PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
Measures of Variability
Interquartile Range (IQR)
Formula:
IQR = Q3 – Q1
Q3 is the upper quartile and Q1 is the lower quartile
Odd Number Data
1. Put the number in order.
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27
2. Find the median
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19, 27
3. Place parentheses around the numbers above
and below the median. Not necessary
statistically, but it makes Q1 and Q3 easier to
spot.
(1, 2, 5, 6, 7), 9, (12, 15, 18, 19, 27)
4. Find the Q1 and Q3
Think of Q1 as a median in the lower half of
the data and think of Q3 as a median for the
upper half of data.
(1, 2, 5, 6, 7), 9, ( 12, 15, 18, 19, 27)
Q1=5, Q3=18
5. Subtract Q1 from Q3 to find the interquartile
range.
IQR = 18 – 5 = 13
Even Number Data
1. Put the numbers in order.
3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 20, 21
2. Make a mark in the center of the data
3, 5, 7, 8, 9, | 11, 15, 16, 20, 21.
3. Place parentheses around the numbers above
and below the mark you made in Step 2 – it
makes Q1 and Q3 easier to spot.
(3, 5, 7, 8, 9), | (11, 15, 16, 20, 21)
4. Find Q1 and Q3
Q1 is the median (the middle) of the lower
half of the data, and Q3 is the median
(middle) of the upper half of the data.
(3, 5, 7, 8, 9), | (11, 15, 16, 20, 21).
Q1 = 7 and Q3 = 16.
5. Subtract Q1 from Q3 to find the interquartile
range.
IQR = 16 – 7 = 9
The IQR is used to measure how spread out
the data points in a set are from the MEAN of the data
set. The higher the IQR, the more spread out the data
points; in contrast, the smaller the IQR, the more
bunched up the data points are around the mean.
The IQR range is one of many measurements
used to measure how spread out the data points in a
data set are. It is best used with other measurements
such as the median and total range to build a
complete picture of a data set’s tendency to cluster
around its mean.
Calculating Outliers
1. Upper Fence = Q3 + (1.5 * IQR)
2. Lower Fence = Q1 – (1.5 * IQR)
Use your fences to highlight any outliers, all values
that fall outside your fences.
- Outliers are extreme values that differ from most
values in the dataset. You find outliers at the
extreme ends of your dataset
- Outliers can have a big impact on your statistical
analyses and skew the results of any hypothesis
test if they are inaccurate.
- These extreme values can impact your statistical
power as well, making it hard to detect a true
effect if there is one.
- It’s best to remove outliers only when you have a
sound reason for doing so.
- Some outliers represent natural variations in the
population, and they should be left as is in your
dataset. These are called true outliers.
- Other outliers are problematic and should be
removed because they represent measurement
errors, data entry or processing errors, or poor
sampling.
Shape pf a Frequency Distribution
1. Symmetrical Distribution
o in a symmetrical distribution, it is
possible to draw a vertical line
through the middle so that one side of
the distribution is a mirror image of
the other.
2. Skewed Distribution
 o the scores tend to pile up toward one Z scores
end of the scale and taper off
- a conversion of a raw score into a number
gradually at the other end.
indicating how many standard deviation units the
 Tail – the section where the
raw score is above or below the meanof the
scores taper off toward one
distribution.
end of a distribution.
- obtained by subtracting the mean from the raw
o Positively Skewed - a skewed
score and then dividing the result by the standard
distribution with the tail on the right-
deviation.
hand side; the tail points toward the
positive (above-zero) end of the Xaxis. FORMULA:
(From left na mataas pababa ng right)
o Negatively Skewed - the tail points
to the left of zero. (From left na
mababa pataas ng right)

Percentile

- the rank or percentile rank of a particular score is

3. Normal Distribution defined as the percentage of individuals in the
o It is sometimes called the “bell curve” distribution with scores at or below the particular
or “Gaussian curve” value.
- When a score is identified by its percentile rank,
the score is called a percentile.

FORMULA:

Seven Features of Normal Distributions

1. Normal distributions are symmetric around Mc Call’s T

their mean. - A scale with mean set of 50 and a standard
2. The mean, median, and mode of a normal deviation set at 10
distribution are equal. - Can be determined by multiplying the z score by
3. The area under the normal curve is equal to 10 and adding 50
1.0.
4. Normal distributions are denser in the center Stanine
and less dense in the tails. - Standard nine
5. Normal distributions are defined by two o Mean = 5
parameters, the mean and the standard
o Sd = 2
deviation.
6. 68% of the area of a normal distribution is Sten
within one standard deviation of the mean.
- Standard ten
7. Approximately 95% of the area of a normal
o Mean = 5.5
distribution is within two standard deviations
o Sd = 2
of the mean.

Statement of the Problem
- Defines and describes the research hypothesis or
question (s) along with the broad method that will
be used to solve the problem. The statement of
the problem serves as the basis for the
introductory section of your project proposal.
Hypothesis
- Prediction, often based on informal observation,
pervious research, or theory, that is tested in a
research study.
o Alternative Hypothesis - it is a claim
about the population that is
contradictory to null hypothesis and
what we conclude when we reject null
hypothesis.
o Null Hypothesis - statement about a
relation between populations that is
the opposite of the research
hypothesis; statement that in the
population there is no difference (or a
difference opposite to that predicted)
between populations; contrived
statement set up to examine whether
it can be rejected as part of
hypothesis testing. (is often used)
Hypothesis Testing
- Procedure for deciding whether the outcome of a
study (results for a sample) supports a particular
theory or practical innovation (which is thought to
apply to a population).
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
o Type I
 False positive
 Rejects a null that is true
Example:
o Type II
 False negative
 Accepts a null that is false
Example:
The trade-off between these two conflicting concerns
usually worked out by compromise –thus the standard
5% (p <0.05) and 1% (p <.01/ most commonly used in
medical research based) significance levels.
Effect Size
- is a measure of the difference between
population means. You can think of effect size as
how much something changes after a specific
intervention. Effect size indicates the extent to
which two populations do not overlap—that is,
how much they are separated due to the
experimental procedure
- Cohen’s d
Meta-analysis
- is an important development in statistics that has
had a profound effect on psychology, especially
clinical and social psychology, and on many other
scientific fields, such as medicine, public health,
education, and organizational behavior. This
procedure combines results from different
studies, even results using different methods of
measurement. When combining results, the
crucial results combined are effect sizes.
2 Types of Correlation
1. Positive (+) Correlation
o Directly proportional
o If one variable increases, the other
increases too. And if one variable
decreases, the other decreases as
well.
2. Negative (-) Correlation
o Inversely proportional
o If one variable increases, the other
decreases. And if one variable
decreases, the other increases
Purpose of Correlation
- Used to measure and describe the relationship
between two variables
- To figure out which variable are connected or
related.