ANL-6625

Engineering and Equipment

(TID-4500, 19th Ed.)
AEC R e s e a r c h and
Development Report

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

9700 South Cass Avenue
Argonne, Illinois

LOCAL PARAMETERS IN COCURRENT MERCURY-NITROGEN FLOW

by

L. G. Neal
N o r t h w e s t e r n University

Reactor Engineering Division, ANL,

and
Associated Midwest Universities

J a n u a r y 1963

This r e p o r t is the f i r s t of a s e r i e s that d e s c r i b e s

h e a t - t r a n s f e r and fluid-flow studies p e r f o r m e d
at Argonne under a p r o g r a m sponsored jointly by
the A s s o c i a t e d Midwest U n i v e r s i t i e s and the
Argonne National L a b o r a t o r y ,

O p e r a t e d by The University of Chicago

under
Contract W - 3 1 - 1 0 9 - e n g - 3 8
with the
U, S. Atonaic E n e r g y Commission
 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

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Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
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otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

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from the best available original document.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

EMS,
ABSTRACT 7

I. INTRODUCTION. 7

II. REVIEW O F THE LITERATURE . 9

IIL A MODIFICATION OF THE VARIABLE-DENSITY MODEL TO

INCLUDE LOCAL SLIP 23
IV. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
A. Flow System . 26
1. Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
a. M e r c u r y - N i t r o g e n Mixer 26
b. Test Section 26
c. Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
d. M e r c u r y Storage Tank. 27
2. Instrumentation and Control 28
a. Orifice M e t e r s . 28
b. Pressure Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
c. Temperature Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
d. Flow Control 28
3. Procedure, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
B. Electric Probe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1. Definition of V a r i a b l e s . 31
2. M e t h o d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3. Signal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4. Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5. Discussion 36
C. Impact P r o b e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1. Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2. Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3. Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4. Discussion 42
2

TABLE O F CONTENTS

Page

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

A. Gas F r a c t i o n and Liquid Velocity P r o f i l e s . . , , , . . . . . . . 44
B. Average Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
C. Bubble D i a m e t e r and Slug Length Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
D. Slug Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

VI. CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

APPENDIX A: TABULATED DATA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6l

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
 LIST O F FIGURES

No. Title Page

1. M e r c u r y - N i t r o g e n Flow System 26
2. M e r c u r y - N i t r o g e n Mixer 27
3. T e s t Section 27
4. M e r c u r y Storage Tank. 27
5. Electric Probe 33
6. P h o t o g r a p h i c R e c o r d of E l e c t r i c P r o b e Signal . 33
7. Integrating C i r c u i t 35
8. A v e r a g e Gas F r a c t i o n from Integration of P r o f i l e and from
M e a s u r e d P r e s s u r e Gradient 37
9. Impact P r o b e , 39
10. Schematic of Differential P r e s s u r e - M e a s u r i n g System . . . . . 40
11. Typical Gas F r a c t i o n P r o f i l e s at | = 5.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12. Developing Gas F r a c t i o n P r o f i l e s for I n c r e a s i n g Values of ^ . 44
13. Gas F r a c t i o n P r o f i l e s at | = 28.5 and | = 51.5 for Varying /3
and Constant R e * = 2.6 45
14. Gas F r a c t i o n P r o f i l e s at | = 28.5 and | = 51.5 for Varying
R e * and Constant jS = 0.3 . . . . . . 45
15. Liquid Velocity P r o f i l e s at | = 5,7 for L a r g e Re* and
I n c r e a s i n g /3 . . . . 46
16. Liquid Velocity P r o f i l e s at | = 28.5 and | = 51.5 for Varying
/3 and Constants R e * = 13.6. 46
17. Liquid Velocity P r o f i l e s for jB = 0,3 and Varying Re* . . . . . . 46
18. Bubble Size Distribution at | = 5.7. . . . . . 50
19. Bubble Size Distribution at | = 2 8 . 5 . 51
20. Bubble Size Distribution at | = 51.5 52
21. Gas Slug Length Distribution at | = 2 8 . 5 . 53
22. Gas Slug Length Distribution at | = 5 1 . 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
23. Liquid Slug Length Distribution at | = 51.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
24. C o m p a r i s o n of Liquid Slug Length Distributions at | = 28.5
and i = 51.5. 56
25. T i m e A v e r a g e Slug Shapes 57
26. Nitrogen Slugs in Stagnant M e r c u r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4

LIST O F TABLES

No. Title Page

I. Calibration of Impact P r o b e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 ,^

A - 1 . Gas F r a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-65

A - 2 . Liquid Velocity . . . . . . . , , . , . 66

A-3. Calculated P r o f i l e D a t a , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

A - 4 . Arnaand's P a r a m e t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

A - 5 . A v e r a g e and Slip Velocity D a t a . . . . . . . . , . , . . , . . . . . , . 68

4
 NOMENCLATURE

-^n pip® c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , ft^

B(0 cumulative bubble size distribution function
b(^) density function for bubbles of d i a m e t e r ^
C e l e c t r i c a l capacitance, f a r a d s ; A r m a n d ' s p a r a m e t e r , a/^
Dp pipe d i a m e t e r , ft
Dg bubble d i a m e t e r , ft
E e l e c t r i c a l voltage, v
e (t) voltage signal from e l e c t r i c a l p r o b e , v
Fr Froude number
G(^) cumulative gas slug length distribution function
g(^) density function for gas slugs of length^
K Constant, Hnfip/^np
L(^) cumulative liquid slug length distribution function
lit,) density function for liquid slugs of length^
n positive constant
P P r e s s u r e , Ib/ft^ or k g / c m ^
p positive constant
QQ gas v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e , f t y s e c
QL liquid v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e , f t y s e c
R pipe r a d i u s , ft; e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e , ohms
Re Reynolds number
r pipe radius v a r i a b l e , ft
S d i m e n s i o n l e s s variable distance from the pipe wall, y / R
T T e m p e r a t u r e , °C; integration t i m e , sec
t variable t i m e , sec
UL local liquid velocity, f t / s e c
UL c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e liquid velocity, f t / s e c
UG local gas velocity, f t / s e c
UQ c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e gas velocity, f t / s e c
Ug bubble velocity, f t / s e c
Ug slug velocity, f t / s e c
UL liquid slip velocity, f t / s e c
VLQ gas slip velocity, f t / s e c
U|^ r e l a t i v e slip velocity, f t / s e c
^Mix mixture velocity, ft/sec
"WQ gs-s r n a s s flow r a t e , l b / s e c
"W^L l i q u i d m a s s flow r a t e , l b / s e c
Wj- t o t a l m a s s flow r a t e , l b / s e c
We Weber number
X s t e a m quality
y v a r i a b l e d i s t a n c e f r o m t u b e w a l l , (r - r ) , ft
z v a r i a b l e d i s t a n c e a l o n g c h a n n e l l e n g t h , ft

Greek

a local gas fraction

a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l average gas fraction
ctjYi nnaximum gas fraction
j6 g a s v o l u m e t r i c flow f r a c t i o n
6 l i q u i d f i l m t h i c k n e s s , ft
^ d i m e n s i o n l e s s bubble d i a m e t e r , D g / D p , or slug length
T) average phase velocity ratio
Sg d w e l l t i m e of a b u b b l e , s e c
X c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e a v e r a g e p h a s e v e l o c i t y r a t i o r e s u l t i n g f r o m
non-uniform phase distribution
/i viscosity, lb/(ft)(sec)
I dimensionless distance from test section inlet, z/Dp
PG ga-s d e n s i t y , Ib/ft^
PL l i q u i d d e n s i t y , Ib/ft^
p m i x t u r e d e n s i t y , Ib/ft^
<I> local phase velocity ratio
 LOCAL PARAMETERS IN COCURRENT
MERCURY-NITROGEN FLOW

by

L. G. Neal

ABSTRACT

Two i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e developed which can be used

to study the s t r u c t u r e of t w o - p h a s e flow: first, an e l e c t r i c a l
probe capable of m e a s u r i n g local values of the gas fraction,
bubble frequency, and b u b b l e - s i z e s p e c t r a l second, an impact
probe that can be used to m e a s u r e the local liquid velocity.

These i n s t r u m e n t s were used to m e a s u r e local flow

p a r a m e t e r s in cocur rent m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n slugflow. These
r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in tabular and graphical f o r m . In a d d i -
tion, a photographic study was made to d e t e r m i n e the shape
of the individual s l u g s .

The gas fraction and velocity profiles were analyzed

by a modification of the v a r i a b l e - d e n s i t y model to include
local s l i p . Results showed that the distribution of the phases
is not i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g the average phase velocity
r a t i o , and that the a v e r a g e slip is a r e s u l t of local buoyant
f o r c e s . The photographic study showed that the s t r u c t u r e of
m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n flow is much different from air -water flow.
The slugs a r e a s y m m e t r i c , with the gas rising up one wall and
the m e r c u r y flowing down the opposite wall. This is a r e s u l t
of the h i g h - s u r f a c e e n e r g y of the miercury and, consequently,
non-wetting of the wall. Because of the d i s s i m i l a r i t y of flow
s t r u c t u r e s , the c o r r e l a t i o n s derived for a i r - w a t e r flow a r e
not applicable to m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n flow.

I. INTRODUCTION

When a liquid and a gaseous phase flow c o c u r r e n t l y through a v e r t i -

cal pipe, the p h a s e s d i s t r i b u t e t h e m s e l v e s in one of s e v e r a l flow p a t t e r n s
depending upon the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e of each phase, and the i n t e r p h a s e
and i n t r a p h a s e f o r c e s . When the gas flow r a t e is s m a l l r e l a t i v e to the
liquid flow r a t e , the gas a p p e a r s as a suspension of s m a l l bubbles. The
bubbles move m o r e or l e s s independently of each other at velocities which
depend upon t h e i r s i z e . This r e g i m e is called bubble flow. If the gas con-
c e n t r a t i o n is i n c r e a s e d at constant m e a n liquid velocity, bubble coalescence
b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t ; eventually, m o s t of the gas i s contained in l a r g e r b u b -
bles of v e r y n e a r l y the same d i a m e t e r as the pipe and many d i a m e t e r s
long. This r e g i m e is called slug flow. As the gas flow r a t e is further i n -
c r e a s e d , the slug length i n c r e a s e s until eventually the slugs touch to fill
the c o r e of the pipe with g a s . The liquid flows along the wall as an annular
film. This r e g i m e is called annular flow. Finally, at v e r y high gas flow
r a t e s , the liquid is d i s p e r s e d as a m i s t in the gas p h a s e . This l a s t r e g i m e
is called m i s t flow.

These a r e the four b a s i c flow patterns.^ •' However, t h e r e a r e

t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n s , and many i n v e s t i g a t o r s choose to give these n a m e s a l s o .
This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of the t r a n s i t i o n between slug and annular flow.
In this c a s e the annulus periodically forms and collapses again into a slug
p a t t e r n . This r e g i m e is frequently called s e m i - a n n u l a r flow.

The r e g i m e s of bubble flow and slug flow e n c o m p a s s m o s t c a s e s of

p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . These p r o c e s s e s a s s u m e i m p o r t a n c e , for e x a m p l e ,
in the design of nuclear r e a c t o r s which a r e cooled by boiling w a t e r , liquid
m e t a l s , or organic liquids. Although a g r e a t deal of r e s e a r c h has been d e -
voted to their study, many details of the flow s t r u c t u r e r e m a i n virtually
unknown. An important r e a s o n has been the lack of i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n capable
of p r e c i s e m e a s u r e m e n t of local p a r a m e t e r s such as gas fraction, phase
v e l o c i t i e s , and b u b b l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

This study was initiated with the p u r p o s e s of developing i n s t r u m e n t s

to m e a s u r e these quantities and to use t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s to study a two-
phase s y s t e m . Because of the c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t in boiling liquid-metal heat
t r a n s f e r , the s y s t e m chosen for study was m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n in v e r t i c a l
slug flow.

To s u m m a r i z e , the plan of this r e p o r t m a y be stated as follows:

(1) Review existing two-phase flow t h e o r y with e m p h a s i s on slug

flow.
(2) D e s c r i b e an e l e c t r i c a l probe which can be used to m e a s u r e local
values of gas fraction, bubble frequency, and bubble size s p e c t r a
in a two-phase m i x t u r e whose continuous phase is an e l e c t r i c a l
conductor,
(3) D e s c r i b e an i m p a c t probe which can be used to m e a s u r e local
values of the liquid velocity in d i s p e r s e d two-phase flow,
(4) P r e s e n t r e s u l t s of a study using a m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n s y s t e m
in v e r t i c a l slug flow.
(5) Develop an a p p r o p r i a t e model based upon t h e s e r e s u l t s .
 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Publication in the field of two-phase flow h a s been extensive, and

s e v e r a l c o m p r e h e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e s u r v e y s a r e available.(21,32) A number
of e m p i r i c a l and s e m i - e n a p i r i c a l models have been p r o p o s e d as a b a s i s
for flow calculations. The m o r e successful of these a r e reviewed in the
following d i s c u s s i o n .

Martinelli et al.,(33) p r o p o s e d the f i r s t g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n for

t w o - p h a s e , two-component p r e s s u r e d r o p s . The model was extended to
d e s c r i b e f o r c e d - c i r c u l a t i o n boiling of w a t e r at high p r e s s u r e s by M a r t i n -
elli and Nelson(34) and is probably the m o s t widely u s e d for calculations
of p r e s s u r e drop.

In the Martinelli model, two-phase flow is visualized as having an

unchanging flow p a t t e r n along the channel length. The p h a s e s a r e a s s u m e d
to flow in s e p a r a t e , continuous conduits, each satisfying a s e p a r a t e m o -
m e n t u m equation. These conditions a r e satisfied only by two-phase flow
reginaes in which the p h a s e s a r e both continuous and without radial p r e s -
s u r e g r a d i e n t s , i.e., annular flow. However, the model h a s been c o r r e l a t e d
with data taken in other flow r e g i m e s to about the same degree of e r r o r ,
indicating that the flow r e g i m e assumiption is not c r i t i c a l .

Considering an e l e m e n t of fluid of length dz in the direction of flow

and inclined 9 d e g r e e s from the h o r i z o n , the m o m e n t u m equations for the
phases are

dP + ~ d [ p L U y = g ) ^ ^ ^ dz - Pi_, sin 6 dz ; (2.1)

dP + J . d [apG U b ] + ^ d [(1 - a) p L U y = ( £ ) ^ ^ p d z - P G sin 9 dz

(2.2)

Radial v a r i a t i o n s of phase velocity and concentration have been neglected

in these equations. In g e n e r a l , these quantities a r e not constant as r e -
p o r t e d in R e f e r e n c e s 39 and 42.

The a s s u m p t i o n of an unchanging flow p a t t e r n i m p l i e s that the static

p r e s s u r e d r o p s of the p h a s e s a r e equal, so that E q s . (2.1) and (2.2) can be
added to give a g e n e r a l momentuna equation for the two-phase s t r e a m :

d p + l d [ a p ^ U ^ + (l-a)pLU'L] = ( | | ) dz - p sin 0 dz , (2.3)

where

P = (1 -ci) P L + ctPQ

and

(|P) Ml-5)(^) .a(|E)

XdzZ-jp ^dz/^rpp \dz/Qr|.p

The frictional p r e s s u r e drop was d e s c r i b e d by the usual friction

factor equation:

/dp\ _ PLUL

UZ/TP ^ ^^ 2g^DL

or (2.4)
/dP\ ^ PG^G
Idz/^p ^ 2g^D^ '

w h e r e Dj^ and D Q a r e the equivalent h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r s of the liquid and

g a s e o u s flow channels, r e s p e c t i v e l y . These a r e unknown quantities and
m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y . The friction f a c t o r s for each p h a s e w e r e
e x p r e s s e d by an equation of the form

f - C/Re^ , (2.5)

w h e r e the constants C and n depend upon the flow condition of the

p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e , l a m i n a r or turbulent.

Equations (2,4) and (2.5) w e r e u s e d to r e l a t e the two-phase f r i c -

tional p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t to the frictional p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t which would
exist if only a single phase w e r e flowing at the s a m e flow r a t e :

,2 / d P \
= (pi , ,
TP \dz/L

or (2.6)

"dz/TP ~ ^
2 2
The m u l t i p l i e r s (pl_j and 0 Q a r e e m p i r i c a l functions of the d i m e n s i o n l e s s
factor
 u
/fiL\0.m /PQ\0.5S5 n ^
(2.7)

In addition, the c o r r e l a t i o n depends upon the conabination of flow conditions

in the p h a s e s and, a s shown by M a r t i n e l l i and Nelson,(34) h a s an e m p i r i c a l
dependence upon p r e s s u r e .

Martinelli _etal.,(33) e s t a b l i s h e d the c o r r e l a t i o n of 0 v e r s u s X i°^

h o r i z o n t a l , i s o t h e r m a l flow of a i r and v a r i o u s liquids: w a t e r , o i l s , k e r o -
sene, and benzene, at p r e s s u r e s from 18 to 52 psia. Pipe d i a m e t e r s
ranged from 0.0586 to 1.017 in., and lengths from 2.34 to 50 ft,

L o c k h a r t and Martinelli(30) improved the c o r r e l a t i o n by using

(dP/dz)L
X^ = (2.8)
(dP/dz)(

as a c o r r e l a t i n g factor in place of X- They also extended the c o r r e l a t i o n

to data from inclined tubes with a i r , oil, and k e r o s e n e at atmiospheric p r e s -
s u r e s and r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e s . The a v e r a g e scatter of the data was 30%.

Martinelli and Nelson(34) e s t a b l i s h e d the h i g h - p r e s s u r e c o r r e l a -

tion by analyzing the data of Davidson et^ al, jC^) for f o r c e d - c i r c u l a t i o n
boiling at p r e s s u r e s f r o m 500 to 3300 p s i a . These data w e r e taken from
flow in flat-pancake tube coils and a long horizontal tube. Tube d i a m e t e r s
ranged from 0.5 to 1.75 in., and lengths from 10.2 to 53.3 ft. No informa-
tion was given as to the s c a t t e r of the data.

In boiling s y s t e m s , the m o m e n t u m change of the s t r e a m due to

changes of vapor concentration m u s t be considered. This is easily
handled by integrating the m o m e n t u m t e r m of Eq. (2.3) over the flow
length. Martinelli and Nelson(34) a s s u m e d a l i n e a r relation between x
and z, giving

W?r (1 -x)^ ^ xf P]^

AP a = (2.9)
(1 - a ) a p^
g P L ^ •PL
'

Levyi28) obtained an equation f r o m the Martinelli model which can

be u s e d to r e l a t e the weight gas fraction x to the volume gas fraction ex by
subtracting Eq. (2.1) from (2.2):

(1 -x)^ x2 PL i A-x gPLApa

(1 - a ) a PQ " 2 yi - a Wj

'dP\
+ (PL-PG) sin dz (2.10)
^dz/GTP LTP
12

L e v y a s s u m e d t h a t c h a n g e s in a x , and P I _ , / P G a-^® v e r y slow, so t h a t m o -

i t i e n t u m i s e x c h a n g e d b e t w e e n t h e w a t e r and s t e a m p h a s e s , and t h e f r i c t i o n a l
p l u s p o t e n t i a l p r e s s u r e c h a n g e f o r t h e l i q u i d p h a s e e q u a l s t h a t for t h e
g a s e o u s p h a s e . M a t h e m a t i c a l l y , this c o r r e s p o n d s to writing

d .2 P L
= 0 (2.11)
dz (1-a) + a PG
" 2 Vl - tt|

which can be solved with the b o u n d a r y condition that x = 0 when a - 0

to g i v e
- i > 1/2

a(l - 2a) + a < ( l - 2a)2 + a 2—= (1 - a)2 + a ( l - 2 a )

. PG (2.12)
X =-

2 — (1 - a ) 2 + a ( l - 2a)
Pn

The m i o m e n t u m - e x c h a n g e t h e o r y , Eq. (2.12), w a s c o m p a r e d with

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a f o r f o r c e d - c o n v e c t i o n b o i l i n g of w a t e r a t p r e s s u r e s
f r o m 14,7 to 2000 p s i a . P r e d i c t e d v a l u e s of x w e r e f r o m 20 to 4 0 % h i g h e r
t h a n found e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , the s m a l l e s t e r r o r s b e i n g a t t h e h i g h e s t
pre ssures.

T h e s e e r r o r s a r e a r e s u l t of t h e a s s u m p t i o n

m o. -.in- ^6 == ((m
- PG £) Pj^ sin (2.13)
Vdz/ G T P LTP

It d o e s n o t s e e m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d f o r a l l 9, t h a t i s ,
t h e f r i c t i o n a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s of t h e p h a s e s a r e e q u a l f o r h o r i z o n t a l flow,
b u t m u c h d i f f e r e n t for v e r t i c a l flow.

A n u m b e r of p a p e r s V i > 5, 10, 17, 29) p r e s e n t a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s

of a n n u l a r flow. In e a c h c a s e , t h e a u t h o r s a s s u m e t h a t a n n u l a r flow i s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l i q u i d f i l m of u n i f o r m t h i c k n e s s a n d s r a o o t h i n n e r s u r -
f a c e w h e r e t h e g a s e o u s c o r e c o n t a i n s n o e n t r a i n e d l i q u i d a n d the flow
p a t t e r n d o e s n o t c h a n g e along t h e t u b e l e n g t h . T h i s i s a v e r y i d e a l i z e d
situation that is probably n e v e r realized.

A r m a n d ' i ) a n d Levy(29)j, in s t u d i e s of h o r i z o n t a l flow, a s s u m e d

f u r t h e r that the liquid velocity profile i s given by the o n e - s e v e n t h power
l a w e q u a t i o n , a n d the t w o - p h a s e s t r e a m i s in e q u i l i b r i u m u n d e r t h e a c t i o n
of t h e w a l l s h e a r s t r e s s a n d a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e . The f r i c t i o n a l -
p r e s s u r e - g r a d i e n t equation is

(£),p=(£)j--/<-^)^ (-!<*; (2.14)

 13

This t h e o r e t i c a l approach p r e d i c t s v a l u e s of p r e s s u r e drop about

20% lower than e x p e r i m e n t . These d i s c r e p a n c i e s can be attributed to the
idealized flow g e o m e t r y .

C a l v e r t and WilliamsV^) derived an equation for the m.omentum flux

in the liquid film;

dP dP „ (2.15)
T = PG (6-y)
dz ( ^ )

w h e r e (dP/dz) is the static p r e s s u r e gradient, 6 is the film t h i c k n e s s ,

and y i s the v a r i a b l e distance f r o m the wall. Since 6 « R and
(dP/dz) « PL,, the equation can be simplified to give:

dP
T = f - /^L(6 - y) (2.16)

C a l v e r t a s s u m e d the film flow was turbulent and used P r a n d t P s mixing-

length theory to d e t e r m i n e the liquid velocity profile. In h i s studies of
downward flow of liquid f i l m s , Dukler(lO) u s e d D e i s s l e r ' s relationship
for flow n e a r the wall and Von K a r m a n ' s equation for flow away from the
wall. D u k l e r ' s approach i s m o r e suitable, since flow in the film n e a r the
wall m u s t certainly be l a m i n a r . Hewitt(i'7) extended D u k l e r ' s analysis to
upward annular flow. D e i s s l e r ' s equation is

T/TQ = 1 + 0.01 u+y+ Fl - e x p (-0.01 u+y+)"ldu+dy+ (2.17)

where

u+ = U L iro/p^V^'

y+ - ( V P L ) ' ' ' (Y/^L/^L) •

Von K a r m a n ' s equation i s

r/r, ^ (0.36)2 [ ( d u V d y + ) V ( d 2 u V d y + ' ) ' ] • (2.18)

Equation (2.16) m a y be r e w r i t t e n in t e r m s of d i m e n s i o n l e s s
v a r i a b l e s as

T/T, = 1 + y+(ayT)) , (2.19)

where

a' = 6y[(T]2M^L)/(PLg)]
14

and

v= (VPL)''M6PL/ML) •
D e i s s l e r ' s e x p r e s s i o n cannot be solved analytically, and a nu-
m e r i c a l solution h a s to be obtained. Von K a r m a n ' s equation can be
i n t e g r a t e d to give

"•" - ' ^ i " = 2(0:36)

;og(J).log(^).log(^).Z(3-s,)
(2.20)

whe r e

s = i+i:^

and

Hewitt^ ' ' gives t a b l e s of n u m e r i c a l solutions of E q s . (2.17) and (2,20).

Annular flo'w, a s defined in the above a n a l y s e s , i s a very idealized

situation which i s probably never r e a l i z e d in p r a c t i c e . M e a s u r e i n e n t s of
film thickness(24,35) in horizontal flow show that g r a v i t y effects a r e i m -
p o r t a n t . The film can be two o r t h r e e t i m e s as thick at the bottom of the
tube a s at the top. In both horizontal and v e r t i c a l flow, surface waves e x i s t
which a r e of approximately the same height a s the m e a n film thickness.(27)
Liquid e n t r a i n m e n t always e x i s t s and i t s effects a r e usually significant.
A r m a n d , ( l ) Krasiakova,(24) and Wicks and Dukler(46) have m e a s u r e d en-
t r a i n m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n in horizontal flow. A r m a n d concluded the liquid
mtist was uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d . Hewitt,(27) on the other hand, in studies
of v e r t i c a l flow found the e n t r a i n m e n t concentration v a r i e d both radially
and axially.

A review of the l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to annular flow i s given by

Lacey _et al.(27)

Bankoff^ -' t r e a t e d the bubble flow r e g i m e a s a suspension of b u b b l e s

in the liquid, with bubble concentration g r a d i e n t s existing radially. The
bubble concentration i s m a x i m u m at the c e n t e r of the p i p e , d e c r e a s e s m o n o -
tonically in a r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , and v a n i s h e s a t the wall. A b a s i c concept
introduced i s that the g a s and liquid have the same velocity a t any r a d i a l
position. The c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e velocity of the g a s i s g r e a t e r than
that of the liquid b e c a u s e the gas i s concentrated in the regions of higher
velocity. The two-phase m i x t u r e is c o n s i d e r e d to be a single fluid whose
density v a r i e s radially.

Bankoff showed, by a simplified a n a l y s i s of the forces on a two-

dimensional bubble, that the gas distribution function can be approximated
by a p o w e r - l a w function of the r a d i a l position. A p o w e r - l a w distribution
was a s s u m e d for velocity also:

U* = S^^^ ; (2.21)

a * = S'/P . (2.22)

The liquid and gas r a a s s v e l o c i t i e s a r e given by

WL = ZTTR^PJJJ^ f ( l - S ) ( l - a ^ a * ) U*dS (2.23)

Jo

and

WQ = ZTIR^PQU^ / ( 1 - S ) a ^ a * U* dS , (2.24)
Jo

and the a v e r a g e gas fraction is given by

a = 2a^ / a*(l-S)dS . (2.25)

Jo

The quality i s defined as

x = W G / ( W L + WG) . (2.26)

T h r e e c o n s t a n t s a r e defined in t e r m s of the exponents n and p:

fip = 2 p y ( l + p ) ( H - 2 p ) ; (2.27)

On = 2 n y ( l + n ) ( l + 2 n ) ; (2.28)
and

Onp = 2 ( n p ) y ( n + p + n p ) ( n + p + 2np) (2.29)

16

Substituting E q s . (2.21) and (2.22) into E q s . (2.23), (2.24), and (2.25) gives

W L = ^R'PLUnaC^n-^m^^np] ' ^2-30)

W G = ^R'PGUm[^m^np] ' (2.31)

and

a = a^Op (2.32)

Substitution into Eq. (2.26) gives

1 - ^ (2.33)
X
PG L a
where

K = (On^p)/^ n p

A simple e x p r e s s i o n for the r a t i o of the a v e r a g e p h a s e v e l o c i t i e s can be

obtained d i r e c t l y f r o m E q s . (2.30) and (2.31):

T) =
UG ^ 1 - a (2.34)
UL K - a

By introducing the gas v o l u m e t r i c flow fraction, defined as

A = (WG/PG)/[(WG/PG) + (WL/'PL)] ' (2.35)

it can be shown through the u s e of E q s . (2.30) and (2.31) that

a = K^ (2.36)

Zuber(47) f i r s t d e r i v e d this r e l a t i o n s h i p between the p a r a m e t e r K

and the r a t i o a/^. A r m a n d ( l . 2 ) o b s e r v e d that in the r e g i m e s of h o r i z o n t a l
bubble and stratified flow O < 0.9), the r e l a t i o n between a and |3 was
essentially linear:

a = C^ (2.37)

w h e r e C depends only upon p r e s s u r e . The e r a p i r i c a l p r e s s u r e dependence

was

C = 0.833 + 0.05 log P (2.38)

w h e r e P i s p r e s s u r e in k g / c m ^ .
 17

An e x p r e s s i o n relating the two-phase frictional p r e s s u r e gradient

to the single-phase liquid p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t was obtained by using a f r i c -
tion factor equation for each g r a d i e n t and by eliminating the friction factors
with the B l a s i u s formula. The two-phase equations w e r e w r i t t e n in t e r m s
of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e velocity and density of the m i x t u r e . The
p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t equation i s

(dP/dz)rrp , , . , , , . , ,- .
/ ^TP , . , , u X , . , ^2.39)
(dP/dz)L

An e x p r e s s i o n for the density r a t i o was obtained from the definition

of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a v e r a g e density;

P - ^ a fl - ^ ) . (2.40)
PL V PL

If the condition that the m a s s flow r a t e s m u s t be equal in the two-phase

and the s i n g l e - p h a s e s y s t e m s be u s e d , the r a t i o of the v e l o c i t i e s is

The v i s c o s i t y r a t i o is not so e a s y to d e s c r i b e . Bankoff showed that the

r a t i o may be g r e a t e r or l e s s than unity, depending upon the bubble size
distribution, and, since it e n t e r s only a s the one-fourth power, it may be
taken a s unity.

E x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s of p h a s e and velocity distributions

a r e not available; t h e r e f o r e , e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d values of the
a v e r a g e g a s fraction and quality w e r e u s e d with Eq. (2.33) to calculate
v a l u e s of K which b e s t fit the data. T h e s e data w e r e taken for forced-
c i r c u l a t i o n boiling of w a t e r at p r e s s u r e s f r o m 14.7 to 2000 p s i a . The
p r e s s u r e dependence of K found in this way w a s given by the l i n e a r
equation

K = 0.71 + 0.001 P , (2.42)

w h e r e P is p r e s s u r e in p s i a . Equation (2.42) p r e d i c t s s m a l l e r values

of K (15% at a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e ) than Eq. (2.38). In g e n e r a l , Eq. (2.33),
with the p r o p e r value of K, fell within the s c a t t e r of the data. However,
K a p p e a r s to have a dependence on quality. In c o m p a r i n g Eq. (2.39) with
p r e s s u r e drop data at 1000 p s i a , a g r e e m e n t was good at low q u a l i t i e s , but
deviated a s the quality i n c r e a s e d . This again indicated a quality dependence.
18

Hughmark(20) extended the v a r i a b l e - d e n s i t y model to two-

component flow. Equation (2.33) was u s e d to calculate values of K from
data for both h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l flow of air and v a r i o u s liquids: w a t e r ,
oil, k e r o s e n e , and benzene. These v a l u e s of K w e r e c o r r e l a t e d , by the
method of l e a s t s q u a r e s , to a Reynolds n u m b e r , F r o u d e n u m b e r , Weber
n u m b e r , and the v o l u m e t r i c liquid flow fraction (1 - /3). These p a r a m e t e r s
w e r e suggested by Bankoff. The Weber number was not significant, and K
w a s r e p r e s e n t e d by the t h r e e remaining v a r i a b l e s in the f o r m

Z = ' ^ ° ) ' " ^^f" . (Z.43)

The f i r s t i m p o r t a n t contributions to the theory of slug flow w e r e

the p a p e r s of D u m e t r e s c u ( i i) and of Davies and Taylor,(8) in which they
c o n s i d e r e d the p r o b l e m : "How fast will a closed tube full of liquid d r a i n
when the bottom i s r e m o v e d ? " or, alternatively, "How fast will the air
column r i s e in a v e r t i c a l tube with a closed top when the bottom is
opened?" In this c a s e , the fluid will flow freely around the outside of the
bubble and down the surface of the tube. The bubble h a s no lower surface,
so the p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with the bubble wake a r e eliminated.

If the v e r t e x of the bubble is taken a s the origin of the coordinate

s y s t e m and z the distance below t h i s , then, r e l a t i v e l y , the whole s y s t e m
will have a downward velocity U g . Assumiing potential flow and s y m m e t r y
about the axis of the tube, the governing equations e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of
the velocity potential <P and the s t r e a m function f a r e

^20 . 1 a h(p
= 0 ;
bz^ ' r ^r or
(2.44)
x-^f
bhj/ 1 b
=0
bz^ r Sr

The boundary conditions which m u s t be satisfied a r e :

(1) constant p r e s s u r e at the bubble s u r f a c e : Uj^ ~ 2 g z ;

(2) the origin i s a stagnation point;
(3) a u n i f o r m bubble velocity, U g , for l a r g e negative v a l u e s of z;
(4) z e r o r a d i a l velocity at the wall.

P a r t i c u l a r solutions to Eq. (2.44) which satisfy boundary conditions

(3) and (4) a r e

0 = - Ugz + X ^ exp[Kn(z/R)] Jo(Kn | ) (2-45)

n
and

^ = - i Ugr2 + r X A^ e x p [ K n ( z A ) ] Ji ^ n "I ' ^2.46)

n
w h e r e Kn is a root of the equation: Ji(s) = 0. Boundary conditions (1)
and (2) m u s t still be satisfied, and an explicit solution s e e m s unlikely.

Davies and Taylorl^) obtained a rough approxiraation to the flow

n e a r the top of the air column by using only one t e r m of the s e r i e s
E q s . (2.45) and (2.46). D u m e t r e s c u ( l i) miade a s i m i l a r approximation but
c a r r i e d the s e r i e s to the t h i r d t e r r a . His r e s u l t s gave

Ug = 0.495 v ^ . (2.47)

A g r e e m e n t with e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s w a s r e m a r k a b l y good
for l a r g e tubes (of -f-- and 1-in. d i a m e t e r s ) , but the theory tends to o v e r -
e s t i m a t e the velocity for small tubes ( y - i n . d i a m e t e r ) . This i s attributed
to v i s c o s i t y effects at low Reynolds n u m b e r s . Griffith and Wallis\16)
m e a s u r e d the r i s e velocity of infinite slugs; their r e s u l t s a g r e e with
Eq. (2.47).

The flow of finite slugs i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e bubbles, a l m o s t

filling the tube, s e p a r a t e d by slugs of liquid. The nose of the bubble is
round and the tail i s n e a r l y flat. Because of the p r o b l e m of d e s c r i b i n g
the flow in the bubble wake, a m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis of slug flow is a
formidable problena, and its d e s c r i p t i o n m u s t rely heavily upon e x p e r i m e n t .

L a i r d and Chisholm(25) studied the p r e s s u r e and f o r c e s along cylin-

d r i c a l bubbles in v e r t i c a l flow, noting their v e l o c i t i e s , by admitting bub-
b l e s singly into the bottom of a v e r t i c a l column 38 ft long and of 2-in. ID.
The column was filled with stagnant w a t e r . The o b s e r v e d v e l o c i t i e s ranged
from 0.76 to 0.88 f t / s e c for slugs 4 in. to 50 in. long. This i s in close
a g r e e m e n t with the value of 0.81 f t / s e c p r e d i c t e d by D u m e t r e s c u ' s analysis
for an infinite slug. (11) Apparently the effect of the wake upon bubble
velocity i s u n i m p o r t a n t . This conclusion is supported by l a t e r work of
Griffith and Wallis.(i6) The a n a l y s i s of Dum.etrescu and that of Davies
and Taylor d e s c r i b e s adequately the flow of finite slugs in stagnant liquid.
L a i r d and Chisholrn a l s o concluded that the p r e s s u r e drop o v e r m o s t of
the bubble length i s z e r o and the shear force at the wall is p r o p o r t i o n a l to
the 1.5th power of the bubble length.

Griffith and Wallis(l6) also studied the effect of an i m p o s e d liquid

velocity upon the slug velocity. They u s e d an 18-ft v e r t i c a l t e s t section
equipped for admitting w a t e r at e i t h e r the top or bottom. T h r e e tube s i z e s
w e r e u s e d : 1-in., -f-in., and T-in. inside d i a m e t e r . The r e l a t i v e slug
20

velocity w a s o b s e r v e d to i n c r e a s e a s the w a t e r velocity i n c r e a s e d . In an

attempt to rationalize these r e s u l t s , a constant, Cg, was defined in t e r m s of
D u m e t r e s c u ' s equation as

Cz = UB/(0.495 VgR) , (2.48)

w h e r e C2 is an e m p i r i c a l function of the Reynolds n u m b e r b a s e d upon the

liquid velocity, and the Reynolds n u m b e r b a s e d upon the slug velocity. In
g e n e r a l , the c o r r e l a t i o n showed that Cj v a r i e d d i r e c t l y with Reynolds
n u m b e r b a s e d upon the liquid velocity, and i n v e r s e l y with Reynolds n u m -
b e r b a s e d upon the slug velocity. In the l i m i t as both Reynolds n u m b e r s
b e c a m e v e r y l a r g e , C2 = 1.0.

The v a r i a t i o n of C^ was explained as resulting from the oncoming

liquid velocity profile a s " s e e n " by the bubble. F o r example, in the c a s e
of upflow, the profile is d i s t o r t e d in the d i r e c t i o n n e c e s s a r y to p a s s the
bubble; h e n c e , a higher r i s e velocity would be expected.

In slug flow studies, Griffith and Wallis(16) o b s e r v e d that as the

distance between two slugs becanae s m a l l e r than some c r i t i c a l value, the
trailing slug, influenced by the wake of the leading slug, r o s e f a s t e r .
Eventually, the two slugs a g g l o m e r a t e d . This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o c e s s of
developing slug flow was the subject of a p a p e r by M o i s s i s andGriffith.(36)
Since the shape of the velocity profile of the liquid behind the leading bub-
ble was believed to be m o s t i m p o r t a n t , the approach to the problena was
to determiine the velocity profile, analytically and experinaentally, and to
m e a s u r e the r i s e velocity of the trailing slug in the liquid having a s p e c -
ified velocity profile.

If the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the c e n t e r l i n e with the plane of the trailing

edge of the slug is taken as the origin of the coordinate systena and z as
the distance below t h i s , then, r e l a t i v e l y , the whole s y s t e m will have a
downward velocity U g . The problena is then one of a j e t entering a c i r c u -
l a r pipe through an annular orifice while the pipe i s moving in the same
d i r e c t i o n as the jet. However, the pipe velocity is not equal to the jet
velocity.

M o i s s i s assunaed the flow to be steady with no wall friction, and

the c o r e mixing p r o c e s s to be f a s t e r than the b o u n d a r y - l a y e r growth at
the wall. He u s e d R e i c h a r d t ' s inductive t h e o r y of t u r b u l e n c e ! i ^ ) to ob-
tain a mathenaatical e x p r e s s i o n for the velocity p r o f i l e s . Reichardt' s
t h e o r y i s b a s e d upon e x p e r i m e n t a l data for free turbulent flo"w, such a s a
free jet in an infinite fluid. This annular j e t is enclosed and the tube walls
a r e so close that they m u s t c e r t a i n l y have an effect.
 21

The R e i c h a r d t equation of motion w a s w r i t t e n in t e r m s of dimension-

l e s s v a r i a b l e s as

^M 4A d ^ dM_
= 0 , (2,49)
^ z * " D r* ^r* ^ dr*

where

r* = radius = 2r/Dp ;

z* = length = z/Dp ;

M = miomentum flux = (m - moo)/(m^ - ma)

The local m o m e n t u m flux i s m - P + P U L , and m^, and ma a r e the m o m e n -

tum fluxes evaluated at z* = 0. The t e r m va^ is evaluated as z* -> oo.
Equation (2.49) was solved with the following boundary conditions:

r* = 0 dM/dr* = 0 (symnaetry)
r* = 1 dM/dr* = 0 (no wall friction)
z* = 0 M = mc 0 < r * < d/Op
M = ma d/Op < r* < 1

to give

^, V 2(d/D ) j j K n ( d / D p ) ] ,^ .. . ^ iA^zUr. \A * 1
M = 2. J TZ/TT ^ tL„Jo(Knr*) e x p [ - / (4K^A/D ) d z * ]
(2.50)

Velocity p r o f i l e s w e r e mieasured in the wake of a stationary p l a s t i c

slug in a 2-in. tube in which the w a t e r flow was downward. The slug d i -
m e n s i o n s w e r e \ \ in. in d i a m e t e r by 6 in. long. The total p r e s s u r e was
m e a s u r e d with a pitot tube; static p r e s s u r e was m e a s u r e d at the wall.
The data obtained w e r e u s e d to calculate v a l u e s of the m o m e n t u m t r a n s -
fer length f r o m Eq. (2.50). These v a l u e s w e r e e x p r e s s e d by the equation

The r i s e velocity of the t r a i l i n g slug was d e t e r m i n e d frona motion

p i c t u r e s taken of two consecutive slugs a s they r o s e in the tube. The scope
of the film studies included tube d i a m e t e r s ranging from 2" to 2 in. The
data w e r e c o r r e l a t e d with the e m p i r i c a l equation
 UB/UOO = 1 - 8 exp[-1.06 Lg/Dp] , (2.52)

w h e r e Ug is the trailing bubble velocity; U^ i s velocity of the lead slug;

and Lg is the s e p a r a t i o n d i s t a n c e . In g e n e r a l , the r e s u l t s showed that
wake effects a r e i m p o r t a n t for a length of about seven tube d i a m e t e r s .
 III. A MODIFICATION OF THE VARIABLE-DENSITY
MODEL TO INCLUDE LOCAL SLIP

In the v a r i a b l e - d e n s i t y model, \3j the local phase velocities a r e

a s s u m e d to be equal:

UL = UG .

The model can be extended to include local slip by making the l e s s r e -

s t r i c t i v e a s s u m p t i o n that the local phase velocity ratio is independent of
r a d i a l position. This i m p l i e s that

uL = u£ ,
where

U l = UL/ULm

and

U£ = UG UGm •

The local phase velocity r a t i o is given by

* = Ucm/ULm -

w h e r e ULm ^"^d UQna ^•'^^ ^^^ m a x i m u m liquid and gas velocities, r e s p e c -

tively, at the c e n t e r of the tube.

Assuming power law d i s t r i b u t i o n s for both velocities and gas

fraction,

UL = UG = s^'^ (3.1)

and

a* = S^/P , (3.2)

where

a* = a / a j ^

The exponents n and p a r e positive c o n s t a n t s .

24

Then

WL = 27T R^PLUL^ / (1 - S ) ( l - a ^ a * ) UL dS (3.3)

and

WG = 271 R^PcUom / (l "S) a^a* U Q dS (3.4)

and the a v e r a g e gas fraction is given by

a = 2a^ / (1 -S) a* dS (3.5)

With the use of E q s . (3.1) and (3.2) and the constants defined by E q s . (2.27),
(2.28), and (2.29), the i n t e g r a l s give

W L = irR^ PLULm (^n " a ^ ^np) (3.6)

W G = TTR^PGUGm i^m ^np) (3.7)

^ m '^"'D (3.8)

The c r o s s - s e c t i o n a v e r a g e phase velocities follow from E q s . (3.6)

and (3.7):

UL/ULO^ = ( ^ n - cxm^np)/(l " ^m^p) (3.9)

U c / U C m = ^ np/
n p / ^" p (3.10)

The m a s s fraction of gaseous phase is defined as

X = WG/(WG+WL) . (3.11)

Substitution of E q s . (3.6), (3.7), and (3.8) into Eq. (3.11) gives

1 - # (3.12)
X PG '^ a
 25

where

^ ~ "n"p/"np

is a constant. Equation (3.12) is identical with Eq. (2.33) when 0 = 1.

A simple e x p r e s s i o n for the a v e r a g e slip velocity ratio is obtained

from E q s . (3.9) and (3.10):

which is to be c o m p a r e d with Eq. (2.34). Equation (3.13) shows the a v e r a g e

phase velocity ratio is the product of two slip f a c t o r s , one due to local slip,
$, and the other due to nonuniform phase distribution.
26

IV. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

A. Flow System

The flow s y s t e m employed is shown schematically in Fig. 1. It is

a n a t u r a l - c i r c u l a t i o n loop in which m e t e r e d s t r e a m s of m e r c u r y and nitro-
gen a r e fed to a m i x e r . The resulting two-phase m i x t u r e flows through
the t e s t section into a s e p a r a t o r . The nitrogen exhausts to a vent, and the
m e r c u r y r e t u r n s by gravity flow to the mixing section.
NITROSEH VEDT

Fig. 1. M e r c u r y - N i t r o g e n Flow System

Stainless steel pipe, Schedule 40, was used throughout, and all
threaded joints w e r e sealed with a r e s i n - b a s e paint.

1. Components

a. M e r c u r y - N i t r o g e n Mixer

The m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n m i x e r (see Fig. 2) was constructed

from a pipe tee. The nitrogen e n t e r e d at the bottom, and the m e r c u r y
e n t e r e d at the side. Upon leaving the m i x e r , the two-phase s t r e a m p a s s e d
through a 150-mesh s c r e e n which was intended to give a uniform gas d i s -
tribution and bubble size at the entrance to the test section. A s i m i l a r
m i x e r was used by Richardson. 1"*^/

b. Test Section

Two t e s t sections w e r e constructed: one for use with the

e l e c t r i c probe and one for use with the impact probe. Each t e s t section
 27

c o m p r i s e d a 60-in. length of 1-in. pipe, with

I" PIPE
THREADED 3.125
probe and static p r e s s u r e taps welded at 90° to
W ° BEVEL each other. Figure 3 shows the t e s t section
used with the e l e c t r i c probe. The other test
section was s i m i l a r except that the probe taps
w e r e located 1.25 in. lower, at the s a m e level
as the static p r e s s u r e taps.

c. Separator

The s e p a r a t o r was a 42-in. length

of 4-in. Lucite tube. The velocity of the two-
phase s t r e a m entering at one end d e c r e a s e d ,
due to the i n c r e a s e in c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , a l -
lowing the gas to escape to an outside vent while
the m e r c u r y entered the 1.5-in. downcomer.
I" PIPE
THREADED 3.125"
30° BEVEL
d. M e r c u r y Storage Tank
The m e r c u r y w a s s t o r e d in a
tank constructed from a 1-ft length of 10-in.
Fig. 2. Mercury-Nitrogen Mixer pipe (see Fig. 4).

0. IJI- W M
WeLDfB T@ SIDE
OF SieilS*
TO AIR
SUPPLY
^

»
sx^Ssi :^3

12

I. 0. 125 CIA.
THIEADEO
HOLES

IXSSSSSSSS^XSSSSS^
10 DIA.-
f
MOTE: ALL OIHENSIOKS IN IHCHES NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES

Fig. 3. Test Section Fig. 4. Mercury Storage Tank

 2. I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and Control

a. Orifice M e t e r s

The nitrogen and m e r c u r y flow r a t e s w e r e m e a s u r e d by

m e a n s of orifice m e t e r s built according to specifications of G r a c e and
L a p p l e . ' l ^ j Calibration c u r v e s over the approximate Reynolds number
range w e r e known with an uncertainty of 0.5%. Orifice d i a m e t e r s w e r e
0.0312 in. and 0.0625 in. for nitrogen, and 0.2500 in., 0.5000 in., and
1.0000 in. for m e r c u r y . In each c a s e , the uncertainty was ±0.0005 in.

b. P r e s s u r e Measurements

The static p r e s s u r e was m e a s u r e d at five points along the

t e s t section by m e a n s of r e g u l a r stand tubes. This allowed s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e
m e a s u r e m e n t s with a m a x i m u m e r r o r of 0.1 in. Hg. The p r e s s u r e differ-
ential a c r o s s the orifice m e t e r s was m e a s u r e d with U-tube m a n o m e t e r s
containing w a t e r for nitrogen flow, and containing e i t h e r m e r c u r y or water
for m e r c u r y flow.

The m e r c u r y - s t o r a g e tank p r e s s u r e and the nitrogen

p r e s s u r e w e r e r e g u l a t e d and m e a s u r e d by the use of N o r g r e n r e g u l a t o r s
and p r e s s u r e g a g e s .

c. Temperature Measurements

The t e m p e r a t u r e of the m e r c u r y and the nitrogen was

m e a s u r e d with i r o n - c o n s t a n t a n t h e r m o c o u p l e s , with an uncertainty of
±0.5°C.

d. Flow Control

The n i t r o g e n flow r a t e was controlled by two needle valves

in p a r a l l e l . The m e r c u r y flow r a t e was controlled by a 1.5-in. gate valve
in the downcomer.

3. Procedure

The flow s y s t e m was filled with m e r c u r y by opening valves

V-1 and V-2 (see Fig. l) and slowly p r e s s u r i z i n g the s t o r a g e tank to
50 psig. To p r e v e n t flooding of the m a n o m e t e r s used to m e a s u r e static
p r e s s u r e , the back p r e s s u r e on these i n s t r u m e n t s was r a i s e d s i m u l t a n e -
ously to 30 psig. The m e r c u r y was forced from the s t o r a g e tank through
the c e n t e r pipe and into the s y s t e m . The m e r c u r y level was controlled
and brought to the s a m e depth in the s y s t e m for e a c h e x p e r i m e n t by r e g u -
lating the p r e s s u r e on the s t o r a g e tank. Valve V-1 was then closed and
the tank p r e s s u r e was r e l e a s e d . (This a r r a n g e m e n t also afforded a
method of draining the s y s t e m rapidly in the event of an e m e r g e n c y , such
as a m e r c u r y leak.) After the s y s t e m was filled with m e r c u r y and the
s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e lines c l e a r e d of bubbles, the gas flow was s t a r t e d by s e t -
ting the p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r s on the s t o r a g e cylinders at 50 psig, opening
valve V-4 or V-5 wide and V-3 a s m a l l amount. Valve V-3 was regulated
until the nitrogen flow was about 0.25 cfm. The nitrogen was allowed to
flow until the m e r c u r y t e m p e r a t u r e was constant. Initially, both the m e r -
cury and nitrogen w e r e at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . However, because of f r i c -
tion, the t e m p e r a t u r e of the m e r c u r y r o s e s e v e r a l d e g r e e s above room
temperature.

After the s y s t e m had "warmied up," the nitrogen and the m e r -

cury flow was adjusted to the d e s i r e d values with valves V-2 and V-3 and
the following flow v a r i a b l e s w e r e r e c o r d e d : static p r e s s u r e gradient,
back p r e s s u r e on the m a n o m e t e r s , nitrogen and miercury t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
nitrogen and m e r c u r y orifice m a n o m e t e r readings, and the b a r o m e t r i c
p r e s s u r e . These v a r i a b l e s w e r e checked frequently, usually at 5-min
i n t e r v a l s , during the c o u r s e of each e x p e r i m e n t (~1.5 h r ) .

B. E l e c t r i c P r o b e

The purpose of this section is to d e s c r i b e a probe which can be

used to jxieasure point values of bubble frequency, bubble-size d i s t r i b u -
tion, and gas fraction in a two-phase s y s t e m . The continuous phase m u s t
be an e l e c t r i c a l conductor.

A review of the l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s only one technique for d e t e r -

mining bubble frequency and b u b b l e - s i z e distributions .*!•'-5) Photographs
of the s y s t e m a r e taken at r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s , and the bubbles in each
photograph a r e counted and m e a s u r e d . Such a technique is obviously
limited.

A v a r i e t y of methods have been used for determining the c r o s s -

sectional a v e r a g e gas fraction. These include the attenuation of g a m m a
r a y s and beta r a y s ; ' 3 8 , 3 9 , l 9) radioactive tracers;!*?) photography;! 15)
and valves which close simultaneously to isolate the t e s t section con-
t e n t s . \ ^ ^ / The m o s t popular method is the gamma,-ray technique, wherein
g a m m a r a y s from a radioactive s o u r c e a r e p a s s e d through the s t r e a m .
The s t r e n g t h of the attenuated beam is a function of the s t r e a m density
and, hence, is r e l a t e d to the gas fraction.

Hooker and P o p p e r l l ^ j have studied the g a m m a - a t t e n u a t i o n method

at some length and have m a d e a detailed uncertainty a n a l y s i s . In one
s e r i e s of t e s t s , g a m m a r a y s from a Tm^''° s o u r c e w e r e b e a m e d through
and attenuated by s t e a m - w a t e r m i x t u r e s contained in a 2.5-in., r e c t a n g u l a r

*A number of devices have been used for counting single

bubbles.(4,13,37)
t e s t section. The e m e r g e n t radiation was detected by a scintillation
c r y s t a l - p h o t o m u l t i p l i e r tube a s s e m b l y . Their analysis showed that the
uncertainty i n c r e a s e s as the gas fraction d e c r e a s e s , ranging from ±2.9%
for a gas fraction of 1.0, to ±7.5% for a gas fraction of 0.10. Similar
t e s t s w e r e made with t h r e e idealized p r e f e r e n t i a l phase distributions
simulated in Lucite. It was concluded that the g a m m a - r a y technique was
unsatisfactory for nonhomogeneous flow. Cook(°) and Egen(12) r e p o r t e d
e r r o r s as l a r g e as 93% in annular flow.

The g a m m a - r a y technique was improved by P e t r i c k . ' 3 9 j He used

a t r a v e r s i n g method in which the s o u r c e and detector w e r e moved a c r o s s
the channel to get a g a s - f r a c t i o n profile. The c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e gas
fraction was obtained by integration of this profile. The difference b e -
tween the gas fractions m e a s u r e d by g a m m a attenuation and the known gas
fraction for simulated p r e f e r e n t i a l gas distributions was 7.3% for the
t r a v e r s i n g technique, w h e r e a s that of the "one shot" method was 36.5%.
However, for homogeneous gas distributions the e r r o r s w e r e simiilar,
being about 1.5%.

The g a m m a - r a y method is r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e for determining

c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e gas fractions when the gas is uniformly d i s -
tributed, the t e s t section offers a radiation path g r e a t e r than 1 in. of
w a t e r , and the gas fraction is g r e a t e r than about 0.25. These conditions
a r e not m e t frequently.

The b e t a - r a y attenuation method has the advantage of higher s e n -

sitivity, since the beta r a y s a r e a b s o r b e d m o r e r e a d i l y than a r e g a m m a
r a y s and, hence, can be used with a c c u r a c y at v e r y low gas fractions. On
the other hand, b e c a u s e of their low energy, beta r a y s can p e n e t r a t e only
s h o r t d i s t a n c e s , and a l i m i t is placed upon the size of channel used.

An a n a l y s i s of the b e t a - r a y technique was m a d e by P e r k i n s . ' 3 ° ;

In this work, beta r a y s from a Y^° s o u r c e w e r e b e a m e d through a 0.19-in.-
thick annular space containing a boiling liquid. V a r i o u s organic liquids as
well as w a t e r w e r e used in the subcooled and the s a t u r a t e d boiling s t a t e .
The e r r o r a n a l y s i s showed that for homogeneous gas distributions an a c -
curacy of 0.5% can be obtained, w h e r e a s for local boiling of w a t e r an
uncertainty of 0.001 in. may be expected in the vapor t h i c k n e s s . Due to
an unknown p r e f e r e n t i a l phase distribution, the b e t a - r a y method is s u b -
j e c t to the s a m e e r r o r s as the gamima-ray method.

The t r a c e r technique employs a radioactive s a l t dissolved in the

liquid phase. The a s s u m p t i o n is inade that the salt does not appear in the
gas phase and, hence, the count is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the liquid fraction. This
technique is subject to the s a m e e r r o r s as the g a m m a - r a y method, p a r -
t i c u l a r l y those due to p r e f e r e n t i a l phase distribution. F u r t h e r , the t r a c e r
s a l t s adhere to the walls of the a p p a r a t u s so that the r e s u l t i n g background
noise m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d when the signal is analyzed.
 Dengler,^"'' using Mn^^Clg at a concentration of 40 m c / l i t e r in a
1-in. v e r t i c a l tube, calculated the m a x i m u m e r r o r in his e x p e r i m e n t s to
be 16%, with the m a j o r i t y of data within 10%.

The use of photographs to d e t e r m i n e bubble volumes and, s u b s e -

quently, gas fractions is lim.ited to simple s y s t e m s of few bubbles and to
t r a n s p a r e n t , r e c t a n g u l a r channels.

All of the foregoing techniques detect s p a c e - a v e r a g e d r a t h e r than

local values of the gas fraction and give no information on individual
bubble frequencies and size d i s t r i b u t i o n s . In g e n e r a l , the phases a r e not
distributed uniformly in the pipe c r o s s section. In v e r t i c a l flow, the gas
tends to concentrate n e a r the pipe axis due to the unbalanced drag force on
an individual bubble in the p r e s e n c e of the wall. Because of the higher
concentration of gas at the center of the pipe, the bubbles tend to be l a r g e r
t h e r e than n e a r the wall.

It is c l e a r that for further p r o g r e s s in understanding the two-phase

flow m e c h a n i s m , local values of the flow v a r i a b l e s m u s t be m e a s u r e d .

1. Definition of V a r i a b l e s

Bubble frequency and b u b b l e - s i z e distribution at a point a r e ,

r e s p e c t i v e l y , the nuinber of bubbles that p a s s the point per unit t i m e , and
the frequency with which bubbles of v a r i o u s d i a m e t e r s p a s s the point. Thus,
the bubble frequency is

f = N/T ,
w h e r e f is the frequency in b u b b l e s / s e c o n d , and N is the total number of
bubbles that p a s s the probe in time T.

The b u b b l e - s i z e distribution is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a c u m u -
lative bubble distribution function:

B(C) = f hiOdC^ . (4.1)

The function B( Q is the probability that the d i a m e t e r of an observed bubble

will be l e s s than ^. Thus,

B(a) = P ( ^ < a) . (4.2)

The probability that a bubble d i a m e t e r fall in an i n t e r v a l a < (^ < b is

P(a < C < b) = B(b) - B(a) . (4.3)

32

F u r t h e r , the density function can be obtained by differentiating B(^):

b(C) = - ^ B(a . (4.4)

In slug flow, the gas slug-length and liquid slug-length d i s -

tributions a r e also i m p o r t a n t quantities, and cumulative distribution func-
tions a r e defined analogously to Eq. (4.1). For gas slugs,

GiO = g ( 0 dC , (4.5)

and for liquid s l u g s ,

UO = f iiOdt^ . (4.6)

R e m a r k s about the significance of the bubble distribution function a r e also

valid for these functions. The lower l i m i t s of the i n t e g r a l s in E q s . (4.5)
and (4.6) a r e different, since a gas slug is defined as a bubble for which
(^ s 1, w h e r e a s a liquid slug is defined as the liquid which s e p a r a t e s two
gas slugs and, hence, has no m i n i m u m s i z e . In g e n e r a l , the liquid slug is
not homogeneous, but contains many s m a l l (^ < l) gas bubbles.

In g e n e r a l , the point, or local void fraction is defined for any

two-phase flow field as the probability that gas will exist at the point
under consideration. F o r flow with stationary t i m e - a v e r a g e d p r o p e r t i e s
( q u a s i - s t e a d y flow), this probability is the fraction of time that gas exists
at the point. The sample interval m u s t be l a r g e c o m p a r e d with the time
scale of the flow o s c i l l a t i o n s , l/f, w h e r e f is the local bubble frequency.
On the other hand, it m u s t be s m a l l c o m p a r e d with any slow v a r i a t i o n s in
the field of flow that a r e not to be a s s o c i a t e d with the instantaneous fluc-
tuations. When the flow has stationary s p a c e - a v e r a g e d p r o p e r t i e s (homo-
geneous flow field)', the probability is the fraction of a s p h e r i c a l volume,
surrounding the point, occupied by g a s . When the flow is neither q u a s i -
steady nor homogeneous, averaging in either time or space coordinates
is i n a p p r o p r i a t e . An e n s e m b l e average at the point in time and space
m u s t be taken over a l a r g e n u m b e r of e x p e r i m e n t s with the s a m e initial
and boundary conditions. F o r q u a s i - s t e a d y flow, the gas fraction is t h e r e -
fore e x p r e s s e d as

a = ^ [1 - f(t)] dt , (4.7)
 33

w h e r e a is the void fraction, and f(t) is a discontinuous function of time

with a value of unity when liquid exists at the point, and zero when gas
exists at the point. The time interval T m u s t satisfy the conditions stated
above.

2. Method

The e l e c t r i c probe consists of a 6-in. length of 0.033-in. steel

w i r e with a 1.25-in. s t e e l sewing needle welded at 90° to the end (see
Fig. 5). The steel w i r e is encased in a 3-in. length of 0.125-in. stainless
steel tube. The needle is insulated e l e c t r i c a l l y from the tube except for
the point by a r e s i n v a r n i s h . The probe is oriented with the needle point-
ing into the flow. A 1.5-v b a t t e r y and 10,000-ohm r e s i s t o r a r e connected
in s e r i e s with the probe to ground. The conducting liquid is also grounded.

1.25

NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES

Fig. 5. E l e c t r i c Probe

The principle of operation is the instantaneous m e a s u r e m e n t

of local r e s i s t i v i t y in the two-phase m i x t u r e . When the needle tip is in
contact with liquid, the c i r c u i t is closed; when it is in contact with gas, the
circuit is open. Since the s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e is large compared to the
probe r e s i s t a n c e ( l 0 , 0 0 0 ; l ) , the voltage drop a c r o s s the s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e
will form a square wave of i r r e g u l a r frequency and constant amplitude of
1.5 V (see Fig. 6).

3.0

1.5

-1.5

-3,0 J_ _L J_ _L
0.2 .8 1.0 1.2 I.U 1.6 1.8 £.0
TIME, sec

Fig. 6. Photographic Record of E l e c t r i c P r o b e Signal

34

T h r e e i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the phase distribution can

be d e t e r m i n e d from an a n a l y s i s of the signal:

(1) the frequency with which the phase changes at the probe
tip, which may be identified with the local bubble frequency;

(2) the dwell time of each gas bubble. A s t a t i s t i c a l analysis

can be used to r e l a t e this quantity to the bubble d i a m e t e r as follows. If it
is a s s u m e d that the bubbles a r e s p h e r i c a l , that they a r e not deflected by
the p r o b e , and that they a r e s m a l l c o m p a r e d with the pipe d i a m e t e r , then
the bubble motion is r a n d o m , and the probe has an equal probability of
piercing any segment of p r o j e c t e d a r e a . The a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r p i e r c e d is
that d i a m e t e r which divides the p r o j e c t e d bubble a r e a into two p a r t s , the
probability of p i e r c i n g each p a r t being equal. Since the probability of
piercing any i n c r e m e n t of a r e a is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the size of the i n c r e -
ment, the p r o j e c t e d a r e a of the bubble m u s t be divided into a c i r c l e and
an annular ring of equal a r e a .

TreVr = 4/?! D ^ = l / 2

e/DB = A / 2 - (4.8)
w h e r e e is the d i a m e t e r of the c i r c u l a r a r e a and, from s y m m e t r y , also
the a v e r a g e bubble d i a m e t e r p i e r c e d . It is r e l a t e d to the dwell time Qg
by the bubble velocity U ^ :

e = ©BUB • (4.9)

Hence, it follows that

DB = V^ ©BUB • (4.10)

F o r v e r y l a r g e bubbles (slugs), the m e a s u r e d length is

coincident with the t r u e length of the slug:

DB = SBUB • (4.11)

Between these limiting conditions (very s m a l l and v e r y

l a r g e bubbles), t h e r e a r e many "medium size bubbles," and for these *

DB = CISBUB ' (4.12)

w h e r e Cj = C I ( D B J S ) is a constant dependent upon the bubble d i a m e t e r and

upon the r a d i a l position of the p r o b e . F o r example, at the pipe center
(S - l ) , v 2 ^ Cj > 1, as bubble size v a r i e s from v e r y s m a l l to v e r y l a r g e ,
w h e r e a s at the wall (S - 0), oo > Cj S: 1, as bubble size v a r i e s from s m a l l
to l a r g e .
 35

T h e p r o b l e m is v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n
m u s t be m a d e . T h e d e p e n d e n c e upon t h e r a d i a l p o s i t i o n of the p r o b e i s
i g n o r e d , and it i s a s s u m e d t h a t limiiting v a l u e s of V T ' a r e to be t a k e n for
b u b b l e s of z e r o d i a m e t e r , a n d of 1 for s l u g s . F u r t h e r , i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t
the d e p e n d e n c e of C;i upon b u b b l e d i a m e t e r is l i n e a r . The effect of t h e s e
a p p r o x i m a t i o n s w i l l be to i n c r e a s e the a p p a r e n t f r e q u e n c y of s m a l l b u b b l e s
n e a r the w a l l . H o w e v e r , t h i s is n o t a s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n in t h i s s t u d y ,
s i n c e t h e r e g i m e of flow i s p r i n c i p a l l y s l u g flow.

(3) t h e f r a c t i o n of t i m e t h a t the c i r c u i t is open. T h i s m a y be

identified with the local gas fraction.

3. Signal A n a l y s i s

An a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to m e a s u r e b u b b l e f r e q u e n c y by m e a n s
of a f l i p - f l o p c i r c u i t . The c i r c u i t c o u n t s the n u m b e r of t i m e s the v o l t a g e
d r o p s to z e r o , u s i n g a " S h a s t a " M o d e l 100 d i g i t a l s c a l e r . The r e s p o n s e of
the c i r c u i t w a s a d e q u a t e to c o u n t a 1 0 0 - c p s s q u a r e - w a v e v o l t a g e c o r r e c t l y ,
b u t the b u b b l e c o u n t s w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r t h a n t h o s e f r o m the p h o t o -
g r a p h i c r e c o r d , as detailed below. Bubble f r e q u e n c i e s w e r e t h e r e f o r e
o b t a i n e d by t h e l a t t e r miethod.

T h e t i m e f o r e a c h g a s b u b b l e to p a s s the p r o b e , 9-^, w a s d e -
t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g the l e n g t h s f r o m a p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d of the
s i g n a l . A " V i s i c o r d e r " M o d e l 906 w a s u s e d to r e c o r d the s i g n a l . T h i s is
a h i g h - s p e e d r e c o r d e r c a p a b l e of r e c o r d i n g s i g n a l f r e q u e n c i e s up to
2000 c p s . T h e r e c o r d i s m a d e v i s i b l e by e x p o s u r e t o f l u o r e s c e n t light.

The f r a c t i o n of t i m e t h e c i r c u i t w a s c l o s e d w a s d e t e r m i n e d by
e l e c t r o n i c a l l y i n t e g r a t i n g the s i g n a l f o r a t i m e T. T h e i n t e g r a t i n g c i r c u i t
i s s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 7.
T h i s i s a s t a n d a r d c i r c u i t for
w h i c h the following r e l a t i o n s h i p
holds:
r-T
1
eo = - ^ I e(t) dt (4.13)
PROBE

Division by -ET/RC gives

J,
RC e(t)
dt = ( 1 - a )
Fig. 7. Integrating Circuit ET
(4.14)

The quantity e ( t ) / E p o s s e s s e s the p r o p e r t i e s of the function f(t) as defined

by Eq. (4.7).
 The integrating circuit had two principal components: an a m -
plifier with power supply, and a r e c o r d e r . The amplifier was a P h i l b r i c k
Model UPA-2 with an output voltage range of ±115 v and a gain of lO'''. The
power supply was a P h i l b r i c k Model RIOOB compound regulated, dual
supply with r a t e d output at ±300 v. A B r i s t o l Model 1PH560 s t r i p r e -
c o r d e r with 100-mv range was used to r e c o r d the output signal. The c i r -
cuit time constant, RC = 2 s e c , allowed integration for as long as 150 s e c .

4. Procedure

The probe was held in position by a "Swedglock" tube fitting

modified by replacing the f i r s t f a r r o w with a 0.125-in. "O" ring and r e -
v e r s i n g the second f a r r o w . This allowed the probe to be moved in or out
and still be leak proof. The axial orientation of the needle was effected by
aligning a dial pointer attached to the probe at 180° to the needle with an
etched v e r t i c a l line c e n t e r e d on the t e s t section. The l a t e r a l position of
the probe was d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g the distance between the t e s t s e c -
tion and the v e r t i c a l pointer.

A photographic r e c o r d of the probe signal was obtained by feed-

ing the signal to one channel of the photographic r e c o r d e r . The r e c o r d e r
was s t a r t e d and allowed to run for 120 s e c . This c o r r e s p o n d e d to a 50-ft
t r a c e of the signal.

Before the gas flow was s t a r t e d , when the systenn. was full of
m e r c u r y , the steady probe signal was i n t e g r a t e d for a time T - 150 s e c .
F r o m Eq. (4.13) this output signal is simply E T / R C and is the quantity by
which all succeeding output signals a r e divided to get the liquid fraction,
Eq. (4.14). This technique does not r e q u i r e an exact value of the i n t e g r a -
tion constant RC. However, it does r e q u i r e that each succeeding i n t e g r a -
tion be made over the s a m e i n t e r v a l , T = 150 s e c , and that the quantity
E T / R C be constant for the e x p e r i m e n t . The standardization integration
was p e r f o r m e d again at the end of the e x p e r i m e n t to e n s u r e that the l a t t e r
prevailed.

The complete g a s - f r a c t i o n profile was obtained by integrating

the probe signal at each of eight r a d i a l positions and calculating a from
Eq. (4.14) with the constant E T / R C .

5. Discussion

Since this is the f i r s t method capable of m e a s u r i n g point values

of gas fraction, t h e r e a r e no p r e v i o u s data with which to c o m p a r e the r e -
s u l t s . However, it is p o s s i b l e to check the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e value,
obtained by integrating the profile, with the a v e r a g e obtained by some
other method. One such method employs the m e a s u r e d s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e
 37

profile along the pipe. F r o m a consideration of the monaentum equation,

one finds that changes in the kinetic energy of the s t r e a m contribute l e s s
than 0.5% to the total s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e loss and may be neglected. Simi-
larly, the frictional loss is e s t i m a t e d by the method of Lockhart and
Martinelli(30) to be l e s s than 2% of the total s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e loss and,
hence, may be neglected.

The local p r e s s u r e gradient is therefore v e r y nearly equal to

the m e a n density at that axial position:

-dP/dz = p (4.15)

where the m i x t u r e density is defined by

p = (l - a ) Pj + apG (4.16)

If it be noted that P G / P L ~ 1/4000, ^ P G ma-Y be neglected, and a relation

between the p r e s s u r e gradient and the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l average gas f r a c -
tion is obtained:

•dP/dz = (1 - a) P L (4.17)

Values of a may be calculated from the m e a s u r e d p r e s s u r e

gradient along the test section. F i g u r e 8 shows the comparison of a d e -
t e r m i n e d in this manner with values
obtained by integrating the a profiles.
The a g r e e m e n t is excellent, the m a x i -
mum deviation being 0.06.

The sources of e r r o r in-

h e r e n t in the method w e r e analyzed to
d e t e r m i n e the uncertainty l i m i t s . The
electronics c i r c u i t s w e r e examined by
i replacing the probe signal with a
la standard half-square wave signal from
a function generator. The integration
circuit was capable of integrating s i g -
o.n 0.6 nals of 1200 cps with a maximum e r r o r
OFROM PROFILE
no g r e a t e r than the e r r o r of reading
Fig. 8. Average Gas Fraction from Integration the r e c o r d e d signal from the s t r i p
of Profile and from Measured Pressure chart, i.e., the output signal was a c -
Gradient curate to ±0.2 V. Since two readings
of the chart were required for each
value of the gas fraction determ.ined and the full c h a r t range was used, the
uncertainty in the gas fraction value was l e s s than ±0.004.
 The r e s p o n s e of the photographic r e c o r d e r was fast enough to
r e c o r d the dwell time of e v e r y bubble which the probe p i e r c e d . The d i a m -
e t e r of the probe tip was about 0.02 in., and bubbles in this range of size
a r e probably deflected. However, because of the l i m i t of c h a r t speed,
bubbles of 0-Q - 0.003 sec or s m a l l e r appeared in the r e c o r d as square
waves of width — in. or l e s s . The method of m e a s u r i n g these widths was
not a c c u r a t e enough to differentiate between bubbles of this s i z e , and they
w e r e all given a 0 B - 0.003. The wave width for l a r g e r bubbles was
m e a s u r e d to the n e a r e s t -^ in., and the individual dwell times w e r e a c c u -
r a t e to 0B ± 0.003 s e c .

The digital s c a l e r e r r o r was 1% for the range of frequencies

f r o m 1 to 100 cps. The range of values was from 1 to 20 cps.

The r a d i a l position of the probe could be m e a s u r e d to the

1 fr'

n e a r e s t j ^ in. or about 3% of the t e s t section d i a m e t e r .

The method is applicable to any gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
s y s t e m in which the continuous phase is an e l e c t r i c a l conductor. It is
p a r t i c u l a r l y advantageous for s y s t e m s in which the continuous phase is
a liquid m e t a l , because of: (1) high conductivity and low capacitance;
(2) high surface energy resulting in non-wetting of the probe, so a fast
b r e a k in the c i r c u i t is obtained; and (3) high density which allows the
liquid m e t a l to r e m a i n continuous at high r a t e s of gas flow.

In the e a r l y stages of development, m e r c u r y - a i r m i x t u r e s

w e r e used. M e r c u r y is not oxidized appreciably by oxygen at room t e m -
p e r a t u r e ; however, t h e r e w e r e enough t r a c e i m p u r i t i e s that a fine m e t a l
oxide powder was produced. These s m a l l p a r t i c l e s w e r e a t t r a c t e d by the
e l e c t r i c a l l y positive needle tip and i n c r e a s e d the probe r e s i s t a n c e so that
the m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e not r e p r o d u c i b l e . This led to the use of nitrogen
instead of a i r and to the installation of a chamois skin filter for filtering
the m e r c u r y after each day of e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . As it turned out, the
nitrogen eliminated oxide formation and the filter was seldom used.

C. Impact P r o b e

In this section is d e s c r i b e d a probe which can be used to m e a s u r e

point values of the liquid velocity in a d i s p e r s e d two-phase s t r e a m when
the gas fraction distribution is known.

Krasiakova(24) used a pitot tube to m e a s u r e stagnation p r e s s u r e s

in stratified and annular horizontal flow, with the static p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d
at the wall. These r e s u l t s gave the liquid and the gas velocity distributions
as well as the thickness of liquid film. However, no attempts w e r e made
to m e a s u r e velocities in d i s p e r s e d flow.
 39

Armand^l^ used a knife edge to cut the exit two-phase s t r e a m from

a pipe into two p a r t s . The ainount of gas and liquid flowing on each side
of the blade was m e a s u r e d . The m a s s flow distribution of each phase was
calculated by differentiating the r e s u l t s as the knife was moved a c r o s s the
channel. In other e x p e r i m e n t s , the exit s t r e a m was cut into an annular
ring and a c i r c l e by tubes of different d i a m e t e r s . The radial distribution
of each phase was calculated by differentiating the r e s u l t s as the differ-
ences in the tube d i a m e t e r s w e r e v a r i e d . The f i r s t of these methods was
used by Griffith and W a l l i s l l " ) in studies of a two-phase boiling analogy.

These methods a r e adequate for application to exit s t r e a m s . How-

ever, they a r e inconvenient to use and the r e s u l t s a r e subject to e r r o r s of
graphical differentiation. It would be convenient to have a method of d e -
termining local values of velocity at any point in the test section. Such a
technique is d e s c r i b e d below.

1. Method

The impact probe (see Fig. 9) consisted of a 3-in. length of

0.125-in. s t a i n l e s s steel tube with one end plugged and the other end
equipped with a tube adapter. At TT in. from
the plugged end, a ^ - i n . hole was drilled in
the tube wall. The probe was held in p o s i -
CTSSXSSXS

.\J • 0.093 ~V
0.126 S.S. TUBE - i SD«PTiB
mtion, with the small hole pointing into the
flow, by a t r a v e r s i n g m e c h a n i s m s i m i l a r to
the one used for the e l e c t r i c probe.
NOTE: ALL DIMEMSIOHS IH INCHES

The probe is designed to m e a s -

Fig. 9- Impact P r o b e ^^.g |.j^g t i m e - a v e r a g e d impulse p r e s s u r e
resulting as the s t r e a m is diverted around
it. Consider a steady s t r e a m of a single fluid as it flows around the probe.
Newton's second law can be used to r e l a t e the impulse p r e s s u r e upon the
probe to the local s t r e a m velocity, with the r e s u l t

Pi = P(uygc)(l - c o s e ) , (4.18)
where 6 is the angle between the axis of the pipe and the direction of the
fluid directly after contact with the probe. This angle is assumed to be
90° and small deviations from this will be taken into account by the probe
calibration.

In a steady two-phase systenn, as slugs of gas and liquid a l -

ternately p a s s the probe, the impulse p r e s s u r e fluctuates between the
limits i-'ci^c'/gc) ^o^ 8^^ ^^^ pj_^{Vj^/g^} for liquid. The value for gas is
very small compared to that for the liquid and may be taken as z e r o . This
is p a r t i c u l a r l y true for the case of m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n flow in which

(.'•GUG)/(PLUL) - 1^400 .
40

Using this approximation, the instantaneous impulse p r e s '

s u r e acting upon the probe can be w r i t t e n

P(t) = PL(uyg)f(t) (4.19)

w h e r e f(t) i s a d i s c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n of t i m e . T h e function
t a k e s t h e v a l u e unity w h e n l i q u i d e x i s t s a t t h e p r o b e , a n d
zero when gas exists at the probe.

A s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t was taken at
t h e p i p e w a l l a n d t h e t w o s i g n a l s fed to a d i f f e r e n t i a l m a -
n o m e t e r s y s t e m ( s e e F i g . 10). The p r e s s u r e s i g n a l s w e r e
fed t h r o u g h 0 . 1 2 5 - i n . , c l e a r p l a s t i c p r e s s u r e tubing to t h e
b o t t o m of two b a f f l e - f i l l e d c a p a c i t a n c e t a n k s . T h e s e t a n k s
Fig. 10 w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d of 1 2 - i n . l e n g t h s of 3 - i n . , S c h e d u l e 80,
s t a i n l e s s s t e e l p i p e , w i t h e a c h e n d c a p p e d . The c a p p e d
Schematic of Dif-
e n d s w e r e e q u i p p e d w i t h tube a d a p t e r s , a n d the t a n k s i n -
ferential Pressure-
Measuring System t e r c o n n e c t e d with a tube line and valve. Each tank w a s
filled about o n e - t h i r d with m e r c u r y and the r e m a i n d e r with
w a t e r . A M e r r i a m M o d e l A282 m a n o m e t e r w a s m o u n t e d a b o v e t h e c a p a c -
i t a n c e t a n k s to m e a s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s in fluid h e i g h t . A c o n s t a n t b a c k p r e s -
s u r e a t t h e t o p of t h e m a n o m e t e r m a i n t a i n e d t h e m a n o m e t e r fluid a t a
convenient level. The s y s t e m s e r v e s t h r e e p u r p o s e s :

( l ) The w a t e r - o v e r - m e r c u r y a r r a n g e m e n t s e r v e s a s a m e -
c h a n i c a l a m p l i f i e r . T h e v o l u m e of w a t e r in e a c h l e g of the s y s t e m i s m a d e
e q u a l a n d m a i n t a i n e d c o n s t a n t , so a m a n o m e t e r a n a l y s i s c a n be u s e d to
r e l a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l m a n o m e t e r r e a d i n g to the p r e s s u r e it r e p r e s e n t s .
Doing t h i s g i v e s

A P = Ah[(d2/di)2 ( P m - P w ) + P w l (4.20)

w h e r e Ah is the differential m a n o m e t e r reading; dj is the inside d i a m e t e r

(2.90 in.) of the capacitance tank; and d2 is the inside d i a m e t e r (0.25 in.)
of the m a n o m e t e r tube. The b r a c k e t e d t e r m is the effective m a n o m e t e r
fluid density p p . F o r this s y s t e m at 23°C, Pp = 68.2 Ib/ft^.

(2) The baffle tanks and the flow-line r e s i s t a n c e damp the

flow oscillations so a t i m e - s m o o t h e d m a n o m e t e r reading is obtained. A
r e l a t i o n between this reading and the local liquid velocity r e s u l t s when
Eq. (4.19) is t i m e smoothed:

AP = P L ( U l / g ) f(t) (4.21)

By a s s u m i n g the turbulent velocity fluctuations of the liquid a r e s m a l l c o m -

p a r e d w i t h the liquid velocity p e r s e , U L is a constant and Eq. (4.21) becomes

AP = p J u ' L / g ) f(t)
 41

or

AP = P L ( u i y g ) ( l - a ) (4.22)

since
f(t) = (1 - a)

by Eq. (4.7).

Equation (4.22) can be solved for U L to give

U L = Cp {(gPFAh)/[pL(l - a ) ] } i / 2 , (4.23)

where an e m p i r i c a l calibration constant, Cp, and AP = pp-Ah have been

introduced.

(3) The constant p r e s s u r e at the top of the m a n o m e t e r auto-

matically keeps gas from entering the probe. If the m a n o m e t e r is at
equilibrium so that it does not drift up or down over a long period of time,
then as gas p a s s e s the probe the impulse p r e s s u r e drops to z e r o . The
constant back p r e s s u r e in the m a n o m e t e r , being l a r g e r than the p r e s s u r e
on the probe, forces the m e r c u r y to flow from the probe. When m e r c u r y
p a s s e s the probe again, the probe p r e s s u r e is g r e a t e r than the back p r e s -
s u r e and m,ercury flows into the probe. The flow is s m a l l in both cases
because of the l a r g e line r e s i s t a n c e
'^^^^® ^ and the small p r e s s u r e difference
(l or 2 in. Hg).
CALIBRATION OF IMPACT PROBE

^orifice, Uprobe, ^orifice _ 2. Calibration

ft/sec ft/sec Uprobe "^
The impact probe was c a l i -
1.42 1.44 0.986 b r a t e d by integrating the velocity p r o -
1.48 1.48 1.000
1.56 0.980
files to get an average liquid velocity
1.59
1.68 1.71 0.983 and comparing this with the average
1.78 1.78 1.000 velocity determ.ined from knowledge
1.89 2.01 0.940 of the total m a s s flow r a t e and the
1.94 1.98 0.980 average gas fraction. Table I shows
Z.02 2.02 1.000
2.10 2.15 0.976 these velocities with values of the c a l i -
2.19 2.21 0.990 bration constant, Uorifice/Uprobe. The
2.22 2.25 0.988 average value is 0.974 and the mean
2.33 2.42 0.963 e r r o r is 3%.
2.42 2.56 0.945
2.43 2.60 0.935
2.92 3.02 0.966 3. Procedure
Averag B Cp: 0.974 The back p r e s s u r e at the
top of the m a n o m e t e r s was i n c r e a s e d
42

to a value slightly g r e a t e r than the static p r e s s u r e in the t e s t section.

Then the p r e s s u r e lines connecting the probe and static tap and m a n o m -
e t e r s y s t e m w e r e opened, and m e r c u r y was forced slowly from the probe
into the t e s t section. In this way, the m.anometers approached a stable
reading from above, and gas was p r e v e n t e d from e n t e r i n g the probe. When
the m a n o m e t e r r e a c h e d a steady difference, the value was r e c o r d e d and
the probe was moved to a new r a d i a l position. This p r o c e d u r e was con-
tinued until the complete profile was obtained. The probe was always
s t a r t e d at the c e n t e r , S = 1, and moved c l o s e r to the wall with each s u c -
ceeding m e a s u r e m e n t . In this way, the p r e s s u r e differential was usually
d e c r e a s i n g and it was n e v e r n e c e s s a r y for m e r c u r y to be drawn into the
m a n o m e t e r lines from the t e s t section. The r e s i s t a n c e lines and the
capacitance of the s y s t e m w e r e v e r y l a r g e and, h e n c e , the r e s p o n s e of the
s y s t e m was v e r y slow. F o r this r e a s o n , about 5 m i n w e r e r e q u i r e d b e -
tween m e a s u r e m e n t s for the systemi to r e a c h a stable reading.

4. Discussion

In developing the probe, the p r i n c i p a l p r o b l e m was to p r e v e n t

gas from entering the p r o b e . Initially, a pitot tube was used, and the p r e s -
s u r e signal was m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of a Stathana Model PM80TC p r e s s u r e
t r a n s d u c e r . This is a z e r o v o l u m e - d i s p l a c e m e n t i n s t r u m e n t ; once it is
filled, it is u n n e c e s s a r y for additional liquid to be drawn from the s y s t e m .
It was thought that by having a constant-volumie m e a s u r i n g systemi t h e r e
would be no opportunity for gas to e n t e r the l i n e s . However, as gas p a s s e d
the pitot tube, m e r c u r y d r a i n e d from the v e r t i c a l section of the pitot tube,
leaving it filled with nitrogen. F o r this r e a s o n , the i m p a c t probe d e s c r i b e d
above was adopted.

The i m p a c t p r o b e gave inconsistent r e s u l t s . Apparently, after

a few minutes of operation, the m e r c u r y would d r a i n from the horizontal
p r o b e , leaving it full of nitrogen. The t r a n s d u c e r was r e p l a c e d by the
manonaeter s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d above. This worked v e r y well.

The probe is applicable to any g a s - l i q u i d or liquid-liquid

s y s t e m in which one phase is much m o r e dense than the other. F o r this
r e a s o n , it worked v e r y well for m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n flow, but would be l e s s
valuable for m o s t liquid-liquid s y s t e m s or for s t e a m - w a t e r flow at higher
pressures.
 V. R E S U L T S AND DISCUSSIONS

The i n e r t i a l , v i s c o u s , g r a v i t a t i o n a l , and s u r f a c e f o r c e s , a s well a s

t h e p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , d e t e r m i n e w h i c h flow p a t t e r n w i l l e x i s t in t w o -
p h a s e flow; h e n c e , t h e R e y n o l d s , F r o u d e , a n d W e b e r nuro.bers a r e , i n gen-
e r a l , i m p o r t a n t c o r r e l a t i n g f a c t o r s . These n u m b e r s a r e defined as

Inertial Force PVygc ,_ , .

R e = —. = = "777—r- ; 15.1)
Viscous F o r c e /iV/gcL

^ Inertial Force _ P^Vgc ^ , .

Gravitational Force p gL/gp

Inertial Force pVygc .^ ^.

We = • - — = -ri , (5.3)
Surface F o r c e a/L

w h e r e p i s t h e d e n s i t y ; jU t h e v i s c o s i t y ; a t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n ; V the v e l o c i t y ;
and L a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c length.

T h e e x p e r i m e n t s of t h i s s t u d y w e r e p e r f o r m e d at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e ,
a n d b u o y a n t a n d s u r f a c e f o r c e s , w h i c h c o n t a i n only fluid p r o p e r t i e s , w e r e
c o n s t a n t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e F r o u d e a n d W e b e r n u m b e r s m a y be e l i m i n a t e d
a s c o r r e l a t i n g f a c t o r s a n d t h e d e p e n d e n c e upon i n e r t i a l f o r c e c o n c e n t r a t e d in
t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r . Two f a c t o r s w e r e u s e d to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e r e s u l t s : a
R e y n o l d s n u m b e r b a s e d upon t h e t o t a l m a s s flow r a t e a n d t h e l i q u i d
viscosity:

Re = 4 W x A D p / i L > (5-4)

a n d the v o l u m e t r i c g a s flow f r a c t i o n ^, d e f i n e d a s

|3 = Q G / ( Q L + Q G ) • (5-5)

T h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r i s m u c h l a r g e r t h a n /3, so a r e d u c e d R e y n o l d s n u m b e r ,
defined a s

R e * = Re X 10"^ , (5.6)

w a s u s e d t o s i m p l i f y p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e d a t a .

T h e v a r i a b l e s w e r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e R e * and jB in t h e f o r m

V ^ m Re ^ / S ^ , (5.7)

w h e r e V r e p r e s e n t s a n y flow v a r i a b l e , a n d m , n, and p a r e c o n s t a n t s . A
l e a s t - s q u a r e s c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m w a s u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s of m , n,
a n d p w h i c h fit t h e d a t a b e s t .
A. Gas F r a c t i o n and Liquid Velocity P r o f i l e s

P r o f i l e s of t h e g a s f r a c t i o n a n d t h e l i q u i d v e l o c i t y w e r e m e a s u r e d
a t t h r e e p o s i t i o n s a l o n g t h e l e n g t h of the t e s t s e c t i o n , m e a s u r i n g f r o m t h e
i n l e t a t I = 5.7, 2 8 . 5 , a n d 5 1 . 5 , w h e r e t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s l e n g t h | i s g i v e n
a s z / D p . F o r m a n y r u n s , a n a d d i t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t of g a s f r a c t i o n w a s
m a d e a t | = 1 7 . 1 . In e v e r y c a s e , t h o s e m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n at | = 5.7 e x -
h i b i t e d e n t r a n c e e f f e c t s a s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f i l e s of b o t h
g a s f r a c t i o n a n d l i q u i d v e l o c i t y . At | = 28.5 a n d 5 1 . 5 , t h e flow w a s a l w a y s
fully d e v e l o p e d , a s i n d i c a t e d by s t a b l e p r o f i l e s , s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , a n d b u b b l e -
s i z e s p e c t r a . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a t | = 17.1 s h o w e d e n t r a n c e e f f e c t s for
s m a l l p , a n d t h e flow w a s fully d e v e l o p e d for l a r g e j8.

The d a t a for g a s f r a c t i o n for a l l e x p e r i m e n t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in

T a b l e A - 1 , p a g e 62. F i g u r e 11 s h o w s t y p i c a l g a s - f r a c t i o n p r o f i l e s a t
I = 5 . 7 . F i g u r e 12 s h o w s g a s f r a c t i o n p r o f i l e s a t | = 5.7 for i n c r e a s i n g
v a l u e s of j6 f r o m 0.13 t o 0.52, a n d d e c r e a s i n g v a l u e s of R e * . T h i s i l l u s -
t r a t e s t h e p r o f i l e d e v e l o p m e n t a s t h e r e l a t i v e v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e of g a s
i s i n c r e a s e d . T h e p h e n o m e n o n of a m a x i m u m g a s f r a c t i o n a t t h e w a l l i s a
r e s u l t of t h e n o n - w e t t i n g c h a r a c t e r of m e r c u r y a n d , h e n c e , t h e p a r t i a l
a b s e n c e of a l i q u i d f i l m a t t h e w a l l . Slugs of g a s a n d l i q u i d a l t e r n a t e l y
e n t e r t h e t e s t s e c t i o n . B e c a u s e of t h e h i g h s u r f a c e e n e r g y of m e r c u r y a n d
t h e i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e u n d e r s u r f a c e of t h e m e r c u r y s l u g , t h e g a s t e n d s t o w a r d s
t h e w a l l , giving a m a x i m u m g a s f r a c t i o n . T h i s type of flow i s u n s t a b l e , a s
e v i d e n c e d b y l a r g e f l u c t u a t i o n s (l t o 5 i n . Hg) of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e m i x e r ,
and a l a r g e s l i p v e l o c i t y r a t i o (as h i g h a s 10).

Fig. 11. Typical Gas Fraction Profiles Fig. 12, Developing Gas Fraction
at f s 5.7 Profiles for Increasing
Values of B
 45

F u r t h e r up the tube, at | = 28.5, the flow becomes stable, and b e -

cause of frictional forces at the wall, the gas fraction profile is inverted to
become dome shaped, with a m a x i m u m at the center of the tube. A s i m i l a r
inversion of the gas-fraction profile was r e p o r t e d by Wrightl42) for forced-
convection boiling at a point in the channel which coincided with a change
from subcooled to s a t u r a t e d boiling. This change in shape was thought to
coincide with a change in flow r e g i m e from bubble flow to slug and annular
flow. As the flow advances up the column to | = 51.5, further change in
the g a s - f r a c t i o n profile is indistinguishable. Figure 13 shows profiles at
I - 28.5 and ^ = 51.5 for a typical e x p e r i m e n t . The average gas fraction
at ^ = 51.5 is l a r g e r because of a d e c r e a s e in static p r e s s u r e and the con-
sequent expansion of the nitrogen. F i g u r e 14 shows profiles at | = 28.5
for constant |3 and varying Re*.

o.w

0.2

0.30

a 0.1 —

0.20

Fig. 13. Gas F r a c t i o n Profiles at Fig. 14. Gas Fraction Profiles at

i = 28.5 and | = 51.5 for C^ 28.5 and ? = 51.5 for
Varying ^ and Constant Varying Re* and Con-
Re* = 2.6 stant ^ = 0.3

The g a s - f r a c t i o n profiles m e a s u r e d at | = 17.1 were concave down-

ward, usually as those in developed flow, but the s t a t i c - p r e s s u r e fluctua-
tions and slip velocity ratio were high enough to indicate only partial flow
development. For this r e a s o n , these profiles were of l e s s i n t e r e s t and
only a few m e a s u r e m e n t s were m a d e .

The data for liquid velocity a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table A - 2 , page 66.

Figure 15 shows typical liquid-velocity profiles at | = 5 . 7 for i n c r e a s i n g ^.
46

2.8
The m a x i m u i n l i q u i d v e l o c i t y o c c u r s
—1—1—1—' 1
' 1 n e a r t h e point of m a x i m u m g a s f r a c -
fi t i o n b u t i s d i s p l a c e d b e c a u s e of w a l l
^"*».^l 13.8 O.ZHO friction.
2.0

-L
—

^~--Cl.,ll.7
1

O.I7«
-£L,— O -
The g a s - v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e i s
e x p e c t e d to h a v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e
1.5 o— s a m e s h a p e , with a m a x i m u r n n e a r
:^0J30
s- t h e w a l l . The d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
liquid-velocity profiles parallels
1.0 • 1 1 ,1, , 1 t h a t of t h e g a s f r a c t i o n . At | = 2 8 . 5 ,
0.2 0.1* 0.6 0.8
the profile b e c o m e s dome shaped,
with a m a x i m u m at t h e t u b e c e n t e r .
Fig. 15. L i q u i d V e l o c i t y P r o f i l e s No f u r t h e r c h a n g e o c c u r s a s t h e flow
a t I = 5 . 7 for L a r g e R e * mioves to ^ - 5 1 . 5 . F i g u r e 16 s h o w s
a n d I n c r e a s i n g j8 p r o f i l e s a t | = 28.5 a n d | = 51.5 for
a t y p i c a l e x p e r i m e n t . F i g u r e 17
s h o w s p r o f i l e s for flow of n e a r l y c o n s t a n t j3 a n d v a r y i n g R e '

1 1 1 '1 r '1
' 1 ' ' p Re'
5
3.0
"""
--t
51.5

^—w-
0 3W -
HX !" ' ^ y ^

- —
-
^ (f^
2.0
)0
4^
U^ 2.0
~ / /
28.5 0 262
-I
1.0

0.5
f
0 0.2
1
O.H
RUN

0.6
B-2
Re* = 13.6

0.8
1
1.0
—
1.0

' i
0.2
l
0.14
l
0.6
S
1
0.8
1
1.0
1

s
Fig. l6. Liquid Velocity Profiles F i g . 17. L i q u i d V e l o c i t y P r o -
a t I = 28.5 and t = 51.5 f i l e s for jB = 0.3 a n d
for V a r y i n g ^ a n d C o n - Varying Re*
s t a n t R e * = 13.6

T h e p r o f i l e s , i n fully d e v e l o p e d flow of both g a s f r a c t i o n a n d liquid

v e l o c i t y , d e c r e a s e r a p i d l y n e a r t h e w a l l ; a n d , a l t h o u g h it i s doubtful that
t h e g a s f r a c t i o n g o e s t o z e r o ( b e c a u s e of n o n - w e t t i n g ) , both p r o f i l e s can
be e x p r e s s e d c o n v e n i e n t l y a s a p o w e r function of the r a d i a l p o s i t i o n S:

a * = S^-^P
and
U*^ = s^/^
 47

The data from Tables A-1 and A-2 w e r e plotted logarithmically, and
values of n and p w e r e found by determining the b e s t straight line through
the data points. The r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table A - 3 , page 66. The m a g -
nitudes v a r y from 7 to 43, indicating v e r y flat profiles, as would be expected
for slug flow. In addition, values of the constant

K = (HpOjAinp
and the contribution to the a v e r a g e slip velocity ratio

X = (1 - a ) / ( K - a ) (5.8)

w e r e calculated and a r e p r e s e n t e d . The average phase-velocity ratio d e -

t e r m i n e d from the m a s s flow r a t e of e a c h p h a s e is also given for c o m p a r i s o n .

The i m p o r t a n c e of phase distribution is m a x i m u m when n and p take

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m i n i m u m values ('~7 and ~'7) and K = 0.98, The m a x i m u m
value of A, calcula-ted was 1.02. C o m p a r i s o n of this value with the average
p h a s e - v e l o c i t y ratio (>2) shows, for the s y s t e m of m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n in slug
flow, that the phase distribution is relatively unimportant in determining the
average p h a s e - v e l o c i t y r a t i o . F o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , plug flow can be
assumed:

a* = U*^ = U* = 1 ,

which c o r r e s p o n d s to K = 1, and

C5 = 71 = U G / U L .

The l e a s t - s q u a r e s p r o g r a m was used to determ.ine the dependence

of the local p h a s e - v e l o c i t y ratio 0 ( = T ] ) , upon the flow v a r i a b l e s Re* and ^:

$ = 0.74/|3^-5(Re*)°-^ . (5.9)

The e r r o r in this c o r r e l a t i o n is ±10%.

When the profiles a r e v e r y flat, as they a r e h e r e , an e r r o r of 30%

or 50% in the exponent is a l m o s t indistinguishable in the shape of the p r o -
file; and so it is difficult to d e t e r m i n e the influence of the flow v a r i a b l e s .
Re* and |3, upon the values of n and p. In g e n e r a l , the values of n and p
have a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e magnitude and v a r y in the s a m e direction;
that i s , when p i n c r e a s e s , n i n c r e a s e s . The l e a s t - s q u a r e p r o g r a m was used
to d e t e r i n i n e the v a r i a t i o n of n and p with Re* and fi. These r e s u l t s give

n = 32.67(f:/Re*)°'32 ; (5.10)

p = 27.43{.6'''Re*)°-25 . (5.11)
The e r r o r in these equations is l a r g e . However, they give the g e n e r a l v a r -
iation of the exponents with the c o r r e l a t i n g f a c t o r s . These equations show
that the m o r e gas p r e s e n t , the m o r e uniform is the distribution of both the
gas fraction and liquid velocity; and as the total m a s s flow r a t e , which is
e s s e n t i a l l y the m a s s flow r a t e of m e r c u r y , i n c r e a s e s , the gas tends to b e -
come m o r e concentrated at the tube c e n t e r .

The p a r a m e t e r C = 'a//3, from Armiand's e m p i r i c a l equation (2.37),

was evaluated from the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e gas fraction d e t e r m i n e d by
integrating the profiles and the v o l u m e t r i c gas flow fraction. These r e s u l t s
a r e shown in Table A-4, page 67, The a v e r a g e value C = 0.472 and the
deviations from the m e a n for each e x p e r i m e n t a r e also shown. F o r m e r c u r y
nitrogen flow, Armiand's r e l a t i o n is not valid, since C depends upon the flow
v a r i a b l e s . The values of C w e r e c o r r e l a t e d with an equation of the form

C = 0.47 ^°-88(Re*)°-*i , (5.12)

The e r r o r in this equation is l e s s than 5%.

B. Average Velocities

T h r e e important a v e r a g e velocities can be defined for two-phase

flow; the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e velocity of each p h a s e , U L and UQ, and
the m i x t u r e velocity, which is the total volume flow r a t e divided by the
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the tube:

VMix = (QG + Q L ) / A P . (5,15)

The fact that the gas phase flows f a s t e r than the liquid phase can
be e x p r e s s e d by t h r e e different slip v e l o c i t i e s . These a r e :

the gas slip velocity

UQ = UG - V^ij, ; (5.14)

the liquid slip velocity

U L = U L " Vj^ij^ ; (5.15)

and the r e l a t i v e slip velocity

UR = UG - U L . (5.16)

The r e l a t i v e slip velocity is m o s t frequently used. Also, many

p a p e r s p r e s e n t slip data as the a v e r a g e p h a s e - v e l o c i t y r a t i o , 'Q - U G / U L -
Values of T] a r e given in Table A - 3 , page 66.
 Values of the t h r e e a v e r a g e velocities and the t h r e e slip v e l o c i t i e s ,
defined above, a r e given in Table A - 5 , page 68, for all experiinents and for
fully developed flow. The l e a s t - s q u a r e s p r o g r a m was used to c o r r e l a t e the
slip velocity t e r m s to the c o r r e l a t i n g factors j3 and Re*. The gas slip veloc
ity and the relative slip velocity w e r e found to be independent of Re*, but
i n v e r s e l y proportional to jS as follows:

UQ - 0.87 (/3)-°-^^ ; (5.17)

UR = 1.52 (/3)-°-^^ . (5.18)

The e r r o r in Eq. (5.13) was ± 16%, and in Eq. (5.14), ± 19%. The liquid slip
velocity was given by:

U L = 1.0 (/3)i-96(Re*)0-« . (5.15)

The e r r o r in this c o r r e l a t i o n was much g r e a t e r (±30%) than in E q s . (5.13)

and (5.14). The l a r g e r e r r o r r e s u l t s from subtracting t e r m s of c o m p a r a b l e
size and the propagation of t h e i r individual e r r o r s .

C Bubble D i a m e t e r and Slug Length Spectra

Photographic r e c o r d s of the e l e c t r i c a l probe signal w e r e taken at

t h r e e positions along the length of the t e s t section: 4 ~ 5.17, 28.5, and
51.5; and at t h r e e r a d i a l p o s i t i o n s : S = 1, 0.5, and 0.06. Graphical r e p r e -
sentations of the c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u b b l e - s i z e distributions a r e shown in
F i g s . 18, 19, and 20. F r o m t h e s e r e s u l t s , it m a y be concluded that the
s m a l l bubbles a r e uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d in the tube c r o s s section. This is
undoubtedly due to the turbulence and mixing action of the two-phase flow.

F u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n shows that the probability is 0.8 to 0.9 for any

bubble that | < 1. N e v e r t h e l e s s , by c o m p a r i s o n of the total a r e a under the
bubble distribution c u r v e to the a r e a under the curve for | < 1, it can be
shown that the contribution of such bubbles to the gas fraction is l e s s than
10%. This is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of slug flow. Despite the g r e a t e r n u m b e r of
s m a l l bubbles, ixiost of the gas flow is c a r r i e d by s l u g s . These r e s u l t s a r e
in a g r e e m e n t with photographic studies of a i r - w a t e r flow being c a r r i e d out
at Argonne National L a b o r a t o r y .

The cumulative gas slug length distribution for fully developed flow
is shown in F i g s . 21 and 22. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g liquid slug distribution is
shown in F i g . 23. Since the length of a slug is its c e n t e r - l i n e length, it is
n e c e s s a r y to take slug-length data only at S = 1. The distributions show
that, frequently, the d i s t a n c e between gas slugs is s m a l l ( < 1 in.). Results
of a i r - w a t e r flow studies by Griffith and Wallis^^"'' and by Moissis and
Griffith(^°) indicate that when two slugs approach each other too closely
50

1 1 11 1 I I I
1 II 1 Ml| r nrr-i ii111 i 1 1 Mlllj 1 I I TTTTT
1.0 —

B(U
0.8 -

0.6
- / /
W
/

I
—

—
/ n
—
RUN C - l RUN J - l
R8* = 2.64 Re**= 2.13
0.4 / ^ = O.ll — 0 = 0.536 ~~"
~
^ /
/
0 9 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 M 1 1 II 1 1 1 11Illl 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ll 1 I1I 1 I I I
0.1 ^0 0.1 10 100

1 1 II 1 1 1 l{ 11 1 1 Illlj 1 1 M 1hi
1.0 —
jgs*--
B(C)
0.8 — —
^
RUN N- RUN 0 - 1
B.e* = 1.33 / R s * = 1.33
0 = 0.584 0 = 0.769
0.6 —
/

J I I I ll I I I \ L_L 1 1 1 1 1I l l l 1 1 1 1 II 111 1 1 1 1 1 1 II
0.5 1 10 50 0.1 10 100

. 1 1 1 1111 i 1 I l l l Illl 1—rTTTTTT TTTTT

1.0 —

i(£)
0.8 —
—

f>y RUN U-l

—

0.6 Re*-6.55
0 = 0.232

/
0.4 1 I N I fill 1 J 1 1I l l l I I I I Mill I I I I Hill I I i I I
0.1 10 0 . 100

Fig. 18. Bubble Size Distribution at | = 5.7

 51

I I I 111] 1—I I I I l l l { \—rTTTTTT]" T—TTTTTn] 1—rTTTTTT| T

1.0

0.8

B(£) 0.6

0.4 —
RUN C-l RUN J-l
Re* = 2 . 6 4 Re*= 2.13
0 ' 0.589 p = 0.609
0.2

QI I I Hill i I I i I L I I I Illl, 1I I U„-UiJlL_J LJ^LUJji__J__I

0.03 0.1 I 10 20 0.1 I 10 40

1 1 M 1 l{ i 1 'T 1 n i | ' 1 I Tllllll T—rTTTTTT] \—I I I I l l l | — T ^ T

. ^
^^rr ^%^r^

0.8 — ^>^
B(S)
^
RUN N-l RUN 0-1
Re*=l.33 Re* = 1.33
0.6 — / 0 = 0.625 — 0 = 0.815

/
n a 1 1 1 lllK J_. i ,.i._ 11 III i i i 1 Mill J LLLLLHJ L_l_LLLLLiJ L..JL.
0.03 0.1

TTTTTT] 1—rTTTTTTI T TTTTTTl

1.0 -—
O S = 0.06
V S = 0.5
• S = 1.0
0.8

B ( U 0,6

0.4 —
RUN V - 3 RUN U-l
R i * = 0.919 Re**' 6.55
e = 0.90S 0 - 0.299
0.2

AI I I I Illl I I I I Iml I I M I ml •Ll III I LLLLUIJ I LL-LmiL

0.03 0.1 10 2 0 0.05 0.1 10 20
S e
Fig. 19. Bubble Size Distribution at | = 28.5
 TTTTTT] i—rTTTTTT] 1 rTTTTTT TT^ 1—rTTTTTT] 1 TTTTTTTr
1.0 —

0.8

0.6

Ht)
0.4
RUN C-l
Re*= 2 . 6 4
0 = 0.671
0£

-LLiiiJ I I I I IJ-LlI \ I I i Mill lilll \ L l j Mill I I I Mini

0.03 0.1 10 0.05 0.1 10 20

TTTTTT] \ I I T-| FTT] I I II Mll| II III 1 r 1 i Mill i "T-T TTTTTT

1.0 —
B-l?.^®^

rJ
0.8 —
B(5)
RUN N-l RUN 0-1
0.6 Re*= 1.33 Re*= 1.33
0 = 0.722 / 0 = 0.655
/
0.4 I I II III \ I I ! I ! Ill I I I I i Illl 1 M Ll 1 1 1 1 Mill ,1 1 -,L
-LLLLLl

1 M 1 M| 1 1 1 1M i l l 1 1 Mill I 1 1 1 \ 1 1 Mill
i n rn m|
7 —
1.0
O S = 0.06 ^t^^
V S = 0.5
nS-^--^"^
r
D S= 1.0
0,
0.8
r?
^ '
B(£) •y
— -
0.6 / ' RUN V - l
Rs* = 0.919 ~
•n /
A RUN U-l
Re* = 6.55
0 = 0.927 0 ' 0.354
/
0.4 / — a
/

n9 i I 1 Ll..iJ.., 1 1 I i 1 ml 1 ml _J-iUJ.. 11 ml 1 1 11 M i l l
0.03 0.1 10 0.05 0.1 10 20

F i g . 20. Bubble Size D i s t r i b u t i o n a t ^ = 5 1 . 5

 1.0
r r- 1 1 1 1 1 1 ] * 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 j r^>"

0.8 o9
o/

0.6
— — — —
GfD
— — -
°/ RUN N-l
R e * = 1.33
- / RUN 0 - 1
R t ^ = l.33
/ 0 = 0.652
—
0 = 0.815
- /
4
1 1 Ml I I M 1 _.i 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1
20 I 10 20 30

10 20 I 10 20 1 20 30
£ £ t
Fig. 2 1 . Gas Slug Length Distribution at ^ = 28.5
 (Jl

1.0 \ 1 1 r i 1iij ^U\

0.8

0.6 — — / -
Bit)
0.4 o/
RUN N - I RUN 0 - 1
Re*= 1.33 Re*» 1.33
/
0.2 — ^»0.7gg — - / $' 0 . 8 S 5 —
A
J 1 I, l,,l i II \ \ 1 1 1 1 III 1
10 20 I 10 20 10 20 I 10 20
t
I.U
1 1 1 1 Nil] fP 1 T r r-] I ' l i j - - 5* 1 1 M 1 1 IIM? 1 1 I I I IL
oY
0.8 — - — - ~ ~
y
O.S — -
6(1) / yOC3
q/
0.4 - - — —
RUN P - l RUN T - l RUN U - l
R®*= 1.82 ' / Re*- 3 . 4 6 Re*- 6.55
0.2 ! • 0.600 fi" 0 . 6 2 2 — O $" 0 . 3 5 4

/°
- / •
o
y
0 1 ,.],„ 1 1 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 1 11 1 I I I
20 I 10 20 I 20 20

Fig. 22. Gas Slug Length Distribution at | = 51.5

 1.0
T 1 "1 1 T"rn 1 1 iT-n 1 L^ 1

0.8 -— RUN C 1
R e * . 2.64
1=0.671
0.6

LCC)
/ :

0.2

)
1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1,
0.1

1 I 1 1 1 III! 11 1 n u l l
1.0

RUN T-l

1
0.8 R e * =1 3.46
0 . 0.622

0.6 - -
L(0 /
0.4 -
/
i /

0.2 -
^

0 1 I l l l ILLI , 1,,_j_ L I J J X L L
0.1

Fig. 23. Liquid Slug Length Distribution at ^ = 51.5

56

(about 6 in. in a 1-in. tube), the t r a i l i n g slug, influenced by the wake of the
leading one, r i s e s faster and eventually the two a g g l o m e r a t e . This p r o c e s s
is the l a s t stage of developing slug flow. To show that the m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n
flow of this study is stable and, h e n c e , fully developed, distribution data at
I = 28.5 and | = 51.5 a r e plotted in Fig. 24. The fact that the g a s - s l u g - l e n g t h
distribution does not change in the upper half of the t e s t section indicates
that the flow is stable.

1.0

0.8

0.6 —

G(D
0.4

0.2 —

1.0
1 1 1 1 1llil ^^o-

V f = 28.5 y 1 = 28.5
0.8 O f = 5 1.5 — O { = 51.5
Z'©
Ao
0.6
/ -^
G(a
0.4 —
V
vA
O.g —
RUN 0 - 1

' I I I _i_LLijJ 1
go I 10 20
i
Fig. 24. Comparison of Liquid Slug Length Distributions
at I = 28.5 and | = 51.5

The conflict can be r e s o l v e d by an analysis of the basic flow s t r u c -

t u r e . "Wheri the liquid wets the tube wall, slug flow is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
l a r g e bubbles, called Taylor bubbles, almost_filling the tube. The nose of
the bubble is round and the fluid flows down around the bubble, forming a
 57

continuous film at the wall. The wake is a l o w - p r e s s u r e region which a t -

t r a c t s a t r a i l i n g slug. "When the liquid does not wet the tube wall, slug flow
is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by alternating slugs of gas and liquid completely filling
the tube c r o s s section. The nose of the gas slug tends to be flat; however,
shear at the wall d i s t o r t s it to a slightly domed shape. For tube d i a m e t e r
s m a l l e r than some c r i t i c a l value, d e t e r m i n e d by Taylor instability,v43j I]^Q
gas slugs retain this shape, corapletely filling the tube, and t h e r e is no slip
of the gas past the liquid. However, when the tube d i a m e t e r is g r e a t e r than
the c r i t i c a l value, the upper surface of the gas slug b e c o m e s unstable, and
the liquid pours through the gas slug, resulting in slip. The c r i t i c a l tube
d i a m e t e r is the s m a l l e s t d i a m e t e r in which a surface wave can be p r o p a -
gated. Lamb(26) shows this to be

1/2
dc = ^ (5.19)
LS^PL-PG)]

where O^ is the surface tension of the m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n i n t e r f a c e , about

490 d y n e s / c m at 20°C. The value of d^ at this t e m p e r a t u r e is 0.23 in. In
a 1-in. tube, t h e r e i s no wake in the n o r m a l sense of a l o w - p r e s s u r e region
produced by flow around the bubble. Hence, a second slug may follow close
behind. At equilibrium, the slugs may agglonnerate, but they a r e produced
at the s a m e r a t e .

o.u
Since m e r c u r y probably
1 p o u r s through the gas slug in an i r -
( = 28.5 f = 51.5
P = 0.815 j8 ' 0.855 r e g u l a r fashion, the individual slugs
will be a s y m m e t r i c a l at any instant.
5.0 —
A A~ However, one would expect the t i m e -
averaged slug shape to be a x i s y m -
U.O — m e t r i c a l . This average slug size
C/ \ " and shape can be determined by
/ \ r m e a s u r i n g the average slug length
3.0
_ cj \) — from the photographic r e c o r d of the
probe signal at S = 1, 0.5, and 0.06,
and assuming the tail of the slug to
2.0 RUN 0 - 1 be flat. F i g u r e 25 shows typical slug
Re* = .33 shapes determined in this way.
1.0 — —
These r e s u l t s prompted a
visual study of the flow. A 3-ft
0
length of glass pipe (of 1-in. d i a m -
1 1 e t e r ) was e r e c t e d v e r t i c a l l y . A
1 r u b b e r stopper with a nitrogen i n -
0 I 0 0 I 0
s s
j e c t o r was i n s e r t e d at the bottom
and a m e r c u r y t r a p for entrained
Fig. 25. Time Average Slug Shapes m e r c u r y was connected at the top.
Slugs of nitrogen w e r e forced in the bottom and photographed as they r o s e
through stagnant m e r c u r y . The l a r g e s t slug which could be produced was
8 in. long.

The conclusion of an a s y m m e t r i c slug (see above) was verified.

The slugs, up to about 4 in. long, moved up one side wall, with the m e r c u r y
falling down the opposite wall. As the slug r o s e , it slowly rotated inside
the tube. Typical n i t r o g e n - s l u g g e o m e t r i e s a r e shown in Fig. 26, The
s h o r t e r slugs (1 in. and 4 in. long) a r e shaped s i m i l a r l y to one-half of a
Taylor slug. The bottoms a r e a l m o s t flat. The longer slugs (7 in. to 8 in.
long) a r e s p i r a l shaped. The probable explanation is that in rotating the
bottom of the slug lags behind the top.

D. Slug Velocities

It was shown above that the liquid-velocity and the g a s - f r a c t i o n

profiles a r e v e r y flat, and the a s s u m p t i o n of slug flow can be m a d e . By
m e a n s of the a s s u m p t i o n of s i m i l a r profiles for the liquid-velocity and
g a s - v e l o c i t y profiles (which was made in modifying the v a r i a b l e - d e n s i t y
model), the slug velocity, with r e s p e c t to l a b o r a t o r y c o o r d i n a t e s , is the
s a m e as the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a v e r a g e gas velocity, Griffith and 'Wallis d e -
fined a slug velocity, with r e s p e c t to the s y s t e m , as the velocity of the gas
slug with r e s p e c t to the liquid well ahead of it. In the notation defined h e r e ,
this is equivalent to the gas slip velocity. In t h e i r p a p e r it was p r o p o s e d to
c o r r e l a t e the slug velocity as

Us/O.495 gDp = C2 , (5.20)

w h e r e C2 is a p a r a m e t e r dependent upon the slug Reynolds n u m b e r

Reg = UgOp/UL

and the s t r e a m Reynolds n u m b e r

Re = Vj^i^ D p / D L .

At v e r y l a r g e values of these quantities, as was encountered in this w o r k

(RCg = 10,000 and Re = 9000 m i n i m u m ) , the p r e d i c t e d values of C2 a r e 1,0
or 1.1. However, when the data a r e p r e s e n t e d in this form, Cj is of the
o r d e r 1.8. A c o r r e l a t i o n of C2 with the flow v a r i a b l e s shows that Cg is i n -
dependent of Re* and is given by

C2 = 1.05//3°-^^ . (5.21)

The e r r o r in this equation is ±16%.

Considering the differences in the basic flow s t r u c t u r e , it is not

s u r p r i s i n g that the t h e o r y for a i r - w a t e r slug flow does not p r e d i c t the
slug velocity in m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n flow.
 59

ll]

8-IN, SLUG 1 - I N = SLUG 1 - I N . SLUG

Fig. 26. Nitrogen Slugs in Stagnant Mercury

 VI. CONCLUSIONS

The g a s - f r a c t i o n and liquid-velocity profiles in fully developed flow

can be e x p r e s s e d by p o w e r - l a w r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The exponents for these r e -
lationships have about the s a m e magnitude and v a r y ^vith the flow p a r a m -
e t e r s in the s a m e direction.

E n t r a n c e effects p e r s i s t for about 20 tube d i a m e t e r s . In m e r c u r y -

nitrogen flow, t h e s e a r e manifested by a l a r g e gas fraction at the wall, as
well as l a r g e fluctuations of static p r e s s u r e and a l a r g e phase-velocity
ratio.

In m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n slug flow, the phase distribution is not i m p o r -

tant in determining the a v e r a g e phase-velocity r a t i o (K = 1), and all slip
is due to local slip. F u r t h e r , under the assumptions made in the modified
v a r i a b l e - d e n s i t y model, the local slip i s given by Eq. (5.9).

The e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t of A r m a n d : ( l )

o/^ = C

is not valid for this study, since C is a function of the flow v a r i a b l e s

according to Eq, (5.12).

The gas slip velocity and the r e l a t i v e slip velocity a r e quantities

which can be c o r r e l a t e d r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e l y . F o r very l a r g e Reynolds
n u n i b e r s , as in this study (Re > 9000), these quantities a r e independent of
Ryenolds n u m b e r , as shown in E q s . (5.17) and (5.18). The liquid slip v e l o c -
ity, on the other hand, cannot be c o r r e l a t e d a c c u r a t e l y because it is such a
s m a l l quantity.

The bubble d i a m e t e r and slug (both gas and liquid) length s p e c t r a

can be r e p r e s e n t e d as a cumulative distribution function. These show that
the l a r g e proportion of bubbles have ^ < 1, but that m o s t of the gas flow is
c a r r i e d by the slugs.

The b a s i c flow s t r u c t u r e of m e r c u r y - n i t r o g e n flow is different from

a i r - w a t e r flow as a r e s u l t of the high surface energy of r a e r c u r y ; c o n s e -
quently, the t h e o r i e s derived from a i r - w a t e r flow cannot be used to p r e d i c t
flow v a r i a b l e s .

The usual Taylor bubble does not appear. The gas slug r i s e s up the
walls with the liquid pouring down the opposite wall. The slugs rotate as they
r i s e , and very long gas slugs a r e s p i r a l shaped.

The Griffith and Wallis slug-velocity c o r r e l a t i o n does not apply. A

new c o r r e l a t i o n , using the s a m e b a s i s followed by Griffith and Wallis, was
successfully m a d e .
 61

APPENDIX A
TABULATED DATA
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s—
64

Tabli A-1 (Contd,)

Gas Fraction,
T, Re*
WG(IO)'*,
lb/sec lb/sec
S e-5,7 S 1=17.1 S C=2S.5 S e=51.5

Run D-1

31 2.04 1.40 2.01 0.030 0,072 0,062 0,106 0.062 0.159 P,

0.149 0,065 0.181 0,113 0.187 0.175 C psfa /8
0.267 0.061 0,320 0,114 0.312 0.184
0.366 0.057 0,439 0,122 0.437 0.185 5.7 5840 0,386
0.505 0.053 0,578 0,124 0.562 0.186 17.1 5055 0,417
0.605 0.049 0,697 0.118 0.687 0,206 28.5 4310 0,457
0.743 0.045 0,836 0.124 0.812 0,205 51.5 2865 0,559
0.842 0.045 0.123 0.938 0,222
0.980 0,044
o.m
0.955 0,123

Run F-!

24 0.7% 0,563 6.49 0.030 0,088 0.0468 0,209 0.062 0,351 0.187 0,256 P,
0.149 0,057 0.172 0,227 0.181 0.386 0.312 0,334 psfa (S
0.267 0,059 0.297 0.242 0,320 0.416 0.437 0.433 c
0,366 0,065 0.422 0.281 0,439 0.416 0.562 0.439 5.7 4640 0,860
0,505 0,083 0.547 0.263 0,578 0.425 0.687 0.458 17.1 4040 0,872
0,605 0,093 0.672 0.306 0,697 0.443 0.812 0.446 28.5 3510 0.890
0,743 0,103 0.797 0.338 0,836 0,450 0.937 0,442 51.5 2510 0,920
0,842 0.117 0.922 0.349 0,906 0,451 0.938 0.456
0,980 0,125 0.953 0,345 0,955 0,464

Run H-1

24 2.20 1.55 2.89 0,030 0.025 0.047 0,096 0,062 0,131 0.062 0.207 P,
0.149 0.010 0.110 0.098 0.181 0.149 0.187 0.237 C psfa
0,267 0.010 0.235 0.102 0.320 0.176 0.312 0.259
^
0.366 0.011 0.360 0,123 0.439 0,182 0.437 0.258 5.7 5640 0,450
0.505 0,018 0.485 0.134 0.578 0,184 0.562 0,270 17.1 48% 0.486
0.605 0,018 0.610 0.138 0.697 0,188 0.687 0,278 28.5 4160 0.526
0.743 0.018 0.735 0.138 0.836 0,182 0.812 0.275 51.5 2860 0.616
0.842 0.020 0.860 0.138 O.TO 0.182 0.937 0.298
0.980 0.021 0.985 0.142 0.955 0.185 0.938 0.280

Run I-l

24 2,82 2.00 4.52 0.030 0.072 0.062 0.270 0,062 0.332 P,

0.149 0.0416 0.181 0.317 0,187 0,397 C psfa /S
0.267 0.0541 0.320 0.346 0,312 0.422
0.366 0.0653 0.439 0.361 0,437 0.430 5.7 5100 0.525
0.505 0.0764 0.578 0.380 0,562 0.439 17.1 4460 0.556
0.605 0.0834 0.697 0,388 0.687 0.459 28.5 3880 O.SW
0.743 0.104 0.836 0,385 0.812 0.467 51.5 2820 0.665
0.840 0.104 0.906 0,392 0.937 0.465
0.980 0.104 0.955 0,398 0.938 0.472

Run K-1

25 1,84 1.295 3.81 0.030 0.0166 0.047 0.114 0.062 0,152 0.062 0.250 P,
0.149 0.0139 0.078 0.125 0.181 0,219 0.187 0.320 c psfa P
0.267 0,0180 0,203 0.170 0.320 0,234 0.312 0.338
5.7 5530 0.565
0.505 0.0278 0.328 0,179 0.578 0,259 0.562 0.377
17.1 4810 0.599
0.743 0,0347 0.578 0,185 0.697 0,252 0.687 0.360
28.5 4140 0.633
0.980 0.0431 0.828 0,201 0.836 0,248 0.812 0,364
51.5 3040 0.701
0.922 0,192 0.906 0,261 0.937 0,360
0,955 0.275 0.938 0,373

Run L-1

26 1,25 0.874 3.81 0.030 0.025 0.047 0.126 0.062 0.183 0.062 0.297 P,
0.149 0.0167 0.078 0.150 0.181 0.224 0.187 0.320
0.267 0.0264 0.203 0,183 0.320 0.250 0.312 0.365
i psfa ^
0.505 0.0333 0.328 0.181 0.439 0.265 0.562 0.379 5.7 5150 0.681
0,743 0.0362 0,453 0.187 0.578 0.285 0.812 0.371 17.1 4450 0.710
0,980 0.0473 0,578 0.1765 0.836 0.289 0.938 0.389 28.5 3850 0.740
0.703 0,208 0.906 0.293 51.5 2780 0.796
0,828 0,195
0.922 0,216
0.953 0,224
 65

Table A-1 (Contd,)

Gas Fraction, a
WL. WgClO)*,
"C Re lb/sec lb/sec
S e=5.7 S e=I7.1 S i = 28,5 S e = 51.5

RunM-1

24 1,774 1,25 2M 0,030 0.022 0.(M7 0.057 0.062 0.107 0,062 0.207
0,149 0,0083 0.078 0.068 0,181 0.144 0.187 0.246 P,
0,267 0,0104 0.203 0,099 0,320 0.156 0,312 0.268 € psfa ^
0.305 0,0139 0.328 0,119 0,578 0.179 0,562 0.285
5.7 5550 0.511
0,743 0.0167 0.453 0,122 0,836 0.196 0.687 0.278
17,1 4810 0.547
0,980 0.018 0.578 0,108 0,906 0.167 0,812 0.271
28,5 4100 0.587
0.703 0,126 0.955 0.167 0,937 0.292
51,5 2750 0.679
0.828 0,111 0,938 0.314
0.922 0,137
0.»3 0.1325

Run Q-1
P,
28 2,83 1,96 5,83 0.030 0.0375 0.047 0,136 0,062 0.208 0,062 0.304 c psfa ^
0.149 0.0389 0.203 0,209 0,181 0.218 0,187 0.357
5,7 5060 0.596
0.267 0.0403 0.328 0,229 0.320 0.292 0,312 0.401
17,1 4410 0.630
0.5(B 0.0625 0.578 0,271 0,578 0.294 0,562 0.419
28,5 3830
0.743 0.075 0.828 0,279 0,836 0.332 0.812 0.444
51,5 2810 0.727
0.980 0.0805 0.922 0,264 0,TO 0.340 0,937 0.419
0,938 0.436

Run S-1

27 4,66 3.26 4.22 0.030 0.139 0.047 0,0725 0,062 0.114 0,062 0.241 P,
0.149 0.112 0.078 0,099 0,181 0.156 0,187 0.275 « psfa P
0.267 0.125 0.203 0,132 0,320 0.184 0,312 0.3ffi 5.7 5520 0.369
0,5CB 0,0121 0.328 0,139 0,578 0.202 0,562 0.329 17,1 4770 0.403
0,743 0,125 0.578 0,164 0,836 0.220 0,812 0.332 28,5 4070 0,442
0.980 0,124 0.828 0,155 0,«6 0.212 0,938 0.337 51,5 2800 0,535
0.922 0,155

Run W-1
P,
30 1,08 0.754 6,62 0,030 0,059 0.047 0.207 0,062 0.330 0,062 0.429 e psfa /8
0,149 0,015 0,203 0.308 0,181 0.377 0,312 0.510
0,267 0,015 0.328 0.323 0,320 0.394 0,562 0.523 5.7 4460 0,834
0,505 0,087 0,578 0.341 0,578 0.440 0,812 0.532 17,1 38«) 0,850
0,743 0.098 0.828 0.358 0,836 0.459 0.9a 0.546 28.5 3400 0,869
0.842 0.107 0.922 0.377 0,906 0.440 51.5 2560 0.878
0.980 0.138
 Table A-2

LIQUID VELOCITY

Liquid Velocity, UL Liquid Velocity, UL

Run i?un
Re« Re"
No. No.
S 1 = 5.7 S f=28.5 S i - 51.5 S C=5.7 S {=28.5 S C-51.5

B-1 8.61 0,070 0.46 0.04 0.88 B-2 13,2 0,01 1.17 0.01 0.57 0.04 1.02
0,18 1.37 0.15 1.36 f /3 0.125 2.15 0.125 1.51 0.15 1.94
0,42 1.61 0.27 1.68 0.24 2.10 0.244 2.16 0.39 2.56
e ,8
0,66 1.70 0,39 1.69 5.7 0.268 0.36 2.08 0.36 2.23 0.63 2.66
I.9I 2.32 5.7 0.211
0,86 1.70 0.63 1.74 28.5 0.332 0.60 0.60 0.87 2 73
1.81 2.39 2.73 28.5 0.262
0.90 1.72 0.87 1.75 51.5 0.407 0.84 0.84 0.89
1.84 2.43 51.5 0.344
0.89 1.72 0.92 0.92
0.96 1.84 0.96 2,45
R-1 7.86 0.01 0.65 0,04 0.845
0.12 0.95 0.15 1.17 1 13 C-2 11.7 0.01 1.31 O.OI 0.03 0.04 0.72
0.36 1.205 0.27 1.43 0.125 1.88 0.125 !.44 0.15 1.61
0.60 1.335 0.39 1.48 5.7 0.252 0.24 1.85 0.36 1.72 0.27 2.02
( 0
0.84 1.34 0.63 1.54 28.5 0.310 0.36 1.77 0.60 1.89 0.39 2.08
0.92 2.22 5.7 0.174
1.34 0.87 1.59 51.5 0.407 0.60 1.66 0.68 2.04 0.63
2.28 28,5 0.220
0.99 1.59 0.84 1.58 0.84 2.02 0.87
2.34 51.5 0.292
0.92 1.56 0.92 2.05 0.89
U-l 6.55 0.01 0.54 004 0.82 0.96 1.50 0.99 2.29
0.125 0.783 0.15 0.98 e 0
0.360 1.055 0.27 1.19 D-2 10,0 0.01 1.45 0.0! 0.49 0.04 0.55
0.60 1.08 0.39 1,25 5.7 0.232 0.125 1.59 0.125 0.98 0.15 1.44
0.84 1.11 0.63 1.30 28.5 0.299 0.24 1.52 0.36 1.20 0.27 1.66
0.92 1.11 0.87 1.345 51.5 0.354 0.36 1.46 0.60 1.65 0.39 1.68
5.7 0.130
0.99 1.325 0.60 1.41 0.68 1.78 0.63 172
28,5 0.168
0.84 1.29 0.84 1.71 0.87 1.79
51.5 0.230
A-2 14.5 O.Dl 1.24 0.01 0,67 0.B4 0.82 0.92 1.36 0.92 1.71 0.89 1.85
0.125 2.45 0.125 1,86 0.15 2.44 0.96 1.29
2.36 2.64 0,39 3.17
( 0
0.24 0.24
0.36 2.17 0.36 2.70 0,63 3.36 F-2 13.8 0.01 1.41 0.01 0.665 0.04 0.56
5.7 0.262
0.60 2.15 0.60 2.76 0.87 3.S 0.125 2.27 0.125 1.395 0.15 2.07
28.5 0.319 C /3
0.84 2.12 0.84 2.81 0.89 3.42 0.24 2.16 0.24 2.43 0.27 2.70
51.5 0.397
0.92 2.12 0.92 2.86 0.36 2.07 0.36 2.41 0.39 2.79
5.7 0.240
0.% 2,11 0.96 2.86 0.60 1.89 0.60 2.47 0.63 2.82
28.5 0.296
0.84 1.88 0.84 2.53 0.87 2.99
51.5 0.380
0.92 2.56 0.89 2.99
0.96 2.56 0.99 2.96

Table A-3

CALCULATED PROFILE DATA

Run No. 1 n P K X V * Run No, e n P K X V *

C-l 3,66 D-2 28.5 9.0 140 0.985 1.01 3.52 3.48
3,64 51.5 8.5 9.4 0.987 1.01 2.58 2.55
J-l 28.5 8.5 5.20 F-2 28.5 8.0 6.7 0.985 1.02 2.59 2.54
51.5 22.3 4.46 51.5 11.0 7.9 0.985 1.02 2.25 2.20
N-l 28.5 11.4 7.16 D-1 28.5 22.3 6.39
51.5 22.6 5.61 51.5 13.2 5.26
0-1 28.5 7.0 8.0 F-1 28.5 12.5 12.1
51.5 21.9 7.0 51.5 29.0 15.1
P-l 28.5 8.0 6.20 H-1 28.5 10.7 5.61
51.5 16.6 5.20 51.5 15.0 4.80
T-l 28.5 6.3 4.03 1-1 28.5 10.9 2.75
51,5 21.2 2.94 51.5 13.3 2.65
V-l 28.5 15.0 11.50 K-1 28.5 9.6 5.30
51.5 43.0 9.36 51.5 16.8 4.75
B-1 28.5 20.0 8.2 0.990 1.01 2.44 2.41 L-1 28.5 8.4 8.03
51.5 8.7 11.6 0.995 1.00 1.80 1.80 51.5 19.0 7.00
R-1 28.5 13.0 8.7 0.990 1.01 3.08 3.05 M-1 28.5 8,7 7.21
51.5 13.0 15.0 1.00 1.0O 2.13 2.13 51.5 15.6 5.72
U-l 28.5 10.0 9.7 0.985 1.02 3.64 3.57 Q-1 28.5 9.2 4.77
51.5 12.0 19.1 0.997 1,00 3.31 3.31 51.5 17.2 4.07
A-2 28.5 8.5 7.9 1.00 I.OO 2.28 2.28 S-1 28.5 8.1 3.43
51.5 U.O 7.6 0.986 1.02 1.80 1.76 51.5 16.4 2.58
B-2 28.5 10.0 8.2 0.990 1.02 2.42 2.37 W-1 28.5 12.2 9.30
51.5 11.0 16.5 0.990 1.01 1.92 1.90 51.5 25.0 8.^5
C-2 28.5 8.5 6.7 0.985 1.02 2.73 2.68
51.5 10.0 11.9 0.985 1.02 2.40 2.35
 67

Table A - 4

ARMAND'S P A R A M E T E R

Run Run
No. i a |3 C 6
No. e a /3 C 6

C-l 28.5 0.282 0.589 0.479 0.007 D-2 28.5 0.056 0.168 0.333 0.139
51.5 0.365 0.671 0.543 0.071 51.5 0.108 0.230 0.470 0.002

J-l 28.5 0.222 0.609 0.365 0.107 F-2 28.5 0.139 0.396 0.470 0.002
51.5 0.337 0.695 0.485 0.013 51.5 0.213 0.380 0.560 0.088

N-l 28,5 0.205 0.652 0.315 0.157 D-1 28.5 0.116 0.457 0.254 0.218
51,5 0.316 0.722 0.438 0.034 51.5 0.194 0.557 0.348 0.124

O-l 28,5 0.355 0.815 0.435 0.037 F-1 28.5 0.400 0.890 0.450 0.222
51.5 0.457 0.855 0.535 0.063 51.5 0.428 0.920 0.465 0.007

P-l 28,5 0.321 0.748 0.430 0.042 H-1 28.5 0.165 0.526 0.313 0.159
51,5 0.432 0.800 0.540 0.068 51.5 0.255 0.616 0.413 0.059

T-l 28.5 0.221 0.535 0.413 0.059 I-l 28.5 0.343 0.590 0.581 0.109
51.5 0.358 0.622 0.575 0.103 51.5 0.428 0.665 0.643 0.171

V-l 28.5 0.460 0.905 0.509 0.037 K-1 28.5 0.249 0.633 0.394 0.078
51.5 0.579 0,927 0.625 0.153 51.5 0.337 0.701 0.480 0.008

B-1 28.5 0,169 0,332 0.510 0.038 L-1 28.5 0.260 0.740 0.352 0.120
51.5 0.277 0.407 0.680 0.208 51.5 0.358 0.796 0.450 0.022

R-1 28.5 0,111 0.310 0.358 0.114 M-1 28.5 0.164 0.587 0.280 0.192
51.5 0.234 0.395 0.592 0.120 51.5 0.269 0.679 0.396 0.076

U-l 28.5 0.087 0.299 0.291 0.181 Q-1 28.5 0.290 0.661 0.439 0.033
51.5 0.171 0.354 0.484 0.012 51.5 0.395 0.727 0.343 0.071

A-2 28.5 0.172 0.319 0.540 0.068 S-1 28.5 0.188 0.442 0.425 0.047
51.5 0.273 0.397 0.687 0.215 51.5 0.309 0.535 0.578 0.106

B-2 28.5 0.128 0.262 0.489 0.017 W-1 28.5 0.415 0.869 0.478 0.006
51.5 0.215 0.344 0.625 0.153 51.5 0.509 0.878 0.579 0.107

C-2 28.5 0.094 0.220 0.427 0.045

51.5 0.146 0.292 0.500 0.028

A v e r a g e \'alue s: 0.472 0.083

 Table A-5
A V E R A G E AND S L I P V E L O C I T Y D A T A
Run
No. e VMix UG UL ^G -^L UR

C-l 28.5 0.87 1.83 0.50 0.96 0.37 1.33

51.5 1.00 1.77 0.56 0.77 0.44 1.21

J-l 28.5 0.74 2.00 0.380 1.26 0.36 1.62

51.5 0.963 1.99 0.445 1.03 0.52 1.54

N-l 28.5 0.527 1.67 0.23 1.14 0.30 1.44

51.5 0.665 1.52 0.27 0.86 0.39 1.25

O-l 28.5 1.00 2.30 0.287 1.30 0.71 2.01

51.5 1.28 2.39 0.341 1.11 0.44 2.05

P-l 28.5 1.00 2.30 0.371 1.30 0.63 1.93

51.5 1.25 2.31 0.444 1.06 0.81 1.87

T-l 28.5 1.01 2.45 0.609 1.44 0.40 1.84

51.5 1.25 2.17 0.737 0.92 0.51 1.43

V-l 28.5 1.31 2.58 0.232 1.27 1.08 2.35

51.5 1.74 2.78 0.298 1.04 1.44 2.48
B-1 28.5 1.78 3.48 1.43 1.70 0.35 2.05
51.5 2.00 2.95 1.62 0.95 0.36 1.31
R-1 28.5 1.56 3.73 1.21 2.17 0.35 2.52
51.5 1.78 3.0 1.41 1.22 0.39 2.59
U-l 28.5 1.28 3.64 1.00 2.36 0.28 2.64
51.5 1.51 3.64 1.10 2.13 0.41 1.54
A-2 28.5 2.98 5.53 2.42 2.55 0.56 3.11
51.5 3.35 4.89 2.72 1.54 0.83 2.17
B-2 28.5 2.48 5.08 2.10 2.60 0.38 2.98
51,5 2.80 4.48 2,33 1.68 0.47 2.15
C-2 28,5 2.07 4.85 1,78 2.78 0.29 3.07
]
51,5 2.28 4.55 1,89 2.28 0.39 2.66
D-2 28,5 1.74 5.20 1,48 3.46 0.26 3.73
51,5 1.89 4.03 1,56 2.14 0.33 2.47
F-2 28,5 2.71 5.75 2,22 3.04 0.49 3.53
51,5 3.07 5.48 2,43 2.41 0.64 3.05
D-1 28.5 0.508 1.99 0.312 1.48 0.196 1.68
51.5 0.625 1.79 0.340 1.17 0.285 1.45
F-1 28.5 1.01 2.23 0.184 1.22 0.83 2.05
51.5 1.39 2.91 0.192 1.52 1.20 2.72
H-1 28.5 0.645 2.05 0.365 1.41 0.28 1.68
51.5 0.796 1.93 0.410 1.13 0.39 1.52
I-l 28.5 0.96 1.65 0.60 0.69 0.36 1.05
51.5 1.18 1.82 0.69 0.64 0.49 1.131
K-1 28.5 0.705 1.80 0.339 1.09 0.366 1.46
51.5 0.867 1.81 0.385 0.94 0.482 1.42
L-1 28.5 0.659 1.87 0.233 1.21 0.426 1.64
51.5 0.845 1.88 0.269 1.04 0.576 1.61
M-1 28.5 0.596 2.13 0.295 1.53 0.301 1.84
51.5 0.770 1.94 0.338 1.17 0.432 1.60
Q-1 28.5 1.14 2.60 0.545 1.46 0.60 2.06
51.5 1.41 2.60 0.639 1.19 0.77 1.96
S-1 28.5 1.15 2.71 0,791 1.56 0.36 1.92
51.5 1.38 2.40 0.93 1,02 0.45 1.47
-W-1 28.5 1.16 2.37 0.255 1.21 0.90 2.12
51.5 1.45 2.56 0.303 1,11 1.15 2.26
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The major p a r t of this study was p e r f o r m e d at Argonne National

Laboratory under the a u s p i c e s of the United States Atomic Energy
Commission through a cooperative a r r a n g e m e n t with Northwestern Uni-
v e r s i t y . Other p a r t s of the work w e r e p e r f o r m e d at the University of
New Hampshire Computation Center and Chemical Engineering
Laboratories.

I would like to e x p r e s s my s i n c e r e thanks to P r o f e s s o r S. G. Bankoff

of N o r t h w e s t e r n University, who introduced m e to the p r o b l e m s of two-
phase flow and suggested the p r e s e n t investigation; and, in p a r t i c u l a r , for
hxs many suggestions and c r i t i c i s m s during the c o u r s e of the study.

I am also grateful to Dr, Paul Lottes of Argonne for his c o o p e r a -

tion and counsel; to Dr, Helge Christensen, now at the Institutt for
Atomenergi, Kjeller, Norway, for helpful d i s c u s s i o n s ; and to Albert
Stogsdill, who helped c o n s t r u c t and operate the a p p a r a t u s , and reduce the
data.

Finally, my thanks to Charles Brown, a student at the University

of New H a m p s h i r e , for taking photographs of the gas bubbles.