○ Cells use food to

synthesize new molecules

to carry out their life
How do living things release energy?
★ Most energy used thru processes.
conversion of ATP molecules into
ADP molecules Redox Reaction - Transfer of one or
★ Thus, cells must continually more electrons from one reactant to
convert ADP molecules back into another.
ATP molecules Two types:
★ This process is known as ➢ Oxidation Reaction
CELLULAR RESPIRATION ○ The loss of electrons
Breathing versus Cellular Respiration from a substance.
★ Breathing: physical process that ○ Or the gain of oxygen.
allows animals and humans to
come into contact with gases in
the air.
★ Cellular respiration: chemical
➢ Reduction Reaction
process that releases energy
○ The gain of electrons to a
from organic compounds (food),
substance.
gradually converting it into
○ Or the loss of oxygen.
energy that is stored in ATP
molecules.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION Cells do not BURN glucose; they slowly

release energy from it and other food
● A catabolic, exergonic, oxygen
compounds through several pathways
(O2) requiring process that uses
(processes).
energy extracted from
● 1st pathway → Glycolysis:
macromolecules (glucose) to
releases only a small amount of
produce energy (ATP) and water
energy (2 net ATP)
(H2O).
○ If oxygen is present, it will
lead to two other
pathways that release a
● Chemical Pathways: lot of energy: Krebs cycle
○ Food is the raw material & Electron Transport
that provides the energy Chain.
for your body to ○ If oxygen is absent
function. glycolysis is followed by a
different pathway:
 Alcoholic Fermentation
or Lactic Acid
Fermentation.
OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
In presence of oxygen (aerobic)
glycolysis is followed by: Krebs Cycle &
Electron Transport Chain
➔ All three combined make up
Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis +
Krebs Cycle + Electron Transport
Chain
◆ Process that releases
energy by breaking down
food molecules in the
presence of oxygen.
Equation:
GLYCOLYSIS
● Process takes place in the
cytosol of the cytoplasm
outside of mitochondria;
converts glucose with the help of
2 ATP molecules and eventually
releases 4 ATP molecules; for a
net gain of 2 ATP molecules.
Cytosol - the fluid (and suspended
molecules of salts, sugars, amino acids,
enzymes, etc.) around the organelles
Cytoplasm - the cytosol PLUS the
organelles suspended within it (i.e.,
everything EXCEPT the nucleus)
ATP AND NADH PRODUCTION IN
GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 1: breaks 1 molecule of glucose in
half, producing 2 molecules of pyruvic
acid (a 3-carbon compound).
STEP 2: 2 NAD+ ;electron carrier
accepts 4 high-energy electrons and
transfers them to 2 NADH molecules
and 2 H+ thus passing the energy stored
in the glucose.
STEP 3: 4 ADP added producing 4 ATP.
STEP 4: 2 remaining pyruvic acids enter
Krebs Cycle in presence of oxygen; IF no
oxygen another pathway is followed.
● Glycolysis is a fast process.
● Cells produce thousands of ATP
molecules in a few milliseconds.
● Glycolysis alone DOES NOT
require oxygen
○ It can supply chemical
energy to cells when
oxygen is NOT available.
● However, if a cell generates
large amounts of ATP from
 glycolysis it can run into
problems:
1. the cell’s available NAD+
molecules become filled up with
electrons.
2. glycolysis shuts down, cannot
proceed without available NAD+
molecules.
3. ATP production stops.
ANAEROBIC TO AEROBIC
RESPIRATION
● Glycolysis evolved before the
other stages of cellular
respiration; other stages need
oxygen
● No oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere
when life first evolved about 3.5
to 4 b.y.a.
● Without oxygen → anaerobic
respiration
● 2 or 3 billion years ago, oxygen
was gradually added to the
atmosphere by early
photosynthetic bacteria; period
the “oxygen catastrophe” →
aerobic organisms
Mitochondrion Structure
★ Mitochondrion has two separate
membranes: inner and outer
membrane.
★ Three compartments:
intermembrane space, cristae
space, and matrix.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
The Krebs Cycle and Electron
Transport
➔ End of glycolysis → 90% of
chemical energy from glucose
still unused, locked in
high-energy electrons of pyruvic
acid
➔ Extracted by world’s most
powerful electron receptor →
Oxygen
➔ Krebs and Electron Transport
require oxygen thus they are
aerobic processes.
THE KREBS CYCLE
● 2nd stage of cellular respiration
● Named after Hans Krebs, British
biochemist in 1937.
● Here pyruvic acid is broken down
into carbon dioxide in a series of
energy-extracting reactions
● Citric acid is the 1st compound
formed in this series of
reactions, so Krebs is sometimes
called the Citric or Citric Acid
Cycle.
● Equation:
● Uses for the Products of the
Krebs Cycle
○ Carbon dioxide is
exhaled (waste product).
○ ATP can be used for
cellular activities.
 ○ High-energy electrons
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION:
(stored in NADH & FERMENTATION
FADH2) can be used to
This occurs after glycolysis when oxygen
make huge amounts of
absent, thus anaerobic process
ATP in the presence of
● Fermentation releases energy
oxygen.
from food molecules in absence
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN of oxygen
○ In this process cells
convert NADH to NAD+
by passing high-energy
electrons back to pyruvic
acid
○ Now glycolysis has NAD+
and can continue
producing ATP
○ There are 2 types of
1. Electrons from Krebs cycle are
fermentation:
passed to electron transport
■ Alcoholic
chain by NADH & FADH2
fermentation
2. At end of the chain an enzyme
■ Lactic acid
combines electrons from the
fermentation
electron chain with H* lons and
● Anaerobic and aerobic
oxygen to form water.
respiration share the glycolysis
3. Each time 2 high-energy
pathway. If oxygen is absent,
electrons transport down the
fermentation may take place,
electron chain, their energy is
producing lactic acid or ethyl
used to transport H+ ions across
alcohol and carbon dioxide.
the membrane.
Products of fermentation still
4. H+ ions build up in
contain chemical energy and are
intermembrane space; it is now
used widely to make foods and
positively charged, the other
fuels.
side of the membrane negatively
Alcoholic Fermentation
charged.
1. Yeast and a few other
5. Electrochemical gradient
microorganisms use alcoholic
(chemiosmotic gradient) created
fermentation, formingethyl
for ATP synthase to work.
alcohol and carbon dioxide as
6. ATP synthase converts ADP into
wastes
ATP.
2. Equation for alcoholic
fermentation:
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
Lactic Acid Fermentation CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND
1. Many cells convert accumulated PHOTOSYNTHESIS
pyruvic acid from glycolysis to
lactic acid; lactic acid
fermentation regenerates NAD+
so glycolysis can continue
2. Equation for lactic acid
fermentation: pyruvic acid +
NADH → lactic acid + NAD+
3. When your body cannot supply
enough oxygen to muscle tissues
during exercise, this is produced
4. Without oxygen the body is
unable to produce all the ATP it
requires, so lactic acid
fermentation takes over
★ Running, swimming, or riding a Photosynthesis Cellular
bike as fast as you can = large Respiration
muscles in your legs and arms
that quickly run out of » It takes place in » It takes place in
a chloroplast. a mitochondrion.
oxygen...muscles begin to
» Carbon dioxide » Glucose and
rapidly produce ATP by lactic and water react, oxygen react to
acid fermentation. using light produce carbon
★ The buildup of lactic acid energy, to dioxide, water,
fermentation causes a painful produce glucose and energy
burning sensation making your and oxygen. (ATP).
» Light energy » Chemical
muscles feel sore… How do you
from the sun energy in glucose
stop it? NEED TO INTAKE
changes to changes to
OXYGEN chemical energy chemical energy
in glucose in ATP.
MODULE: The transfer of electrons during
chemical reactions releases energy
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
stored in organic molecules. This
• Cells sustain cell needs through released energy is ultimately used to
production and growth. synthesize ATP.
• Metabolic reactions maintain balance ➔ In oxidation, a substance loses
and balance. electrons, or is oxidized.
• Energy enters through sunlight, ➔ In reduction, a substance gains
absorbed by producers and converted electrons, or is reduced (the
into chemical energy through amount of positive charge is
photosynthesis. reduced.)
• Heterotrophs consume plants,
transferring energy. During cellular respiration, the fuel
(such as glucose) is oxidized, and oxygen
Catabolic Pathways and Production of (O2) is reduced:
ATP
➔ The breakdown of organic
molecules such as sugar is an
example of an exergonic
process. In cellular respiration, glucose and other
◆ This breakdown can be organic molecules are broken down in a
done with or without the series of steps. Electrons from organic
presence of oxygen. compounds such as sugar are usually
➔ Cellular respiration includes both first transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme.
aerobic and anaerobic It also acts as an electron acceptor and
respiration but is often used to functions as an oxidizing agent during
refer to aerobic respiration cellular respiration. Each NADH (the
◆ Aerobic respiration reduced form of NAD+) represents
consumes organic stored energy that is tapped to
molecules and O2 and synthesize ATP.
yields ATP.
◆ On the other hand, NAD+ to NADH Redox Reaction
anaerobic respiration is
like aerobic but
consumes compounds
other than O2

NADH passes the electrons to the

Redox Reactions: Oxidation and electron transport chain. Unlike an
Reduction uncontrolled reaction, electron
transport chain passes electrons in a A smaller amount of ATP is formed in
series of steps instead of one explosive glycolysis and in the citric acid cycle by
reaction. The energy yielded is used to substrate-level
regenerate ATP. phosphorylation.

The Stages of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration has three stages:
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation.

(1) Glycolysis involves the breaking

down of glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate. (2) The citric acid cycle of
Krebs cycle completes the breakdown of
glucose while in (3) oxidative
phosphorylation the production of
most ATP happens.

Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for

almost 90% of the ATP generated by
cellular respiration.