Ultra cell structure

As Biology ( 9700)
2022-2023
 Light microscope

Eye piece graticule

Eye piece
Stage micrometer

Objective lens

Stage

Light source

Large knob is the coarse focus

Small knob is the fine focus
Magnification The number of times the image is larger than the actual size

I
Units Image length
Magnification = M
1 cm = 10 mm Actual length A
1mm = 1000um
1Ium = 1000 nm

it
Resolution Ability to distinguish between two points as separate
Form
The higher the resolution , the more details you can see
How to measure the resolution ?
1/2 of the shortest wave length of the radiation / beam being used to view a specimen.

gorm

d Light beams …shortest wave length is 400nm …resolution = 200 nm

Light microscope Electron microscope

Shortest wave length= 400nm

Shortest wave length is 1nm
1/2 shortest wave length = 200nm
1/2 shortest wave length = 0.5 nm
Resolution = 200nm
Resolution is o.5nm
If the distance between two points is less than
If the distance between two points is less than
200nm, so they cant be distinguished as
0.5nm, so they cant be distinguished as separate .
separate .

Explain why some organelles cant be

Why the cell organelle can be seen by electron
seen by light microscope
microscope
1. The organelle might be too small to interfere with light
1. EM can provide a more detailed image with
2. LM has lower resolution , uses light beam , where
high resolution
shortest wave length is 400nm , so resolution which
2. Use electron beams
is half the wave length = 200nm .
3. Resolution 0.5 nm vs LM which has a
3. So if the distance between the two points is less
resolution of 200nm .
than 200nm, the ability to distinguish between the
4. So better able to distinguish between 2
two points as separate is not high enough .
points as separate .
5. So we can see more details

LM EM
4/7/2023
Part 2
LM vs EM
Measurement of specimen
Cell organelles
 Light microscope
Electron microscope
Use light beams of shortest wave length 400nm
Use electron beams which has extremely short wave length

Lower resolution of 200nm

Higher resolution of 0.5 nm

Magnification 1500 times

Higher magnification up to 500,000 X
Eye piece x objective lens

Advantages Disadvantages of EM :

1. Portable 1. not Portable

2. Can observe living cells 2. kill living cells as it uses vacuum ( to avoid
3. We can add water to slide to allow cell to move scattering of electrons )
4. Doesnt need technical training 3. need technical training
5. Provide image with real color 4. Provide a black and white image
6. use stains 5. Need heavy metals

Advantages …why use EM over LM ?

Gives more detailed image with higher resolution
Use electron beams
Resolution is 0.5 nm vs LM has 200 nm resolution
So better able to distinguish between two points as separate
So we can see more details
 Electron microscope

Transmission electron micrograph Scanning electron micrograph

↓ ↓
2B 3D
image image

2D image similar to those from LM Provide a 3D image

But magnified 500,000 times more
showing more details
Measurements

Cell …20 units

20 x 2.5= 50 Sum

40 0
12 = up
.
:

401,
:
1
0 .
0023 X 1000

: blum
2

40 units …….0.1 mm…100um

1 unit……………0.0025mm…2.5um
I
5x2 Lum =

15x2 20m =

10 = 20
30
-

z 3
 Prokaryotes
-
Eukaryotes

-
0.5 to 5 um -
40 um ( 10 -100 um )

Circular / loop of DNA not numu

enclosed inside a nucleus DNA is found as chromosome and enclosed inside a nucleus
- -

E
Naked DNA with no histone proteins DNA-
associated with histone proteins
↑

Histone
Cell wall made from peptidoglycan ( murein ) Animals…no cell wall
-

Plants ….cellulose cell wall

-

-
Fungi ….cell wall made from chitin
3
00
O
O
C
umm

70 s ribosomes ( smaller ribosomes )

-
80S ribosomes ( larger ribosomes )
&
as 70s in Mitochondria +
Chloroplast
Foldingmembrane
Plasmids ,>
pili, mesosomes
in
-
DNA -

X
Vesicles
-

-) Extensions >
-

Mostly used in reproduction

No membrane bound organelles such as nur Single ……..double membrane bound organelle
-

No nucleus Golgi body

·
No mitochondrion
RER
No endoplasmic reticulum
No vesicles
No Golgi body
Nucleus Mitochondrion Cholorplast
 Pro. Vs. Eu

· Circular DNA Linear DNA

No nucleus Nucleus

No histone proteins Has histone proteins

70 S ribosomes 80S ribosomes

Cell wall made from murein / peptidoglycan Animal ..no

Plant …cellulose
Fungi …chitin

No membrane bound organelle Double Single Non membrane

1. Nucleus 1. RER 1. Ribosomes

2. Mitochondria 2. SER 2. Nucleolus
3. Chloroplast 3. Golgi body
4. Vesicles
:
i
i ~
d
-

warni

i
 >
-
Increase
Surface
- area
·
 Ultra cell structure ( cell organelles )

1. Endoplasmic reticulum Single membrane bound organelle

Rough ER
Smooth ER

.
Ribosomes
Structure :
Cisternae Tubular sacs called Cisternae , and not associated with
ribosomes
Cisternal space
Function:
Synthesis of lipids and steroids such as reproductive hormones
( testosterone , oestrogen )
Transport vesicles
Structure

Flattened sacs called cisternae, attached to outer membrane of nuclear envelope

Covered with ribosomes
https://youtu.be/URUJD5NEXC8
Function :

1. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosomes which are attached to the ER
2. Where the ribosomes are site of translation ( mRNA code for specific sequence of amino acids )
3. modification of protein such as glycoslyation ( adding of carbohydrate part to protein )
4. Transport protein to Golgi body in a transport vesicle .
 2. Ribosomes
Structure
1. Non membrane bound organelle
2. Made from 2 subunits ( large and small subunits )
3. Each subunit is made of rRNA and proteins
4. And made in nucleolus
5. 2 types
A) 80S in eukaryotes ( RER , cytoplasm )
B) 70S in prokaryotes , chloroplast , mitochondria

Function :

Site of translation and protein synthesis

A) where ribosomes are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum ..for the protein to be synthesised and
transported to Golgi body through transport vesicles

B) found in cytoplasm ..make proteins inside the cell .

3. Golgi body Exocytosis

.
Secretory vesicles
Golgi vesicles

.......
Lysosmes
Transport vesicles

Structure

1. Single membrane bound organelle

2. Flattened sacs with NO Connection BETWEEN MEMBRANE
3. vesicles at the end of the sacs

Function
1. Modification of protein …such as glycosylation ( by addition of carbohydrate part) , or filding into a 3D shape ,
by adding a non protein part such as haemoglobin .

2. Packaging and transporting of the synthesised modified protein into Golgi vesicle either remain inside the cells or
transport it outside the cell

3. Produce lysosomes
4. + with lipid …allow modification of lipids into glycolipids , then packaging , then transporting into Golgi vesicles
How proteins in the ribosome reach the cell surface membrane :

1. Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosome which is attached to RER.

2. Protein enter cisternal space of RER …for modification
3. Transport vesicle bud off RER
4. Vesicle move and fuse ( with Cis. Face ) with Golgi body
5. Followed by another modification : such as glycosylation ( adding of a carbohydrate
part ) or folding into a specific 3D shape .
6. Packaging of modified protein into a Golgi vesicle …then bud off from trans face
7. Move towards the cell surface membrane ( move by cytoskeleton )
And empty its content by exocytosis using energy from ATP
8. Or vesicle move to be used inside the cell such as lysosomes .

Single membrane bound organelle: Double membrane bound Non membrane bound organelle :
1. RER organelle ; 1.Ribosomes
2. SER 1. Mitochondria 2. Centrioles
3. Golgi body 2. Nucleus 3. Nucleolus
4. vesicles 3. Chloroplast .
5. vacuoles
6. Lysosmes
4. Lysosomes Single membrane bound organelle

Found nearly in all animal cells

0.1 -0.5 um
re
Spherical in shape
It contains hydrolytic enzymes y
my some
y
How lysosomes are formed :
1. Enzymes are synthesised in ribosomes on RER
2. And then transported to Golgi body ( in a transport vesicle )
3. Protein modification in Golgi body
4. Golgi vesicle containing processed enzymes bud off and now stay inside the cell and called lysosomes

/ function of lysosomes
Contains hydrolytic enzymes :
1. break down engulfed bacteria / pathogen in phagocytosis
2. Break down excess or worn out organelles ..in Autophagy
3. Release these enzymes outside of the cells such as ..acrosome
4. Complete break down to cells that have died …Autolysis
5. Break down food particles …for enrichment of cytoplasm
Read
 ATP synthase
5. Mitochondria Outer membrane

i
1 um in diameter ' Cristae
Loop of DNA
Double membrane bound organelle
Rod/ sausage shaped
Inner folded membrane ( CRISTAE) 70S
A) folded membrane to increase the surface area to carry more ribosomes
ATP synthase …for aerobic respiration to produce ATP .

Matrix
B) more selective barrier …selective barrier …control precisely
Inter membrane space
which ions and molecules enter the matrix

Outer membrane …more permeable

Matrix ….. interior solution with 70 S ribosomes and loop of DNA ….allow
mitochondria to replicate on its own ( self replicate ) and synthesis of proteins
like some respiratory enzymes ( ATP synthase ) .

Function :
1. Aerobic respiration to produce ATP
2. Involved in lipid synthesis
Prokaryotes
Mitochondria 70 S ribosomes Endosymbiont theory
Chloroplast Loop of DNA

Study Mitochondria and chloroplast were thought to be originally a prokaryotic cell …….engulfed by
eukaryotic cell …..thats why they have the 70S ribosomes and circular DNA molecule
A) mitochondria result from endocytosis of aerobi bacteria
B) chloroplast result from engulf of photosynthestic bacteria
 Nuclear pores
6 . Nucleus Chromatin

1. Largest cell organelle 12-16 um

2. Double membrane bound organelle
3. Outer membrane is attached to RER with 80 S ribosomes
4. Nuclear envelop has nuclear pores
· Nucleolus
5. Contain nucleolus and chromatin

Function:
1. Contain chromatins ( DNA) carry genes responsible for cell activities , cell division and inheritance
2. Nuclear DNA contain specific genetic codes for protein synthesis and production of mRNA
3. Contain nucleolus for synthesis rRNA and combine with protein to form ribosomal subunits
4. Protect DNA from enzymes
 EM

Nuclear envelope
RER
A

Mitochondrion
-
-
↳
~
Nucleus
↳ Vesicle Mitochondrion
Nucleolus V
v
-
RER
~

Golgi body
Nucleus
Vesicles
10/ 7/2023
Part 3
Centrioles
Cilia
Plant cell
Structure of microtubules

1. They are long, rigid hollow tube found in the cytoplasm

2. Diameter is 25 nm
3. They are made of protein called tubulin
Which has two forms (a
tubulin and tubulin )

Combine together to form dimer

Dimers join end to end to form a protofilament

13 protofilament line up along side each other in a ring to

form a cylinder called microtubule.

7. Centrioles

1. Non membrane bound organelle

2. Found in animal cells but not in plant cells
3. Formed from nine groups of microtubule , each group is triplet ,
4. 2 centrioles lie close together at right angle to one another .
5. Region where they are found near the nucleus is called CENTROSOME
Function of centrioles
1. Act as a MTOC ( orgainse the microtubules )
For the formation of spindle fibres
That attach to the chromosomes during cell division

2. Modifies centrioles are found in cilia and flagellum for beating movement .

Single ….cilium
8. Cilia and flagella
Single …flagellum

1. They are whip like beating extensions of many eukaryotic cells

2. Each cilium and flagellum is surrounded by extension of the cell surface membrane.
3. Cilia and flagella have identical structure , but cilia are short and numerous
Where for the flagella are long and found one or two per cell
 MTDs…microtubule doublet
Structure of cilium
MTOC …microtubule organising center

Axoneme

5. The whole cylindrical structure inside the cell

1. Surrounded by extension of cell membrane
2. Structure is referred as 9+2 structure
A) 2 …has two central microtubules .
B) 9..ring of nine microtubule doublets ( MTDs)
3. Each MTDs contain A and B microtubule
A microtubule is complete ring of 13 protofilament
B microtubule is incomplete ring of only 10 protofilaments
membrane is called axoneme
6. At the base of each cilium there is a structure
called basal body which is identical to the structure
of centriole ( which has the ability to replicate on its
own to produce more basal bodies then cilia and
flagella grow from these basal bodies )

https://youtu.be/
4. Each A microtubule has inner and outer arms
9nZYlyFGm50
Made from proteins called dynein …to connect with b microtubule of the
neighbouring MTDs during beating .
 Alpha and beta tubulin ….dimer
Group of dimers …protofilament
13 protofilament …..microtubule
Enclosed inside a membrane = axoneme

Centrioles Cilium
Nine microtubule triplets Nine microtubule doublets + 2 central microtubules
Act as MTOC ( microtubule organising center )
Formation of spindle fibres
Attach to chromosomes during cell division A microtubule B microtubule
13 protofilament 10 protofilament
2 centrioles found at right angle to one another 2 arms
Position near the nucleus called centrosome
Outer
Inner
Dynein

To connect to B microtubule
of the neighboring MTDs
during beating action
Beating mechanism Study only underlined

The beating motion of cilia and flagellum is caused by the dynein ( protein) arms
Which allows contact with the neighboring microtubules ( MTDs).
This produces a force needed for the cilia to beat
As neighbouring MTDs slide past each other , the sliding motion is converted into bending by other parts
of the cilium :

Function:

1. Single celled organisms use the beating action of cilia and flagella for locomotion
2. In vertebrates , beating cilia are found on some epithelial cells , such as those
lining the airways to maintain the flow of mucus which moves debris such as dust
and bacteria from respiratory tract .

9. Microvilli

Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are finger-like extensions of the cell surface membrane. They are typical of
certain animal cells, such as epithelial cells. Epithelial cells cover the surfaces of structures. The microvilli
greatly increase the surface area of the cell surface membrane. This is useful, for example, for reabsorption in
the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney and for absorption of digested food into cells lining the gut.
Plant cell
Chloroplast

Function :
/

Site of photosynthesis
7

-
/

• Double membrane bound organelle Thylakoid

-

• 4 -10 um
• Thylakoids : disc shaped cavity contains chlorophyll and 8. Inter granal
lamella
enzymes
~

• Granum : stacks of thylakoid Stroma

2

• Stroma : interior fluid containing loop of DNA and 70 S Granum

Loop of DNA
ribosomes and starch grains and enzymes 70S ribosomes

Plasmodesmata

Cytoplasmic bridge between cells

Allow movement of substances by symplast pathway
 Vacuole

Single membrane bound organelle

Membrane called tonoplast
Contain sap solution
Function : …turgidity, support, store waste products to be sent
I

later out of cell, allow osmosis V

Size of organelles

Nucleus ….chloroplast …..mitochondrion ………….nucleolus …….lysosmes …..centrioles ….ribosomes

Double membrane bound organelle

Single
Non membrane
1. Label microscope
2. Definition magnification and resolution
3. Units ( cm ,mm ,um ,nm )
4. Explain why we cant see…..by LM but can be seen by EM .
5. Advantages of LM
6. Advantages of EM
7. Calculation of specimen..using eye piece graticule and stage micrometer .

8. Compare between prokaryotes and eukaryotes .

9. Label different parts of animal cells , plant cells and bacteria …micrographs
10. Describe the structure and state the function of
A) rough endoplasmic reticulum >
-
Listern

B) smooth endoplasmic reticulum

C) ribosomes
D) Golgi body
E) lysosomes
F) mitochondria
G) nucleus