❖ As the universe expands it cools.

I.Formation of Elements

➢ ELEMENT
-composed of atoms, which can no longer
be broken down by either physical or
chemical methods.

➢ 118 elements are known to us.

➢ DMITRI IVANOVICH MENDELEEV

-Perfected the periodic table

The identity of an atom comes from the

Formation of Light Elements in the Big
Bang Nucleosynthesis
➢ The Big Bang Theory
-Big Bang states that the universe developed 13.8
B years ago from a very small, extremely dense,
and hot state that expanded rapidly.
number of proton in its nucleus
Isotopes of Hydrogen
- Isotopes are members of a family of an
element that all have the same number of

Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
➢ Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

- the process of creating new atomic nuclei from HYDROGEN (H) – 75%
pre-existing nucleons primarily protons and
neutrons. HELIUM (He)- 25%
 Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed
- Light from distant galaxies are from
through fusion as tremendous amounts of
glowing elements which emits spectra energy are needed for the reaction to occur.
of a particular frequencies primarily
Hydrogen and helium.
➢ Neutron Capture Reaction
- Temperature continuously drops Heavy elements are formed in Supernova
making the particles unable to
combine due to the insufficient Heavy elements are created by the addition of more
amount energy neutrons to existing nuclei instead of fusion of light
nuclei.
- Particles bounce back after collision,
HEAVY ELEMENTS
no more elements are formed.
Through the process
called NEUTRON
LIGHT ELEMENTS
CAPTURE REACTION
Through the process called BIGBANG
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

Hydrogen (H)
Helium (He)
Lithium (Li)
Beryllium (Be)

A vast cloud of dust and gas (NEBULA) =

collapsed due to gravity, then

Hundred thousand years later (PROTOSTAR)=

gravity pulled the clouds together

Pressure and temperature rise = The protostar

becomes hot enough for nuclear fusion to
occur

STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
- Process by which elements are formed within the
stars as a result of nuclear fusion.

➢ NUCLEAR FUSION

- The process by which multiple nuclei joined

together to form a heavier nucleus.

* Stars have multiple layers that are differentiated

not only based on the materials they are composed
of but also on their temperature.
LESSON: The Emergence of Ideas about the Atoms
ATOM - basic unit of matter
HISTORY
-Theory of the atom- 5 th
century BCE in ancient
Greece.
➢ Leucippus (480 BCE-460 BCE) He believed
that all things are made up of tiny,
indivisible particles.
➢ Democritus (460 BCE- 370 BCE) A student of
Leucippus. All matter was composed of
small indestructible particles which he
called ATOM (Atomists)
➢ Aristotle (384 BCE-322 BCE) All things can
be divided infinitely: therefore, there was
no smallest
part of
matter.
➢ ALCHEMY
The medieval
forerunner of
chemistry,
based on the
supposed transformation of matter. It was
concerned particularly with attempts to
convert base metals into gold or to find a
universal elixir. (Alchemist)
➢ JOHN DALTON All matter was composed of
atoms, solid, indivisible and indestructible
building blocks.
THE DISCOVERY OF PROTON NEUTRON AND
ELECTRON
➢ J.J. THOMSON (1897)
- Discovered that an atom is also composed
of negatively charged particles which was
named electrons.
- CATHODE RAYS produced from the
cathode were actually a stream of
negatively charged particles called
electrons.
➢ EUGEN GOLDSTEIN (1886)
- Discovered the positively charged
subatomic particle as a component of
ANODE RAYS.
➢ ERNEST RUTHERFORD
-coined the term proton for positively
charge particle.
- discovered the nucleus of the atom in
1911.
- used gold foil for his scattering
experiment.
➢ JAMES CHADWICK (1932)
-discovered the neutral particles, he then
called neutrons.
LESSON Bond Types

CHEMICAL BOND • The difference in the electronegativity

values of the atoms in a molecule or a
- involves atoms combining to form chemical
compound determines the type and polarity
compounds and bring stability to the resulting
of the bond.
product.

Two main types: covalent bonds and ionic bonds

Covalent bonds - electrons are shared equally or

somewhat shared.

Ionic bonds - electrons are completely transferred

from one atom to another

Electronegativity Difference and the Type of Bond

0- less than 0.5 = Non Polar covalent

0.5- 2.0 = Polar covalent

greater than 2.0 = Ionic

Example
Electronegativity Nonpolar Covalent: This type of bond occurs when
Electronegativity- is the ability of an atom to there is equal sharing (between the two atoms) of
attract electrons in a chemical bond. the electrons in the bond.

Atoms with higher electronegativity attract C 2.5 eV

electrons more strongly. S 2.5 eV
DEN 0 eV
-According to Linus Pauling`s Scale Fluorine is the
most electronegative element, while francium is the Polar Covalent: This type of bond occurs when
least electronegative there is unequal sharing (between the two atoms)
of the electrons in the bond.
-The noble gases have no electronegativity because
they don't form bonds. Ar, Ne, He, Rn, Og N 3.0 eV
C 2.5 eV
DEN 0.5 eV

Ionic: This type of bond occurs when there is

complete transfer (between the two atoms) of the
electrons in the bond.

F 4.0 eV
Na 0.9 eV
DEN 3.1 eV