0.390 0.092
Iron 0.460 0.108
Lead 0.130 0.031
Magnesium 1.050 0.243
Tin 0.382 0.054
Water 4.184 1.000

Objectives:
1. To determine the specific heat of metal sample using calorimetric method.
2. To compare the specific heat obtained experimentally with the theoretical value and calculate
the percent error.
3. To identify possible causes of the difference between the experimental and theoretical values
of the specific heat.

Reagents: scrap Styrofoam or saw dust, 150-200 grams metal sample

Apparatus: aluminum calorimeter, thermometer, one-hole rubber stopper, wire gauze, iron
clamp, string (1/2 meter long), 250-mL beaker, iron stand with ring or tripod, Bunsen burner or
alcohol lamp, tissue paper, platform balance or triple beam balance
Procedure:
1. Insulate the calorimeter with scrap Styrofoam or saw dust.
2. Weigh the inner vessel of the calorimeter.
3. Weigh 150 rnL of water in the preweighed inner vessel of the calorimeter.
4. Set the thermometer using one-holed rubber stopper. Adjust the thermometer so that the bulb
will be immersed in the water after the metal is placed and that it does not touch the inner
wall of the calorimeter (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1. Calorimeter Setup

5. Allow the contents to stand for 10 minutes to equilibrate and take the temperature of the water
inside the calorimeter. Record this as the initial temperature, ti, of the water and the
calorimeter.
6. Half-fill the 250 m: beaker with water and positioned it on the ring of the iron stand.
7. Weigh a metal sample.
8. Using a string, tie the weighed metal with a string and hang it above the beaker. Adjust it such
that the metal sample will be totally immersed in the water but not touching the bottom of the
beaker (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2. Heating of Metal Sample.

9. Heat the water in the beaker to boiling and leave it for 3 minutes.
10. Take the temperature of the boiling water and record it as the initial temperature, (ti)m, of the
metal.
11. Remove the metal from the beaker and immediately tap it with tissue paper then place it
immediately in the calorimeter.
12. Cover the calorimeter quickly and stir the contents with the stirrer. Monitor the changes in
temperature inside the calorimeter.
13. If the temperature do not change anymore or stable for 1 minute, then take the temperature
and record it as the final temperature, (tf)w, of the water, calorimeter and metal.
14. Calculate the heat gained by the water and the aluminum calorimeter (q = mCΔt).
15. Using the data gathered, calculate the experimental specific heat of the metal sample,
C= (qwater + qcal)/(-mmetal X Δtmetal)
16. Calculate the theoretical specific heat of metal sample and compare it to the experimental
specific heat obtained.
17. Compute the percent error.

Percent Error - Theoretical Value - Experimental Value X 100%

Theoretical Value

18. Record all the data according to the table provided for.