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SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
Automotive Engineering :
Simulation and Validation Methods
Bernhard Brandstätter · Alois Steiner Editors
Next Generation
Electrified Vehicles
Optimised
for the Infrastructure
Automotive Engineering : Simulation

and Validation Methods
Series Editors
Anton Fuchs, Virtual Vehicle Research GmbH, Graz, Austria
Hermann Steffan, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
Jost Bernasch, Virtual Vehicle Research GmbH, Graz, Austria
Daniel Watzenig, Virtual Vehicle Research GmbH, Graz University of Technology,
Graz, Austria
The book series will cover current scientific issues concerning relevant simulation
technology in vehicle development. Book chapters are reviewed contributions from
science and industry and address approaches in the fields of system design and opti-
mization, thermo- and fluid dynamics, noise and vibration aspects, vehicle dynamics
and safety and vehicle electronics.
Bernhard Brandstätter · Alois Steiner
Editors
Next Generation Electrified

Vehicles Optimised
for the Infrastructure
Editors
Bernhard Brandstätter Alois Steiner
Virtual Vehicle Research GmbH Virtual Vehicle Research GmbH
Graz, Steiermark, Austria Graz, Steiermark, Austria
ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

ISSN 2570-4028 ISSN 2570-4036 (electronic)
Automotive Engineering : Simulation and Validation Methods
ISBN 978-3-031-47682-2 ISBN 978-3-031-47683-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47683-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2024
Chapters “Towards Digitalisation of the Charging Value Chain” and “Definition of a Set of Indicators
for the EV Impact Assessment” are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Inter-
national License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). For further details see license information
in the chapters.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface
With the European Green Deal initiative, Europe is supposed to become the first
climate-neutral continent by 2050. Within the Green Deal, the initiative “Fit for 55”
aims at reducing the greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared
to the levels of 1990.
The electrification of vehicles plays a crucial role to meet these target values, as the
transportation sector accounts for roughly one quarter of the global CO2 -emissions.
The market penetration of electric vehicles is currently gaining momentum and global
sales numbers are strongly increasing. In 2022, around 1.6 million EV were sold in
the EU accounting for a market share of 12%. For the year 2030, the number of
battery-powered electric vehicles is expected to grow to 30–40 million in the EU.
On the research side for electric vehicles, the improvement of components as
the battery, power electronics or brake systems are major topics. Further, the design
and control of different systems within the vehicle is important to ensure energy
efficiency and driving comfort.
This book provides insights into current research topics of powertrains for the next
generation of electric vehicles, related vehicle components (brake systems, e-axles)
as well as their control. Selected Articles emerge from projects of the E-VOLVE
cluster https://evolvecluster.eu/ (namely ACHILES and FITGEN). E-VOLVE stands
for Electric Vehicle Optimized for Life, Value and Efficiency. The Cluster will
produce greater impact acknowledging the importance of connecting parallel R&D
activities funded on complementary areas, as stated by the European Commission.
Further, as the interaction with the charging infrastructure becomes more and more
important also the topic charging will be discussed in detail. Articles from the EU-
project “XL-Connect” initiate the extension of system boundaries towards the grid,
explain the way towards the digitalization of the charging value chain and describe
measures for an impact assessment of EVs integration into the power grid. Finally,
v
vi Preface
details about protocols and interfaces needed for advanced charging technologies as
Vehicle-to-Grid will be given.
Graz, Austria Bernhard Brandstätter

September 2023 Alois Steiner
Contents
Powertrain Components and Control

Future Brake Systems and Motion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sebastian Müller and Thomas Raste
Advanced Methodologies for Brake Validation of EV Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . 17
Gerard Pérez Griso, Fabio Squadrani, and Jérémie Clément
Torque Vectoring Testing in X-in-the-Loop Simulation Environment . . . . 27
Asier Alonso Tejeda and Pablo Prieto Arce
Modelling and Control Solution of an E-axle for Third-Generation
Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Andres Sierra-Gonzalez, Paolo Pescetto, Elena Trancho,
and Gianmario Pellegrino
Smart Charging and Vehicle-to-Grid

Towards Digitalisation of the Charging Value Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Alois Steiner, Anna Eisner, Sandra Trösterer, Rainer Schruth,
and Annika Hämmerle
Definition of a Set of Indicators for the EV Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . 59
Martin Strelec, Pavel Hering, and Per Janecek
Protocols and Interfaces for EV Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Christopher Hecht, Jan Figgener, and Dirk Uwe Sauer
vii
Powertrain Components and Control
Future Brake Systems and Motion
Control
Sebastian Müller and Thomas Raste
Abstract The megatrends of mobility are clearly defined: Digitalization, electrifi-

cation, autonomous mobility and sustainability. The brake of the future is therefore
becoming increasingly intelligent to be able to meet requirements through auto-
mated driving and electrification. And this in newly conceived vehicles with modi-
fied architecture. This functional expansion requires a deep understanding of the
system to combine uncompromising safety and sustainability in future braking and
motion systems, which will also be modular and distributed in the long term. This
is because digitization and connectivity are leading to a fundamental realignment of
the electrical and electronic architecture (E/E architecture) of vehicles. Just like the
electrification of the powertrain and the growing possibilities of automated driving
(AD). And finally, brakes must also become sustainable and contribute to lower CO2
and dust emissions. Brake Systems of the future must continue to support safety,
efficiency, comfort and, in the future, more and more additional functions. Modu-
larization and scalability will allow the brake of the future to be integrated into
cross-vehicle platforms.
Keywords Dry Brake System · EMB · Electrification · Sustainable · Dust

emissions · Efficiency · Safety
Abbreviations
ABS Antilock Braking System

AD Autonomous Driving
ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance Systems
AVP Automated Valet Parking
ECO Ecological/Energy Efficient Driving
EPB Electronic Parking Brake
S. Müller (B) · T. Raste

Continental Automotives Technologies GmbH, Guerickstraße 7, 60488 Frankfurt/Main, Germany
e-mail: sebastian.2.mueller@continental-corporation.com
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 3

B. Brandstätter and A. Steiner (eds.), Next Generation Electrified Vehicles Optimised
for the Infrastructure, Automotive Engineering : Simulation and Validation Methods,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47683-9_1
4 S. Müller and T. Raste
ESC Electronic Stability Control

MPC Model Predictive Control
Euro NCAP European New Car Assessment Program
TCS Traction Control System
WLTP Worldwide harmonized Light Vehicle Test Proceedure
HPC High Performance Computer
1 Introduction
Vehicles are currently being rethought. This is due to global megatrends: With the
electrification of the powertrain and the growing capability for automated driving
(AD), vehicle architecture is changing. Digitalization and networking are bringing
about a fundamental reorganization of electrical and electronic architecture (E/E
architecture), which is increasingly geared towards software. Because it is the soft-
ware that will determine the character of the car and the driving experience in the
future! Bits are taking the place of horsepower. Apps and services are expanding
the car into an immersive experience space that is becoming increasingly safe and
comfortable. The brake of the future is therefore becoming increasingly intelligent in
order to be able to meet requirements through automated driving and electrification.
And this in newly conceived vehicles with modified architecture. This functional
expansion requires a deep understanding of the system to combine uncompromising
safety and sustainability in future braking systems, which will also be modular
and distributed in the long term. This is because digitization and connectivity are
leading to a fundamental realignment of the electrical and electronic architecture
(E/E architecture) of vehicles. Just like the electrification of the powertrain and
the growing possibilities of automated driving (AD). And finally, brakes must also
become sustainable and contribute to lower CO2 and dust emissions. As a result,
electrification is also bringing about a comeback of the drum brake, for example.
2 Braking System as a Vehicle Subsystem
At a first glance, the vehicle as a system can be divided into two top level vehicle
subsystems: vehicle body and vehicle chassis, which have different tasks.
Vehicle body: Host driver, passenger and goods
Vehicle chassis: Move the vehicle
top level vehicle subsystems

Future Brake Systems and Motion Control 5
But for a more detailed view on the vehicle, namely for modeling a passenger car,
cruising on the road there are still more subsystems at this level:
● Human driver
● Virtual driver
● Vehicle body
● Vehicle Chassis
● Assistance systems
● …
● … wheels, wheel suspension, axes, drivetrain, batteries, tank, auxiliary equipment,
For a clear distinction to the other vehicle subsystems we use the following formal
Definition: “Chassis” is the Aggregation of vehicle elements for performing and
controlling vehicle motion.
Humans the chassis essentially consists vehicle control structures, allowing the
driver for driving, steering and braking.
Chassis
Drive pedal Powertrain Driven wheels
Steer wheel Steer installation Steered wheels
Brake pedal Brake installation Braked wheels
Vehicle Control Structures
In today’s passenger vehicles the powertrain uses by-wire technology for trans-
lating a driver’s acceleration pedal command into driving action whereas in historic
vehicles a mechanical connection between pedal and engine was employed. The
steering still uses mechanical coupling between steer wheel and steered wheels,
but a steer actuator is used to support the driver. The braking system is presently
in a phase of transition. The conventional direct mechanical-hydraulic connection
between brake pedal and wheel brakes, which was interrupted only during anti-
lock and stability control interventions, is increasingly being replaced by a by-wire
transmission of the driver brake command. This by-wire braking technology has the
advantage that no brake booster is needed anymore, that there are no irritating pedal
effects in the event of stability control intervention and that the brake system is ready
for automated driving.
Obviously, there is a clear technology trend to a full by wire chassis. This trend
is intensified by the fact that the use of the by-wire technology is a prerequisite for
automated driving. Another aspect which calls for a switch to the use of by-wire
technology is that besides the vehicle functionality that is covered by the separate
controls, enhanced functionality can be achieved by combined control of steering,
drive, brake and suspension.
Future chassis technology still provides the classic control lines drive, steer and
brake but instead of being independent from each other, they will interact. An already
existing example for this is regenerative braking.
On the input side, a virtual driver is put aside to the human driver. This computer
based virtual driver does not communicate with the control lines by steer wheel and
pedals but communicates via electronic signals. A vehicle chassis for future mobility
comprises sensors, interfaces, control installations and actuators for driving, braking,
steering and wheel suspension.
3 Brake System Functions
Main task of brake system is to provide specific braking of every vehicle wheel, being
adequate to commands for vehicle deceleration or holding and to motion stabilization
needs. This means that in a system science view, the brake system inputs are driver
and virtual driver commands as well as sensor signals indicating the state of vehicle
motion. Brake system outputs are braking torques, exerted on the vehicle wheels
in case of a rotating wheel and in case of a stopped wheel, the output is a wheel
torque threshold up to which the wheel can be held in stopped state for park braking
purpose.
Since the brake system outputs are torques that act between wheels and chassis,
actuators are needed, to provide them. For frictional braking clamping force actuators
are used to produce the needed torques by pressing friction linings against a rotor.
For electric motor braking, torques are produced directly by electric traction motors
working as generators. Since the resulting wheel torque is the sum of respective
torque components, software-controlled coordination of wheel braking actions is
mandatory.
Brake System
Clamping Force Wheel
Brake Wheel
Controller FL
Pedal braking
torque FL
HD Actuation Unit Clamping Force Wheel
Vehicle Motion Interaction Driver Brake Request
Controller
Brake
Determination FR
Control
Clamping Force Wheel Wheel
by Human (HD) Brake braking
Functions Controller RL torque FR
and virtual driver NBrake
(VD)) ABrake Clamping Force Wheel
Brake
Controller RR
VD Wheel
Interaction BSA braking
torque RL
(Brake System
Application) Interface Pow ertrain
Wheel
braking
Yaw Rate, Long, Lat Interf ace Steering torque RR
Steering Angle
Wheel Speed Sensor Interf ace Suspension
Brake System as system of interest
Brake system not only decelerates and holds the vehicle at standstill, but also
includes assistance functions that are indispensable in today’s cars.
4 List of the Most Important Functions of the Brake

System and Cross-Functional Functions
Service Braking
The service braking function allows for decelerating the vehicle and to halt it safely,
quickly and effectively, whatever its speed and load, on any regular up or down slope
of pathway. It must be possible to graduate this braking action. The driver must be
able to achieve this braking action from his driving seat without removing his hands
from the steering control. Usually, the service brake HMI control element is the brake
pedal.
Secondary Braking
The secondary braking function takes over if the primary service braking function
is affected by a fault. By applying a secondary braking control element, the driver
must be able to halt the vehicle within a reasonable distance in the event of failure of
an arbitrary component in the service braking chain. It must be possible to graduate
this braking action. The driver must be able to obtain this braking action from his
driving seat without removing his hands from the steering control. For implemen-
tation of these provisions, it is assumed that not more than one single failure inside
the service braking system will occur at the same time. The secondary braking regu-
lation, referred to above, holds for vehicles, being controlled by human drivers, for
those with virtual drivers there exists not yet a regulation. It can be assumed that a
comparable Secondary Braking Function for automated driving will be compulsory.
Regenerative Braking
The Regenerative Braking Function splits the sum of brake torques, actually
demanded by the human and virtual driver and driver assistance systems like ACC
into one part to be done by regenerative braking and another part to be done by
frictional braking.
Wheel Rotation Stabilizing Functions (ABS, TCS Functionality)
Main purpose of the ABS (Anti-Lock Brake System) function is to avoid locking of
the wheels in case of overbraking, which happens if the tire-road frictional contact is
not able to withstand the full amount of horizontal forces occurring during braking.
This changing of tire-road frictional contact from stick to slip must be avoided for
keeping the vehicle steerable and preventing the tire from being destroyed. ABS
function reduces braking intensity wheel by wheel to an optimum value, related to
the current wheel and vehicle state of motion.
The Traction Control System function (TCS) is designed as a slip control system
to prevent the driven wheels of a vehicle from excessive wheel slip when accelerating
the vehicle.
Vehicle Motion Stabilizing Functions (ESC Functionality)
The ESC Brake system is an electrohydraulic brake system, performing the afore-
mentioned ABS and TCS functionality, extended by the active yaw control AYC.
The latter stabilizes vehicle motion by individually proper chosen wheel braking
torques. By this, the vehicle stays driver-controllable even if skidding occurs when
cornering.
The underlying effect is that braking one single wheel will not only decelerate the
vehicle but also effects vehicle yawing torque. The ESC system takes into account
vehicle and wheel speeds, angular yaw speed, steer angle and a possible braking
command to calculate and to perform adequate wheel specific braking actions. If
needed, this is combined with an engine torque reduction command. Result is a most
exact vehicle reaction on driver’s vehicle controlling commands, even in case of
adverse driving conditions.
In future vehicles, wheel individual electric drive motors can be controlled to
support the yaw control function. And yaw control will be no longer an emergency
intervention, but a permanently active feature. This will be addressed in the chapters
about so called “motion control”.
Vehicle Distance Control Functions (E.G. ACC)
Vehicle distance control is another driver assistance function and thus a little step
towards automated driving. If it is activated by the driver, it keeps the distance to
the preceding vehicle and if necessary, it activates braking up to a predetermined
deceleration level. Full braking is restricted to be commanded by the driver himself.
Dynamic Motion Control Function (DMC)

Defines and controls the vehicle motion on the road, with focus on efficient driving,
stability and agility.
Standstill Functionalities
The item called SSM (Standstill Management) collects driver assistance function-
alities dealing with holding the vehicle in standstill and driving off from standstill.
It provides functionalities ranged from directly executing a driver’s command to
automatically actuating and releasing the parking brakes automatically depending
on the driving situation. A direct driver command is e.g. the manual pulling of a park
brake switch lever. And an example feature for automated control of park brakes is
to release them, when driving off.
5 Automotive Trends
What does this mean for the brakes? Changes that are sometimes radical in the long
run! A look back helps to understand this: Until now, braking systems have mainly
been mechanical systems with vacuum brake boosters and hydraulic power trans-
mission from the brake pedal to the wheel brake (pressure generation, valves, lines,
brake calipers and drum brakes). Electronic safety systems such as ABS and ESC
ensure that the brakes proactively contribute to driving safety in extreme situations –
without the driver having to do anything. At the same time, the brake must now
also contribute to vehicle efficiency – i.e. help avoid CO2 – and reduce particulate
emissions during friction braking in the future. With digitalization and networking,
electric drives and AD capability, braking systems must therefore perform a number
of additional tasks. To this end, Continental, the long-standing and globally proven
brake system specialist, is developing future brake system technologies: Future Brake
Systems (FBS). A journey into the future of brakes. And an innovation roadmap with
a far-reaching, step-by-step transformation.
6 Dry Brake System—The Brake Can Dissolve

into Modules
Next big step in brake system evolution is to get rid of hydraulics. This is done
by using an electromechanic brake actuator (EMB actuator) on every single wheel
brake. Hydraulic lines are no longer needed. Each EMB actuator is supplied with
signals and electric energy by an electric cable. EMB actuator and wheel brake form
a unit called wheel brake control unit (WCU). The according dry by wire brake
system is also referred to as pure by wire system and will be described in detail in
the following.
In the very long term, hydraulics could be completely eliminated: To this end, all
four wheel brakes could be actuated electromechanically—and thus braking could be
completely “dry.” Today’s concentration of pressure generation and modulation with
corresponding control intelligence would then no longer be necessary. A dry brake
system would consist of the four dry wheel brakes (calipers or drums) and a set of
software function blocks that could run on several of the existing high-performance
computers (HPC) with integrated wheel controllers for safety and redundancy reasons
to provide the redundancy required for safety.
To make this long-term transformation to Dry Brake System at all possible, it is
necessary to encapsulate the individual functions of a braking system as independent
products in modular, validated and proven software blocks that can be integrated into
different vehicles thanks to standardized interfaces in accordance with the principle
of re-use.
Functional decomposition of dry by wire brake system reveals system boundaries
and main functions.
Sense Plan Act
Emulate pedal
Brake pedal feel
Capture pedal Frictional
command Generate braking
Actuate wheel
friction torques
Encoder Capture wheel Com- brakes
force at wheels
wheel speeds pute
Wheel brake control unit WCU
Vehicle Capture vehicle bra-
motion status data king Communicate
Sensors braking torque
action
request to
Vehicle drive system
communi- Electric
cation bus braking
torques
Vehicle drive system at wheels
Key: Brake Function Physical interaction

system
boundary Component Signal ﬂow
Functional Decomposition of Dry Brake-by-Wire System
The most characteristic feature of the pure by wire brake system under consid-
eration here is the use of electric brake actuators, driven by a motor at each wheel
instead of hydraulic fluid. Motivation for this step is the common trend to electrifica-
tion (replacement of hydraulics by electromechanics) of the vehicles and of course,
the automation of future vehicles. To achieve this, all four-wheel brakes could be
actuated electromechanically—and thus provide completely “dry” braking. Today’s
concentration of pressure generation and modulation with corresponding control
intelligence would then no longer be necessary. An dry braking system would then
consist of the four dry wheel brakes (calipers or drums) and one Wheel Control Unit
(WCU) per wheel, which thanks to sensors and clever algorithms would communicate
with the existing high-performance computers (HPC).
Motion Control
Motion control systems and their building blocks are described from various
viewpoints. A reference architecture based on model predictive control allows to
systematically assess future demands on composability of the defined services.
Vehicle functions and components that increase the safety are essential to modern
vehicles since they have been introduced with Antilock Braking System (ABS) in
the 70 s. Since then, the number of safety systems grew from Traction Control
System (TCS) and Electronic Stability Control (ESC) up to Advanced Driver Assis-
tance Systems (ADAS) that improve not only the safety but also the comfort of the
driver. The goal is to reach a level where those functions can take over the driver’s
responsibility to control the vehicle autonomously and safely.
The vehicle motion is affected by several constraints: the performance limits of the
actuators, tire-road friction circles constraining the admissible forces at the wheels,
fault tolerant control reconfiguration and safety limits as well as energy-related
dynamic control allocation [3]. These constraints are systematically considered by
equality and inequality constraints of a Model Predictive Controller (MPC).
Future motion systems for autonomous and manual driving should meet increased
requirements for energy efficiency, safety and driving dynamics. A modern motion
and stability system has several operating modes that it can transition to [1]. The
transition is either activated, and turned off by the driver or the transition is built-in,
with no turning off option, e.g., ABS. The following figure summarizes the functional
requirements relevant for Achiles.
Needs Functions Modes
The system shall have closed

Automated driving/ Motion and Key
loop control and control
remotable Stability System
allocation capabilities
Mode Use Case Scenario Priority
Standstill Standstill
The chassis shall be controlled active idle
Robust to all conditions
based on a target vehicle
EPB EPB Stability Stability

closed open active idle
If one system fail, the other
Personalization systems available shall
compensate Hill Chassis Chassis AD AD
hold & Wheel Limit idle active
Wheel control shall accurately Split- Roll- Lane Sport Sport AD AD

Self-Safe Braking blend between friction and electric mue over change OFF ON normal safe
motor brake torque
ECO ECO Sport Sport AD AD AD AD

OFF ON Drive Steer Cruise Park Safety Fault
Self-Safe Steering
Normal Normal ECO ECO Race Sinus Over Toll AVP Euro Limp
Drive Brake Drive Brake track sweep take gate Type2 NCAP aside
Energy saving
Throttle Decel. City WLTP
response perception cycle Achiles Goal:
Cover them all with a
Connected Chassis and Wheel module
Motion control functional requirements
The concept of motion control is based on the principle of inverse dynamics.

That is quasi working back from the desired kinematic motion considering the
vehicle’s inertial properties to establish the corresponding control variables, namely
the dynamic tire forces and the corresponding wheel torques and wheel steering
angles [2]. To compensate for the inevitable disturbances, measures such as appro-
priate controls and disturbance compensation must be used. An important aspect is
the allocation of motion commands to the individual actuators. In so-called over-
actuated systems, the number of control variables exceeds the number of degrees of
freedom of vehicle motion. To facilitate coordinated actuator operation, rule-based
or optimization-based allocation algorithms can be used.
For all this tasks appropriate services are provided. It is beneficial to split up
the control system into a few cascading levels and distinguish between managing
and observing services. A first extension stage covers the three horizontal degrees
of freedom, i.e., longitudinal, lateral and yaw motion. In a maximum extension

stage the dynamic motion control system covers all three translational and rotational
dimensions of the body motion as well as the wheel dynamics. The following figure
summarizes the main services packages at the cascading levels.
Vehicle Manager Services Vehicle Observer Services

ï Trans./Rot. Position Tracking Control (ADAS/AD) ï Trans./Rot. Position Estimation (ADAS/AD)
ï Trans./Rot. Velocity Request Determination ï Trans./Rot. Position Limits Determination (ADAS/AD)
ï Trans./Rot. Disturbance Estimation
Chassis Manager Services Chassis Observer Services

ï Trans./Rot. CoG Velocity Tracking Control ï Trans./Rot. CoG Velocity Estimation (Odometry)
ï Wheel Force/Slip Request Determination (Force Allocation) ï Wheel Force Limits Coordination
ï Wheel Speed/Torque/Steer Angle/Vertical Force Request ï Trans./Rot. Velocity Limits Determination
Determination (Direct Allocation, optional)
ï Vertical Force Estimation
Wheel Manager Services Wheel Observer Services
ï Wheel Slip and Torque Tracking Control ï Wheel Slip and Torque Estimation
ï Wheel Steer Angle Tracking Control ï Wheel Force Limits Determination
ï Actuator Request Determination ï Tire-Road Friction Limits Determination

ï Actuator Limits Coordination
Motion control services
The motion control logical architecture illustrated in the following figure shows
the interconnections of the services from a signal-based control perspective rather
than a service-based communication. Service-oriented communication is in general
well established since years, but because of hard safety and real-time constraints not
yet common in the motion and stability domain.
Motion and Stability Control
Vehicle Chassis Wheel

Observer Observer Observer
x,y,ψ
Vehicle Chassis
xd Manager Manager v Wheel
Tm,j
vd,AD Manager
yd β
βd,AD Fxd,i,MPC Tb,i Tmd,j,MPC
ψd ω
Tracking ωd,AD Fyd,i,MPC sx,i Tbd,i,MPC
Control MPCCha MPCWhl
AD Planning vd Fxd sxd,i Twd,i
Target βd βd
Dynamics ωd ωd
VC
δfd δrd,VC
STM Arb iCar CACha Arb iTire CAWhl Arb

axd vd,Drv vd Fxd Fxd,i,CA Fxd,i Twd,i Tmd,j,CA Tmd,j
Driver Smart
δfd βd,Drv βd Fyd Fyd,i,CA Fyd,i Tbd,i,CA Tbd,i Actuator
ωd,Drv ωd Mzd i=1,.,4
j=1,2
Achiles dynamic motion control logical architecture with single track model (STM), virtual rear steer
angle control (VC), static control allocation (CA), inverse vehicle model (iCar), inverse tire model
(iTire), model predictive control (MPC) and arbitration (Arb) services
The logical architecture is composed for the Achiles configuration with six indi-
vidually controllable smart actuators: Friction brakes at each wheel and electric
motors at each front wheel. The dynamic motion control includes feedforward and
feedback control parts. Input to the system is driver requested acceleration axd and
front steer angle deltafd and from an AD planning module a targeted vehicle pose
with longitudinal and lateral position xd , yd and yaw angle psid . Outputs are the
commanded motor torques Tmd and brake torques Tbd . Not shown are the sensor
inputs and the capability feedback from the actuators. The feedforward control
includes customizable target vehicle dynamics which provides a desired vehicle
state with speed vd , side slip angle betad and yaw rate omegad . The target dynamics
is translated into total longitudinal and lateral forces Fxd , Fyd respectively and yaw
moment Mzd . The chassis MPC tracks the desired vehicle state and ensures agility
and stability by torque vectoring with dynamic control allocation of the total forces
and moment to eight horizontal wheel forces Fxd,i , Fyd,i , i = 1,…,4. Inverse tire
models determine for each wheel the desired longitudinal wheel slip sxd,i and wheel
torque Twd,i . Wheel MPCs track the torques and slips and dynamically allocate the
torques at the front wheels to the electric motors and friction brakes to maximize
energy efficiency by recuperation.
Conclusion
The result of the Achiles project is a framework on how to develop and operate
modern motion control and future brake systems. Moreover, the flexible services will
gradually substitute the monolithic electronic stability control software. The current
market trend shows that such a composition of services is essential for autonomous
driving as well as vehicle architectures that are built around high-performance vehicle
computers and zone control units. Thus, the proposed motion control architecture
will be key to derive new requirements and assess future demands on composability
of the defined services.
For safety reasons, a vehicle which is suitable for automated driving has two
independent electrical on-board power networks. Future braking systems can and
must take advantage of this to maximize the availability of the braking function even
in the event of a possible failure. This holds for braking commands of both driver
and automated driving system. At present, it is not yet possible to predict the layout
of future standard braking systems for passenger cars with automation levels 3, 4 or
5 in detail. It is therefore expected that there will be competition between different
future brake system concepts.
For automated driving, the braking action shall be controllable by signals and the
braking system shall have, in addition to normal operation, reserve modes of opera-
tion which ensure this function even in the event of failures of any kind. Depending
on the nature of the failure, the corresponding reserve mode may be accompanied by
degradation of some functions, for example a lower deceleration capability. Reserve
mode of operation in today’s passenger car, whereby the driver takes over operation
of the wheel brakes by means of a “direct hydraulic access from pedal to wheel
brakes”, can no longer be used.
In addition to these imperative requirements for automated driving, further devel-

opment objectives must be pursued in the design of new braking systems: To improve
energy balance of battery-electric vehicles, usage of recuperative braking should be
maximized in driving mode and quiescent energy consumption of the braking system
should be low. Besides these functional development goals, production engineering
goals are also important for the vehicle manufacturer. In particular, the time required
for the installation and commissioning of the braking system during the production
of cars is to be reduced. In this context, there is a discussion of a waiver of brake
fluid, i.e. the replacement of the electrohydraulic brake system by an electromechanic
brake system.
For vehicles with automation level 4, stowable or retractable pedals
have already been shown at automobile fairs. They can only be realized
with reasonable effort as so-called by-wire pedals. Such pedal module only
delivers signals and does not provide any mechanically usable output when
applied. The conventional brake pedal with a pressure rod that presses
a hydraulic cylinder, which is installed outside the cabin will no longer
exist.
new brake system architectures will be modular and scalable. Previously centralized
components can thus be positioned more freely in the vehicle. Brake systems of the
future must continue to support safety, efficiency, comfort and, in the future, more
and more additional functions. Modularization and scalability will allow the brake
of the future to be integrated into cross-vehicle platforms.
References
1. Raste T, Kuhlmann A, Jokic M (2022) Characteristics of modern motion and stability systems.
Aachen Colloquium Sustainable Mobility, Aachen
2. Raste T, Hohm A, Eckert A (2021) Holistic motion control for personalized and efficient vehicle
dynamics. FISITA World Congress, Prague
3. Raste T (2021) The role of constraints in future motion systems. ACIMobility Summit,
Braunschweig
Advanced Methodologies for Brake
Validation of EV Vehicles
Gerard Pérez Griso, Fabio Squadrani, and Jérémie Clément
Abstract Electric vehicles are the present and the future of the automotive industry,
and the testing and validation sector has to adapt and prepare for the new requirements
and challenges they may bring. This document goes through some methodologies
that can be used in electric vehicle validation. Although they are based on testing
standards for traditional combustion engine vehicles, they take into account new
parameters and evaluate different behaviors.
Keywords Brake · Testing · Electric · Energy · Sustainability · Regenerative ·

Recovery · Battery · Driving · Automotive · Efficiency · Friction · Development ·
Standards · Methodologies · Validation · Coast down · Blending · Pedal feel ·
Thermal · Durability · NVH · Instrumentation · Brake booster · Electronic
Abbreviations
NVH Noise, vibration and harshness

EV Electric vehicle
ICE Internal combustion engine
SOC State of Charge
AMS Auto Motor und Sport (German magazine)
ABS Anti-lock Braking System
G. P. Griso (B) · F. Squadrani · J. Clément

Applus IDIADA, Tarragona, Spain
e-mail: gerard.perez@idiada.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47683-9_2
18 G. P. Griso et al.
1 Introduction
Electric vehicles are quickly taking over the automotive industry. They have brought
with them many innovative and quick-evolving technologies to the braking system
standards, such as regenerative braking, electronic brake boosters, or the still evolving
brake-by-wire. Furthermore, their systems, morphology and dimensions are not the
same as conventional combustion engine vehicles, which have been ruling the market
in the past years. Electric vehicles trend to be heavier and bigger, and require less
friction brake usage in normal driving. To add more, user expectations can be really
demanding in some aspects in comparison to conventional vehicles. Energy effi-
ciency, NVH and braking feeling refinement present new challenges to the manufac-
turers and suppliers, that must be constantly evolving their technologies in order to
keep up with such a fast-growing market, with new and powerful competitors.
With all these new challenges and requirements, the testing sector is also evolving.
Standard procedures and test methods are being adapted or even new ones are being
implemented. New instrumentation is being used in order to achieve valuable data
to analyse the performance of the systems involved in the braking of the vehicle.
This document will go through all these new technologies and their implications
on testing methodologies and development.
2 Chapter 1—EV Brake Testing Methodologies
Following the implementation of new types of components and technologies, electric

vehicles demand new methodologies for validation testing procedures. In this section,
some of the new procedure standards will be explained.
2.1 Regenerative Brake on Coast Down
Some vehicles use the regenerative brake while the accelerator pedal is released. This
feature provides a certain level of deceleration that will simulate the engine brake
of an ICE vehicle, but at the same time charges the battery. In many vehicles, the
level of deceleration can be adjusted by the driver or programmed in different driving
modes, ranging from pure rolling coast down to the so-called one-pedal modes, that
allow the vehicle to be driven almost entirely using only the accelerator pedal. These
modes can be usually managed using buttons, menus or even levers.
In order to evaluate the function of coast-down regenerative braking, a coast-down
maneuver can be performed in a proving ground. The test needs to be conducted in a
flat and straight proving ground track with enough distance to cover the whole coast
down.
Advanced Methodologies for Brake Validation of EV Vehicles 19
Fig. 1 Coast down results for different modes
The exact test conditions will change depending on the scope of the validation,
but the basics are to start with the vehicle at a certain speed, and the throttle must
be released until the vehicle stops. During this time, vehicle speed and longitudinal
acceleration will be recorded and later analyzed. To fully characterize the behavior
of this feature, the test can be performed in a range of:
– Different SOC. Battery status and SOC can affect the regeneration capability.
– Different modes. Each mode will provide a different deceleration level and it is
necessary to characterize it.
– Different initial speeds. The speed at which the pedal is released may affect the
behavior of the regenerative braking logic.
The results obtained can be processed and presented in the form of graphs or
tables that allow to analyze the behavior of the vehicle in each condition. The main
parameter to take into account is the evolution of deceleration vs time (Fig. 1). Also,
other parameters may be electric current to the motors or braking torque, if available.
Once the results are represented or compiled, the main points to be analyzed are:
– Absolute deceleration. To determine the maximum or average deceleration that
each condition provides. Specially interesting to analyze the differences that
different SOC can provide.
– Deceleration continuity. To evaluate if there is an oscillation in the deceleration
level during the whole maneuver.
– Initial deceleration increase. To evaluate the time it takes to reach the maximum
deceleration after the accelerator pedal has been released
– Regen disconnection speed. To determine the speed value where regen braking
starts to decrease the deceleration, if it does.
2.2 Regenerative Brake Blending
As two separate systems (friction and regen brake) are being used for braking the
vehicle, there is a need to merge them. The system has to be able to use both systems
to their best capabilities while keeping the differences in behavior unnoticeable for
the driver.
The objective of brake blending tests is to evaluate how the system manages to
merge both systems, how the driver can feel this behavior, and the contribution of
the regenerative braking in the whole stop energy.
To characterize these parameters, a constant application maneuver can be
performed. Starting from a certain speed, the brake pedal is applied until the target
deceleration is reached. Then, the pedal travel is kept constant until the end of the
stop. This type of maneuver can be performed in different parameters to evaluate the
differences or the logic that the vehicle uses in each of the conditions. Depending on
the scope of the testing, varying parameters could be:
– Different start speeds
– Different modes
– Different target decelerations
– Different SOC.
After the tests are performed, the results can be presented in the form of graphs
or tables, and the following parameters can be analyzed:
– Deceleration continuity. To check if deceleration has fluctuations that the driver
may feel uncomfortable or difficult to predict. Specially interesting to check the
points where the system changes from using regenerative brakes to friction brakes.
– Pedal force fluctuation. To evaluate if the driver can feel variations in the needed
pedal force while pedal travel is kept constant.
– Brake pressure behavior. To identify if the system uses brake pressure and how it
applies it during the stop (Fig. 2).
– Regenerative brake contribution. To analyze the magnitude of brake pressure,
regenerative torque or electric current during the stop, in order to quantify the
contribution of the regenerative brake in the whole stop.
2.3 Pedal Feel
Pedal feel testing is broadly used in the automotive industry for all kinds of vehicles.
With the introduction of new generation boosters and regenerative braking, pedal feel
and vehicle braking behavior testing require new points of evaluation and analysis.
The key points that will have to be considered in electric vehicle pedal feel testing
are:
– Differences between driving/braking modes. Initial regenerative-induced decel-
eration, and regenerative brake contribution can be different throughout different
modes. Its influence in driver perception needs to be evaluated.
– Regenerative brake contribution. To evaluate how much the regenerative brake
can contribute to stopping the vehicle, because as more regenerative brake can be
used, greater is the efficiency of the vehicle.
Fig. 2 Brake blending test results example
– Pedal feel. Depending on the type of booster system there can be physical sepa-
ration between the pedal and the braking system. Also, braking output and pedal
stiffness can be electronically controlled. This means that if the system is not
mature enough or tuning is not good, the driver can feel the brake application as
strange or not natural. Parameters as the lack of linearity or dispersion between
different stops can give a hint of this naturality.
– Hysteresis and delay. Depending on the type of system and its maturity, a slight
delay can exist between the moment of brake application and when the vehicle
starts to decelerate, especially in fast applications, as the systems needs some
response time. The same happens in the difference between the application and
release moments, where a bad system can give a bad feeling or it can give the
sensation of the pedal being stuck.
In order to evaluate all these parameters, testing can be performed as in conven-

tional vehicles. Starting from a certain speed, a brake application is performed in
a way that deceleration linearly increases until maximum deceleration is achieved.
Application speed is defined as deceleration versus time, but it can also be pedal
travel versus time or force versus time. Another test that can be done which can help
to evaluate hysteresis is a controlled application and release. Also, it is interesting to
test many different conditions, that can be:
– Different modes (Fig. 3)
– Different SOC
– Different application speeds
– Different start speeds
– Different brake temperatures
Fig. 3 Pedal feel test results example

2.4 Low µ Tests
As it happens in the acceleration phase, in the deceleration phase there must be a

control of the wheel slip in order to maintain the stability of the vehicle. In conven-
tional vehicles, this task is performed by the ABS system only, which actuates in
the friction braking system to limit braking torque when wheel slip increases. In the
case of vehicles with regenerative braking, torque has to be modulated when there is
a danger of losing wheel speed control. This is especially critical in low adherence
surfaces, where only a light coast-down regenerative torque can produce wheel slip.
This can be evaluated in many ways, for example:
– Braking in different adherence surfaces. To evaluate if the regenerative brake is
able to modulate its torque or just disconnects to give the ABS full control.
– Coasting down in low adherence surfaces. As releasing the accelerator pedal can
provide some deceleration from the regenerative brake, doing so in a very low
adherence surface can induce wheel slip. The key point is to see if the system can
modulate the torque in such situations to keep the vehicle stability.
– Adhesion changes and µ split. To evaluate if the regenerative brake control adapts
fast enough to µ changes and keep stability in µ split braking, as a vehicle with
only ABS would.
2.5 Thermal Tests
Electric vehicles trend to be heavier due to the weight of the battery, and sometimes
more powerful than their ICE competitors. This presents a challenge to thermal
testing, as it will be more demanding for the braking system, due to the great amounts
of energy it has to dissipate. On the other side, a well-designed regenerative brake can
help in this task by absorbing part of such energy. Brake testing then, must evaluate
the capability of the vehicle to cope with this kind of situations while keeping safety
and comfort. Thermal tests that can be done to evaluate the performance of the
braking system are:
– High speed fade: Consisting of 10 consecutive stops from high speed to 60 km/h
with a deceleration of 0.6 g for the first 9 stops, and the last stop with maximum
deceleration. The goal of this test is to dissipate a large amount of energy through
the brakes, and to evaluate if the vehicle is able to stop at maximum deceleration
in the last stop. If the regenerative brake contributes to absorb part of the energy,
the thermal impact on the brakes will be reduced and the performance will be
greater.
– AMS test: Consisting of 10 consecutive stops from 130 to 0 km/h with a panic
application. This test will evaluate the evolution of the stopping distance and
performance for each stop, as temperature will keep increasing. A good result
would be one where stopping distance does not increase, while pedal feel and
vehicle stability is maintained during the test. As in the high speed fade, if the
Fig. 4 AMS test results example
regenerative brake can contribute to slowing down the vehicle, performance will
be greater (Fig. 4).
2.6 Brake Durability
Brake durability testing has been used throughout the years to validate vehicles and
braking systems in terms of NVH phenomena, brake comfort and material durability.
With the introduction of EVs, previously mentioned factors are still in study, but new
parameters can be evaluated using the same type of test. This means, that by driving
a certain amount of kilometers and recording the necessary data, statistics of the
following parameters can be studied:
– Amount of energy recovered from the regenerative system, by measuring battery
current
– Regenerative vs friction contribution for different levels of deceleration
stops (Fig. 5)
– SOC evolution along the durability route
– Regeneration capability depending on SOC
Fig. 5 Durability test results example
3 Conclusions
Most of the procedures mentioned in this article were already used in traditional ICE
vehicles, but with new technologies and requirements brought by electric vehicles,
will mean that some procedures will be used in a different way, some of them will
see their importance reduced, or new ones will take place. New parameters have to
be evaluated and key points have changed from the original requirements. The intro-
duction of further innovative technologies will mean that new client requirements
and points to validate will appear, and more adaptations or completely new testing
methodologies will have to be created. Because of this, manufacturers, engineering
companies, and even regulatory administrations will have to work in combination
to advance with new technologies, follow the growth of the industry, and satisfy the
needs of costumers and society.
Acknowledgements This chapter was based on work conducted in the EU project ACHILES by
Applus IDIADA and the rest of the partners involved.
Torque Vectoring Testing
in X-in-the-Loop Simulation
Environment
Asier Alonso Tejeda and Pablo Prieto Arce
Abstract Yaw moment control approaches such as Torque Vectoring (TV) can
improve cornering response and vehicle handling. Electric vehicles with multi-
motor powertrains are particularly suitable for implementing these strategies since
they allow to vary the torque applied to each wheel. For simulating and validating
these algorithms, a modular X-In-the-Loop (XIL) for Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
testing for Electric Vehicles (EV) has been developed. With this setup, the time
and cost of the feature developments is reduced, covering from modelling level to
hardware and communications level.
Keywords Torque vectoring · Electric vehicle · X in the Loop · Vehicle

dynamics · Optimal control
Abbreviations
XIL X-In-the-Loop
ECU Electronic Control Unit
EV Electric Vehicles
TV Torque Vectoring
NN Neural Network
MPC Model Predictive Control
LUT Lookup tables
FWD Front Wheel Drive
ABS Antilock Brake System
ESP Electronic Stability Program
ESS Energy Storage System
A. A. Tejeda (B) · P. P. Arce

Tecnalia, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
e-mail: asier.alonsotejeda@tecnalia.com
P. P. Arce
e-mail: pablo.prieto@tecnalia.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47683-9_3
28 A. A. Tejeda and P. P. Arce
EPS Electric Power Steering

CCU Central Control Unit
CAN Controller Area Network
MIL Model in the loop
KPI Key Performance Indicators
HIL Hardware in the loop
1 Introduction
Torque Vectoring strategies are state of the art algorithms that enhance handling
and stability of Electric Vehicles (EV). To validate these algorithms and fulfil safety
requirements, a vast number of simulations and tests need to be performed. A highly
customizable X-in-the-Loop (XIL) environment helps to follow the V-cycle devel-
opment process defined by the ISO 26262 [1] and carry out a testing process from
simulation to vehicle. The objective of this paper is to present some of the results of
an optimal control-based TV algorithm developed during the ACHILES project [2]
and tested at different levels of validation in a XIL environment.
2 Torque Vectoring
Torque vectoring algorithms, in its simplest consideration for electric vehicles with
a motor per wheel, are composed of at least 3 different layers:
1. Layer 1: It is a Yaw Rate Reference generator that stablishes the desired yaw
rate of the vehicle which defines the target dynamic behavior. It is usually calcu-
lated knowing the driver inputs like the steering wheel angle (δ), and the vehicle
dynamic states, such as velocity (v) and longitudinal acceleration (ax ).
2. Layer 2: This layer implements a High-Level Controller considering the previ-
ously calculated yaw rate reference (ψ̇r e f ), driver inputs (steering wheel angle
(δ) and throttle and braking pedals positions) and vehicle dynamic states (actual
yaw rate (ψ̇), velocity (v), lateral acceleration (a y ) and longitudinal accelera-
tion (ax )). The usual outputs of this controller are the overall longitudinal force
demand (Fx ) and the overall yaw moment demand (Mz ).
3. Layer 3: It is a control allocator which calculates the torque demanded by each
wheel (τi j ).
State estimators and observers, which can be common to all 3 layers, are frequently
implemented when a needed variable is difficult to measure. Most common estimators
are related to tyre forces due to the complexity that tyres present when trying to
measure supported forces. During the ACHILES project several torque vectoring
Torque Vectoring Testing in X-in-the-Loop Simulation Environment 29
strategies have been developed, exploring their capabilities and suitability. Among
the most remarkable algorithms two separate groups can be distinguished.
On the one hand, intelligent control-based algorithms have been developed. In
[3], an energy efficient intelligent torque vectoring approach based on fuzzy logic
controller and neural network tyre forces estimator is presented. This algorithm
follows the aforementioned 3-layer-structure with a yaw rate reference generator
based on a bicycle model, a second layer composed by a fuzzy yaw moment controller
and a vertical tyre forces estimator for a longitudinal torque distribution algorithm
based on a novel artificial neural network (NN) and a third layer for the motor torques
calculation. Results showed a significant improvement in terms of lateral dynamics
and energy consumption.
On the other hand, optimal control-based approaches have been developed. In [4],
a comparative study on optimal control-based torque vectoring algorithms is carried
out. The study covers the performance of a Linear Quadratic Regulator and a lineal
and non-lineal Model Predictive Controller in some dynamic manoeuvres. Results
show that the non-lineal MPC provides the best results in terms of dynamics, but
also requires a high computation effort compared to the lineal approaches. Hence,
linear optimal approaches are yet cost-effective. These latter approaches neglect non-
linear dynamics so having an accurate model is key to achieve the best performance.
Linear bicycle models rely upon different hard to measure parameters and state vari-
ables like tyre cornering stiffnesses or sideslip angle. The performance of the linear
approaches was considerably improved when estimating the sideslip angle with an
observer and the cornering stiffnesses with a linear Kalman filter. In [5], a Nonlinear
Model Predictive Control for Energy-Efficient Torque-Vectoring is presented. In this
case, the model considers the non-linear dynamics of each tyre, which implies that
the output torque of each wheel is the outcome of the optimization. This way, the third
layer is removed. During the article, the effect of the vehicle understeer characteristic
on energy consumption is discussed and the set of energy-efficient understeer char-
acteristics is used for the generation of the reference yaw rate of the TV controller.
Additionally, the powertrain losses, longitudinal tyre losses and lateral tyre losses
are included in the cost function of the controller. The weights of the cost func-
tion can be adapted to an energy-oriented controller for energy saving or yaw rate
tracking-oriented controller for dynamic performance.
3 Simulation Models
3.1 Powertrain Model and Virtual ECUs
The developed powertrain is a front wheel drive (FWD) architecture, with two in-
wheel motors supplying torque to the front wheels. The motor and inverter, the
battery and a new brake concept were modelled by third party members of the
consortium, shared as s-functions and integrated into the proposed environment.
Other components are represented by low-fidelity models. Power consumption of

auxiliar devices is also considered.
Virtual ECUs aim to control the actuators in the virtual vehicle, generating the
communications and computing the control signals. A brake ECU runs the ABS
and ESP functions and distributes the mechanical and electrical braking torques. An
Energy Storage System (ESS) estimates the state of the battery and computes the
power limitations. The motor torque is controlled by the inverters ECU. The Traction
ECU computes the demanded torque and runs the torque vectoring algorithm. Finally,
the Electric Power Steering (EPS) and Central Control Unit (CCU) emulate the
required communications to the rest of ECUs. CAN messages and heartbeat signals
to detect communication failures are proprietary and specifically programmed for
the ACHILES project.
3.2 Driver Models and Dynacar Vehicle Model
To repeat some recorded manoeuvres with the real vehicle, a vehicle dynamics
manoeuvre generator has been developed. It consists of a PID, that computes time-
velocity and time-steering series to calculate the steering commands and throttle and
braking pedals positions. With this controller, the TV algorithms can be adjusted
and validated, comparing the improvement in terms of dynamics with the baseline
vehicle data. Once the algorithm is adjusted, circuit tests need to be performed to
mimic real driving conditions. To do so, an automated driver has been developed. It is
a more sophisticated MPC approach that emulates the behaviour of a human driver,
allowing to parametrize this behaviour to ensure objective testing and repeatability.
For the final validation of ECUs and algorithms a driving cockpit for a human driver
is included in the setup. The position of the vehicle is displayed in a 3D visor and
the inputs from the driver are received from a Logitech G920 driving station.
A high-fidelity vehicle dynamics model is essential for validating the devel-
oped torque vectoring algorithm. The proposed vehicle model is Dynacar, a vehicle
dynamics simulation model developed by Tecnalia that represents a “rolling chassis”
using a multibody formulation. Multibody models compared to analytical models,
provide higher accuracy, at the cost of higher computational load. A trade-off is
always required, especially when hard real-time performance is required, as it is the
case [6]. Dynacar model’s suspensions are modelled as macro-joints that capture
the kinematics in the form of Lookup tables (LUT) and tyres forces are modelled
using the Pacejka 2006 Magic Formula. Dynacar is a forward-looking vehicle model
that reacts to the traction and braking torques and the steering wheel position. Input
torques are transmitted by the powertrain. The validity of Dynacar’s formulation
has been demonstrated in [7–9]. The virtual vehicle has been tuned and assessed
with experimental data obtained in tests performed by the real vehicle. More than
130 tests were performed, collecting data from Coast down, Steering Frequency
Response, Double Lane Change, Step Steering and Ramp Steering tests at multiple
speeds. Unavailable parameters were initially tuned using expert knowledge and
Fig. 1 Comparison of real and virtual data during a step steer test
experience, to mimic the response measured with the real baseline vehicle. A finer
calibration has been performed using optimization techniques based on surrogate
models. In Fig. 1 a step steer manoeuvre (ISO 7401:2003 and ISO TR 8726:1988)
that compares the measured real yaw rate and lateral acceleration to the virtual model
values is depicted.
4 Model in the Loop
With the simulation setup assembled, simulations at Model-in-the-Loop level can

be performed. These simulations are carried out in Matlab/Simulink and signals
between sub-models are interchanged by means of virtual wires and virtual CAN
messages. Simulations at MiL level usually present issues to perform at Real Time.
In [6] the MiL model components execution times when running in Simulink are
analyzed.
After preliminary tests, the torque vectoring strategy can be assessed at MiL
level. Among all the algorithms presented in Torque Vectoring, a linearized yaw
rate tracking-oriented optimal control-based strategy with the formulation presented
in [5] will be studied from now on, as optimal controllers show promising results
even at their simplest considerations. Since the tests to be performed are used to
assess the vehicle dynamics and to reduce computation effort, the energy terms of
the optimization have been simplified. This way, more than 130 manoeuvres have
been performed. Two indicators have been chosen for the quantitative assessment of
the results: the lateral acceleration and the yaw rate. The improvement of any of these
indicators implies increasing the adherence range of the vehicle. This fact entails an
improvement in terms of dynamics, stability and safety.
4.1 VDA Lane Change ISO 3888-2
ISO 3888-2 defines the double-lane change maneuver to test the obstacle avoidance
performance of a vehicle. In the test, the driver:
● Accelerates until vehicle hits a target velocity.
● Releases the accelerator pedal.
● Turns steering wheel to follow path into the left lane.
● Turns steering wheel to follow path back into the right lane.
Typically, cones mark the lane boundaries. If the vehicle and driver can negotiate
the maneuver without hitting a cone, the vehicle passes the test. The virtual driver
presented before aims to follow the target trajectory defined by the standard. The
effect of the driver is not negligible since the driver tries to continuously correct the
maneuver in closed loop. The same driver parameterization and tuning has been used
to obtain comparable results. The next tests present the critical speed of the tandem
driver and vehicle, which will be lower than the results obtained with the physical
vehicle. This is the accepted way to proceed for running this test virtually. Four Key
Performance Indicators (KPIs) have been selected for this test:
1. vcrit : is the critical speed, which is the maximum entry speed measured at the
first cone—the higher the better—at which the considered vehicle configuration
manages to successfully complete the obstacle avoidance.
2. Rear slip angle: the peak absolute value of the rear axle slip angle, which assesses
vehicle stability.
3. Sideslip angle: the peak absolute value of the sideslip angle, which assesses
vehicle stability.
4. Maximum lateral acceleration.
The results in Table 1 have been obtained simulating the maximum critical velocity
for both vehicles, 50% split and TV. That is, both vehicles perform the maneuver at
the maximum velocity without hitting a cone.
As expected, the vehicle governed by the Torque Vectoring overperforms the
results from the baseline, permitting a 5.16% higher speed for the same maneuver and
obtaining higher lateral acceleration dynamics. The behavior has also been analyzed
performing the maneuver at the same velocity (at the critical velocity of the baseline
vehicle).
Table 1 Results at each

Baseline Torque vectoring
maximum critical velocity for
50% split and TV vcrit (km/h) 61.04 64.19
Rear slip angle (°) 5.65 6.00
Sideslip angle (°) 2.15 2.37
Max ay (m/s2 ) 9.16 9.67
Fig. 2 Results at the critical velocity of the baseline and TV vehicle
Figure 2 depicts the trajectory of the baseline vehicle at the critical speed, which
is always slightly lower than the launch speed, as seen below. It also depicts a detail
from the same maneuver performed by the vehicle governed by the TV on the right
top. In this detail, it can be seen how the cone is not hit, and also how the yaw rate
is restrained. It can also be observed that although the entrance velocity is the same
for both vehicles, the end velocity of the TV vehicle is higher, which means that the
vehicle performs the maneuver more efficiently. This can be better observed looking
at the stability indicators. The rear slip angle, sideslip angle and maximum lateral
acceleration are reduced 3.81%, 13.46% and 1.95%, respectively.
4.2 Steady-State Cornering, ISO 4138
The purpose of this test is to determine the steady-state circular driving character-
istics of the test vehicle by continuously increasing lateral acceleration. The test is
conducted at constant speed and shall be carried out with continuously incrementing
lateral acceleration through a steering ramp input. It is performed until the limit of
adherence is reached.
Two indicators have been assessed to compare the response of both vehicle models:
the jerk and the maximum lateral acceleration. The jerk represents the slope of the
lateral acceleration during the ramping period of the test, while the maximum lateral
acceleration corresponds to the constant section of the test when the limit of adherence
is reached.
The graphs in Fig. 3 depict the results of 12 different manoeuvres at speeds from
60 to 100 km/h. Tests included right and left manoeuvres. The results include the
dynamical enhancement of the TV simulation model compared to the baseline model.
It can be concluded that the TV overcomes the results of all indicators, especially for
the jerk section, reaching up to 22% improvement. The yaw rate is enhanced when
the TV is active, as demonstrated in the graph above. Over 65 km/h, the enhancement
Fig. 3 Yaw rate, jerk and lat. acceleration in 12 ramp steer manoeuvres
is over 5%, reaching a maximum 8.7% improvement at 87 km/h. Hence, the dynamic
performance of the vehicle is improved.
4.3 Großglockner High Alpine Road
Großglockner is a demanding mountain descend route which includes some chal-

lenging cornering situations with low curvature radius that are useful to assess
stability and safety.
As expected, the dynamical benefits of the TV are maximized for higher veloci-
ties. Since the automated driver self-adjusts the velocity of the vehicle for each curve
based on the path itself, the velocity command acts like a maximum. For this reason,
although the mean velocity is higher, the velocity during the curvy sections (espe-
cially in the beginning) does not change significantly from one test to another. Even
though the driver tries to follow the same path with both models, the TV simulation
model is more effective. Negotiating the same route with a TV strategy redounds in
higher comfort. Figure 4 illustrates how the lateral slip angle of each tyre is mini-
mized with the TV simulation model for the ~40 km/h simulation. For every curvature
radius in Großglockner the TV approach presents low values of the lateral slip angle,
assessing a safer and more stable performance. When the curvature radius is low, the
baseline model struggles when cornering and needs to work in an unstable operating
point for the tyres. This latter case presents peak values of the lateral slip angles of
18º, which are too high for any road car and out of bounds of the stability threshold.
Fig. 4 Comparative study of the lateral slip angle depending on the curvature radius during
Grossglockner
5 ECU in the Loop
After validating the ECUs and TV algorithm at MiL level, all the models are deployed
in a Real Time system. This setup is based on NI Veristand, which is a suitable soft-
ware for developing Hardware in the Loop (HiL) systems. The developed models in
Simulink are automatically converted into real time capable modules using NI Veri-
stand compiler and the communications that were simulated virtually are replaced
by physical communication networks. For this application, a NI PXIe-1071 chassis
combined with a NI PXIe-8880 controller has been selected. There are also two
PXI-8512 modules for the CAN interfaces and a PCI-6229 for the data acquisition
(DAQ). The Logitech G920 driving station lets the user simulate real driving condi-
tions. The same PXIe-8880 controller runs the virtualized ECUs and the Dynacar
vehicle model at different cycle times. The CAN modules consist of a total of four
CAN networks running at rates between 1 and 10 ms. The loop is closed with the
RazorMotion from TTTech that has been implemented in the real vehicle.
For the torque vectoring validation in Real Time, the same manoeuvre tests were
performed. Furthermore, to assess the validity of the results, a correlation analysis
is presented next. The correlation presented below consists of exciting both MIL
and HIL frameworks with the same inputs and comparing the outputs. Inputs have
been recorded during Driving-In-the-Loop maneuvers at HIL level. Inputs consisted
Fig. 5 Torques and dynamic variables during steering response test
of steering wheel, brake pedal and throttle positions, gear and parking brake and
ignition key status. Outputs consisted of vehicle velocity, yaw rate and lateral accel-
eration (identically to previous tests) and motor torque requests as intermediate states.
The following results are extracted from a representative steering response test for
the baseline vehicle (50% torque split). This maneuver consists of accelerating the
vehicle to 65 km/h while slowly varying the steering position, then the vehicle
is slowly decelerated to 50 km/h while slowly varying the steering position and
finally, sharp steering turns are reproduced. It is demonstrated that the correlation is
remarkable, although a little error is observed at higher frequencies (Fig. 5).
6 Conclusions
In this article, the process for testing and implementing a torque vectoring algo-
rithm from simulation to vehicle level has been presented. Under the umbrella of the
ACHILES project [2], different torque vectoring algorithms have been developed,
as explained in Torque Vectoring. The theoretical results obtained at simulation
level for all the proposals are outstanding but implementing computationally high-
demanding algorithms in current embedded systems is a challenge to overcome.
A non-linear model predictive control-based approach provides more chances to
implement energy-related considerations and the best results in terms of dynamics.
However, the more complex the formulation of the problem, the more the computa-
tional effort increases for ensuring a convergence to a minimum. Thus, linearizing
the problem may slightly reduce the accuracy of the results but it guarantees that
the solver will find a solution in an achievable task time. The overall results of the
proposed algorithm showed that not only the cornering performance of the vehicle
has been improved, but also the vehicle is safer, and its stability is enhanced.
The proposed testing setup follows the ISO 26262V-cycle development process,
which is an efficient workflow that covers from offline design to real-time testing.
This way, the proposed torque vectoring algorithm was initially tuned in simulation
environment just by considering a simplified powertrain and vehicle model. Once the
algorithm was properly designed, it was introduced in the torque path of the Trac-
tion ECU, which is included in the simulation environment presented in Simulation
models. This whole traction control that includes TV and other traction systems was
then tested at Model in the loop level, where the rest of the ECUs and communications
of the vehicle were virtualized. At this level, the proper integration of the algorithm in
the code and overall performance was studied. Even though a preliminary study of the
CPU time that is needed for solving the TV algorithm is mandatory before performing
the MiL level tests, the real-time performance of the traction control must be thor-
oughly reviewed. The MiL simulation setup was developed in Matlab/Simulink, so
compiling the code to a real-time target is straightforward using Simulink Compiler.
With the models compiled and functional for the targets presented in ECU in the
loop, the traction code was flashed into the physical ECU and the same tests were
successfully reproduced. Ensuring a reliable performance at both simulation and RT
levels entailed needing lower time for achieving the expected performance at real
vehicle level. It is also relevant to consider that at vehicle level the torque vectoring
algorithm may need a finer calibration related to tuning parameters, noisy signals
filtering or variables estimators which are usually disregarded at simulation level.
Acknowledgements The present work is supported by the ACHILES project, funded by the
European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation program, under grant agreement Nº
824311.
References
1. Joshi A (2017) Powertrain and chassis hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation of autonomous

vehicle platform. SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-1991. https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-01-1991
2. H2020 Achiles (h2020-achiles.eu)
3. Parra A, Zubizarreta A, Pérez J (2021) An energy efficient intelligent torque vectoring approach
based on fuzzy logic controller and neural network tire forces estimator. Neural Comput Appl.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-020-05680-2
4. Alonso A, Parra A, Zubizarreta A, Sainz I (2021)A comparative study on optimal control based
torque vectoring systems. In: 2021 IEEE vehicle power and propulsion conference (VPPC), pp
1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/VPPC53923.2021.9699302
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predictive control for energy-efficient torque-vectoring. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 70(1):173–188.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2020.3022022
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doi.org/10.1109/VPPC53923.2021.9699126
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conference of the IEEE industrial electronics society
Modelling and Control Solution
of an E-axle for Third-Generation
Electric Vehicles
Andres Sierra-Gonzalez, Paolo Pescetto, Elena Trancho,

and Gianmario Pellegrino
Abstract This work studies the use of an e-axle based on a six-phase IPMSM. In
addition, it has a dc bus with a cascade configuration. Moreover, a dc/dc converter
is incorporated between the battery module and the six-phase inverter to provide the
vehicle with fast charging capabilities, while avoiding the use of power semiconduc-
tors with high nominal voltages. In this scenario, the control algorithm must cope
with the non-linearities of the machine by providing an accurate setpoint command
for the entire torque and speed range of the inverter. Therefore, cross-coupling effects
between the windings must be considered, and the voltage of the cascade link capac-
itors must be actively controlled and balanced. Given this, the authors propose a
novel control approach that provides all these functionalities. The proposal has been
experimentally validated on a full-scale prototype 70 kW electric drive, tested in a
laboratory and an electric vehicle under real driving conditions.
Keywords E-axle modelling and control · Six-phase IPMSM · Cascaded dc-link ·

On-road validation · Electric vehicles
Abbreviations
IPMSM Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine

LUT Look Up Table
PI-FOC Proportional Integral Field Oriented Controller
SiC Silicon-Carbide
VCT Voltage Control Tracking
A. Sierra-Gonzalez (B) · E. Trancho

Tecnalia, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 48160 Derio, Spain
e-mail: andres.sierra@tecnalia.com
P. Pescetto · G. Pellegrino
Politecnico Di Torino, 10129 Torino, Italy

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47683-9_4
40 A. Sierra-Gonzalez et al.
1 Introduction
The transition to a circular economy and the profound decarbonization of our

economies and lifestyles has never been more urgent. In December 2019, the EU
authorized the European Green Deal Action Plan in response to these challenges. This
plan aims to transform the Union into a modern, resource-efficient, competitive, and
inclusive economy by 2050, decoupling economic growth from resource consump-
tion and attaining carbon neutrality across all economic sectors. In this context, the
decarbonization of transportation is crucial. To achieve carbon neutrality by 2050,
this sector, which accounts for roughly one-fourth of the Union’s greenhouse gas
emissions, must undergo a tremendous transition to electrification.
In this scenario, the EU-funded FITGEN project aimed to develop a functionally
integrated e-axle (motor-inverter-transmission) ready for implementation in third-
generation electric vehicles. The FITGEN e-axle is delivered at TRL-7 by the end of
the project, and it is demonstrated on the FIAT 500e electric vehicle platform. The
FITGEN e-axle aimed to increase the power density of the e-motor by 40% and the
power density of the inverter by 50% compared to the best-in-class market-available
technology at the project start. The daily electric driving range of the demonstrator
is required to go from 740 to 1,050 km with three battery recharges, by using the
e-axle in-built super-fast charging capability.
To meet the FITGEN project’s goals, the e-axle depicted in Fig. 1 was designed and
developed. This e-axle is equipped with a high-speed symmetrical six-phase IPMSM.
The machine development takes advantage of a patented design with three layers
of permanent magnets and flux barriers [1] and state-of-the-art patented Formed
Litz wire winding technology [2]. Thanks to this, the machine prototype achieved a
gravimetric power density of 5.3 kW/kg, stand-alone efficiency of 97.4%, low torque
ripple, low back electro-motive force voltage, and a high reluctance torque. The elec-
trical machine is driven by a six-phase inverter, with a switching frequency of up to
24 kHz. This inverter was designed using wide bandgap SiC power metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistors. Thanks to the SiC technology’s higher effi-
ciency, smaller size and better thermal performance, the inverter prototype exhibits
a volumetric power density of 35 kW/l.
In addition, a bidirectional dc/dc converter is affixed between the battery pack
and power inverter on the e-axle. This converter increases the dc-link voltage to the
Fig. 1 General diagram of the FITGEN e-axle including a dc/dc converter, a six-phase SiC-based
inverter with a cascaded dc-link capacitor, and a dual three-phase IPMSM
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147
“The chief characteristic of Chinese society and the essence of
Chinese morality is reverence for the past.”—Reinsch, World
Politics (1900), p. 90.
148
The Great Learning (The Chinese Classics, 2d ed., vol. i),
chap. iii, 5.
149
Confucian Analects, bk. xi, chap. xv, 3.
150
It is interesting to compare the portraiture of The Princely Man,
as depicted by the pagan Chinese moralist, with that of The
Prince, as portrayed by Machiavelli.
151
“The standard of excellence [in The Princely Man] is placed so
high as to be absolutely unattainable by unaided human
nature; and though [the author] probably intended to elevate
the character of his grandfather [Confucius] to this height, and
thus hand him down to future ages as a shing jin, or ‘perfect
and holy man,’ he has in the providence of God done his
countrymen great service in setting before them such a
character as is here given in the Chung Yung. By being made
a text-book in the schools it has been constantly studied and
memorized by generations of students to their great benefit.”—
Williams, The Middle Kingdom (1883), vol. i, pp. 655 f.
152
Confucian Analects, bk. viii, chap. xii.
153
The Great Learning (text), par. 5.
154
Quoted by Pfleiderer, Religions and Historic Faiths, p. 96.
155
The Great Learning, chap. x, 22.
156
The Works of Mencius, bk. vi, pt. ii, chap. xiii, 6.
157
The Great Learning, chap. ix, 8.
158
Confucian Analects, bk. xii, chap. xix.
159
The Great Learning, chap. x, 21.
160
Confucian Analects, bk. xiii, chap. xi.
161
Okakura-Kakuzo, The Ideals of the East (1905), p. 239.
162
Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (1906), vol. i, p. 265.
163
The Works of Mencius, bk. vi, pt. ii, chap. viii, 8.
164
Ibid. bk. vii, pt. ii, chap. iv, 1.
165
Ibid. bk. vii, pt. ii, chap. ii, 1. While denouncing the essential
wickedness of war, Mencius sanctioned rebellion against a
tyrannical and wicked ruler.
166
The Great Learning, chap. vi, 2.
167
The Works of Mencius, bk. iv, pt. i, chap. xx.
168
Confucian Analects, bk. iii, chap. iv, 3.
169
Ibid. bk. iv, chap. xv, 2.
170
Ibid. bk. vi, chap. xvii.
171
Ibid. bk. ix, chap. xvii.
172
Ibid. bk. xv, chap. xxiii. The same precept is found in bk. xii,
chap. ii, of the Analects, and also in The Doctrine of the Mean,
chap. xiii, 3.
173
The Works of Mencius, bk. vii, pt. i, chap. xvii.
174
Ibid. bk. iv, pt. ii, chap. xii.
175
Ibid. bk. vi, pt. i, chap. x, 1.
176
Confucian Analects, bk. vii, chap. xv.
177
The Works of Mencius, bk. vi, pt. ii, chap. xv, 2.
178
Ibid. bk. vi, pt. ii, chap. xv, 5.
179
Ibid. bk. vii, pt. i, chap. xviii, 1.
180
The Chinese pay worship, it is true, to the multitude of inferior
gods of Buddhism, but there is little in these cults calculated to
awaken and discipline the moral feelings.
181
The Religions of China (1881), p. 256.
182
See Colquhuon, China in Transformation (1898), p. 189.
183
Reinsch, World Politics (1900), p. 98. In their relations with
foreigners the Chinese bankers have won an enviable
reputation for integrity and the scrupulous observance of
engagements. The word of a Chinaman in financial matters is
his bond.
184
The Lore of Cathay (1901), p. 214.
185
Froebel has an illuminating comment on the danger to true
morality that lurks here: “A life whose ideal value has been
perfectly established in experience never aims to serve as a
model in its form, but only in its essence, in its spirit. It is the
greatest mistake to suppose that spiritual, human perfection
can serve as a model in its form. This accounts for the
common experience that the taking of such external
manifestations of perfection as examples, instead of elevating
mankind, checks, nay, represses, its development” (The
Education of Man, pt. i, sec. 10).
186
Etiquette has been well defined as “the formal expression of
courtesy,” and courtesy as “morality in trifles.” In Japan, as
Kikuchi informs us, etiquette forms a part of the moral
instruction in the schools. See Sadler, Moral Instruction and
Training in Schools, vol. ii, p. 342.
187
Edward A. Ross (The Changing Chinese (1911), p. 193) says
native authorities admit that from one tenth to one twentieth of
the girl infants are abandoned or made away with.
188
“Female infanticide in some parts is openly confessed and
divested of all disgrace and penalties everywhere” (Williams,
The Middle Kingdom (1883), vol. i, p. 836). Jernigan, however,
says, “When carried to the extreme there is a public sentiment
in China which condemns it, and there are official
proclamations against infanticide” (China in Law and
Commerce (1905), p. 123).
189
The primitive kinship group is a characteristic feature of
Chinese society. “Thousands of Chinese villages comprise
exclusively persons having the same surname and the same
ancestors” (A. H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics (1894), p.
226). “I have seen a town of 25,000 people, all belonging to
the same clan and bearing the same family name” (Martin, The
Lore of Cathay (1901), p. 272). Along with this clan constitution
of society goes the principle of collective responsibility. The
group is to a great degree held responsible for the conduct of
each of its members. In case of serious crime, as, for instance,
treason, all the male adult members of the criminal’s family are
punished along with the offender (Westermarck, The Origin
and Development of the Moral Ideas (1906), vol. i, p. 45).
Recently the punishment of relatives of the offender has been
abolished in certain cases.
190
The efforts of the Chinese government to put an end to the use
of opium among its subjects—the anti-opium decree was
issued in 1906—is the most noteworthy matter in the recent
moral history of China. This movement is motived by moral
feeling as truly as is the movement among ourselves for the
suppression of the liquor traffic. It is, in the words of Professor
Edward A. Ross, “the most extensive warfare on a vicious
private habit that the world has ever known” (The Changing
Chinese (1911), p. 146).
191
“The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.”—Japanese
Constitution, art. iii.
192
The state in Japan occupies the place of the Church with us.
“To look up to the state as a sacred institution has always been
characteristic of the people, and from the great work of the
recent reformation onward there has not been a single event of
national consequence which has not originated in this peculiar
turn of mind” (Count Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan (1909),
vol. ii, p. 559).
193
Corresponding to the knights in European feudalism were the
samurai, above them the daimios, and at the head of the
system the Shogun.
194
Japanese boys and men, Dr. William Elliot Griffis affirms, are
“more tender and careful with all living creatures than are
those of Christendom” (The Religions of Japan (1895), p. 294).
Buddhism caused in large measure the disuse of flesh for
food.
195
This word means “the way of the warrior,” or “the rule of
knighthood.”
196
Nitobé, Bushido: the Soul of Japan, p. 98. The edition cited
throughout this chapter is that of G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1905.
The Introduction is by William Elliot Griffis.
197
Nitobé, Bushido, p. 32.
198
Ibid. p. 30.
199
For the subject of the downfall of feudalism and the
Restoration, see Count Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan
(1909), vol. i, chap. ii.
200
201
Baron Kikuchi, in Sadler, Moral Instruction and Training in
Schools (1908), vol. ii, p. 323.
202
Scherer, What is Japanese Morality? (1906), p. 10.
203
Nitobé, Bushido, p. vi.
204
The works of Molière, it is said, have been put under the ban of
the censor in Japan and their circulation forbidden, for the
reason that Molière ridicules old age, and constantly, like the
comic supplement of the newspapers, “makes some father the
butt of jokes and gross wit by his child or children.”
205
“Any social system of which filial piety is not the moral cement;
any social system in which children leave their parents in order
to establish families of their own; any social system in which it
is considered not only natural but right to love wife and child
more than the author of one’s being; any social system in
which marriage can be decided independently of the will of
parents, by the mutual inclination of the young people
themselves; any social system in which the mother-in-law is
not entitled to the obedient service of the daughter-in-law,
appears to him [the Japanese] of necessity a state of life
scarcely better than that of the birds of the air and the beasts
of the field, or at best a sort of moral chaos.”—Lafcadio
Hearn, Out of the East (1895), p. 89.
206
Okakura-Kakuzo, The Awakening of Japan (1904), p. 179.
Romantic love is almost unknown in Japan. B. H. Chamberlain
affirms that in a residence of twenty-eight years he heard of
only one love match, and then the young people had been
brought up in America.
207
Out of the East (1985), p. 80.
208
Five per cent of the men have concubines.
209
“The central idea in Japanese life is obedience to parents and
reverence for ancestors. Should a Japanese father have
misfortunes, his daughter would think it her filial duty to sell her
body. She would not be regarded as fallen and disgraced, but
as having done a right and noble deed, and might afterwards
be restored to her place in society. But, though it is hard to
explain, the Japanese woman is as chaste and pure and
exalted in her ideas of womanhood as any woman on the
globe.”—Sir Edwin Arnold (in an interview).
210
Bacon, Japanese Girls and Women (1891), p. 121.
211
Chamberlain, Things Japanese, 4th ed., p. 220. By “the
ancient way” is meant hara-kiri, or disemboweling. The death
by his own hand of General Nogi, the hero of Port Arthur,
during the funeral of his departed sovereign Mutsuhito
(September 13, 1912), reveals another motive for suicide
which is wholly foreign to our modes of thought and feeling. “In
very early, almost prehistoric, times the custom of jun-shi, or
dying with the master, led to the interment of living Japanese
retainers with their dead lord. The custom gradually died out,
but voluntary suicide as a means of showing personal devotion
or attachment to a master or superior persisted for many
centuries” (George Kennan, “The Death of General Nogi,” New
York Outlook for October 5, 1912). It was this ancient custom
that Count Nogi followed. “When all was over”—such is Mr.
Kennan’s interpretation of his act—“he ended his own life as
an expression of his boundless devotion to the man whom he
had loved. It was in the spirit of Old Japan, but Nogi was a
man of that era, and lived in the mental and moral atmosphere
of that time.”
212
Japanese feudalism began about the eleventh century. The
year 1868 saw its final downfall.
213
214
Okakura-Kakuzo, The Awakening of Japan (1904), p. 175.
Count Okuma makes a similar assertion: “The humanitarian
efforts which in the course of the recent war were so much in
evidence, and which so much surprised Western nations, were
not, as might have been thought, the products of the new
civilization, but survivals of our ancient feudal chivalry” (Fifty
Years of New Japan (1909), vol. i, p. 124). By no people has
the Red Cross movement been taken up with greater
enthusiasm than by the Japanese.
215
Consult Count Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan (1909), vol. ii,
pp. 566 f.
216
“The obloquy attached to the calling brought within its pale
such as cared little for social repute” (Nitobé, Bushido, p. 66).
“The trades-people,” writes Chamberlain, “stood at the very
bottom of the scale. The hucksters or traders were a degraded
class in old Japan, and degraded their business morals
remain, which is the principal cause of the difficulties
experienced by European merchants in dealing with them”
(Things Japanese, 4th ed., p. 93).
217
218
The statement has obtained wide currency that all the banks in
Japan employ only Chinese as cashiers because they cannot
find honest Japanese for these positions of trust. Chinese are
sometimes employed in Japanese banks, but the true reason
for their employment is not the one here assigned. One well
qualified to speak authoritatively on this subject says:
Chinese bankers and cashiers are largely Shansi men, that is, men
from the province of Shansi, where the profession of banking has
become hereditary in a large number of families. They are all, or nearly
all, members of the powerful organization known as the Bankers’ Guild,
which has branches in every part of the Empire. The Bankers’ Guild
has discovered that it is practically impossible to conduct large financial
operations without honesty; and it therefore enforces honesty by
means of a discipline that is as rigorous ... as that of the New York
Stock Exchange.... If a Chinese banker breaks faith, violates a
contract, or betrays a trust, he is expelled from his guild and the doors
of banks are closed against him for all time. In the first place, therefore,
the Chinese cashier is honest because honesty is a condition of his
business existence. He may not be honest in other respects,—often he
is not,—but he is absolutely honest in the handling of money. In the
second place, he is probably the most expert man living in the rapid
calculation of exchanges. The monetary system of his country is the
most confused, chaotic, and complicated system in the world. There
are fifteen or twenty different kinds of taels, no one of which bears a
fixed relation to any other, or to any established monetary standard....
The necessity of dealing in some way with this great mass of unstable
and fluctuating currency and of earning a subsistence from it has made
the Chinese cashier one of the most expert of living accountants. He
will solve difficult monetary problems by short cuts of mental arithmetic,
and he calculates exchanges to eight points of decimals. In the third
place, the Chinese cashier counts and manipulates bank bills and
coins with extraordinary skill and accuracy. I have had dealings with
him in many parts of the Far East, but I cannot remember ever to have
seen him count a sum of money twice, and I have never caught him in
an error....
Now, when you get a man whose honesty is guaranteed by his guild,
whose manipulation of money is phenomenally dexterous, and who
can calculate exchanges to eight points of decimals, you have an ideal
cashier; and if Japanese bankers employ him, it shows their good
business sense rather than their distrust of their own people. But all
Japanese bankers do not employ him. In some of the largest banks in
Tokyo, Kioto, and Osaka there are no Chinese at all—or at least I have
never seen any. This explanation would not be worth, perhaps, the
space that I have given to it, if the story of the Chinese cashier had not
been so widely circulated, and if it were not typical of a whole class of
cases in which the Japanese are misjudged on the basis of a single
incident or a solitary fact.—George Kennan, “Are the Japanese
Honest?” the New York Outlook for August 31, 1912.
219
“If the descendants of the samurai can erect a standard of
commercial integrity at all comparable to their fine record for
courage and loyalty, we shall be their debtors, not they
ours.”—The New York Nation for July 30, 1908, p. 90.
220
221
222
Ibid. vol. ii, p. 319.
223
Ibid. vol. ii, p. 230.
224
“I certainly consider that the courage and devotion of the
Japanese soldiers during the late war was to a great extent the
result of this systematic moral instruction and training in
schools.”—Baron Kikuchi, in Sadler, Moral Instruction and
Training in Schools (1908), vol. ii, p. 344.
225
Wedgwood (The Moral Ideal, 3d ed., p. 22) suggestively likens
the reduction to unity of the various gods of polytheism to the
correlation of the physical forces—light, heat, electricity, and
magnetism. Just as all these are found to be merely different
manifestations of a single force or energy, so are all the deified
phenomena of nature at last discovered to be but different
manifestations of a single primal power—the One, the
Supreme, the Eternal. This correlation of the gods, this
reduction of polytheism to monotheism, holds the same place
in the records of the religious and moral evolution of the race
that the correlation of the physical forces holds in the records
of the progress of science.
226
There may be some philosophers and scientists who profess
materialism, and who make an infinite and eternal unconscious
energy the primal cause of all things. But this is a philosophy of
the universe which has never secured a wide acceptance in
the West.
227
Oldenberg, Buddha (1882), p. 59.
228
Hopkins, The Religions of India (1895), p. 356.
229
This was the work of the Brahmans, who, to secure the
ascendancy of their own class, falsified and misinterpreted the
sacred books.
230
Laws of Manu (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv), i. 31, 87.
231
Cf. Hearn, Kokora, chap. xii.
232
Laws of Manu, vi. 63.
233
Ibid. xii. 9, 53–58. The germs out of which this system was
developed by the Brahmans formed a part of the animistic
conception of the world held by the conquered natives. By the
sixth century b.c. the system had been fully elaborated. See
Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures (1881), pp. 16 f.
234
The theory was also undoubtedly in part the creation of the
same ethical necessity that called into existence the purgatory
of the medieval Church. The reincarnations have for aim and
purpose not merely retribution, but expiation and purification.
235
The reader of Edward Beecher’s The Conflict of Ages, wherein
the author attempts to explain the inequalities of earthly life by
the theory of preëxistence, will be able to appreciate this effort
of Indian philosophers to solve the same problem.
236
Indian pessimism is doubtless to be attributed in part to the
hot, depressing climate, but more largely to the burdensome
caste system and an oppressive government, which made free
and joyous life impossible to the masses, shutting them up,
without hope, to an existence of ache and pain and
wretchedness. “Politics and society, in our opinion,” says Dr.
Hopkins, “had more to do with altering the religion of India than
had a higher temperature and miasma” (The Religions of India
(1895), p. 199). But cf. Bloomfield, The Religion of the Veda
(1908), pp. 263 ff.
237
Hopkins, The Religions of India (1895), p. 149.
238
Ibid. p. 187.
239
This Brahmanic notion of sacrifice, that the gods need food, is
the underlying notion in all religions of which sacrifices form a
part. “That the purpose of sacrifice was simply to feed the gods
was admitted on all sides in the controversy which
accompanied the diffusion of Christianity in the ancient
world.... The altar, in the words of Dean Spenser, was merely
the table on which food and drink were set before the
languishing deity” (Payne, History of the New World called
America (1892), vol. i, pp. xi f.). “It is on precisely the same
principle that the Mexicans kept their great war-gods ... alive
and vigorous by the blood of young human victims selected
from their tributaries, and the Peruvians maintained the
Creator, Sun, Moon, and Thunder, on whose favor their crops
depended, in youth and vigor by the continual smoke of burnt
llamas” (Ibid. vol. i, p. 484). Consult also Frazer, Adonis, Attis,
and Osiris. All these were divinities of vegetation, which were
believed to die and to come to life again, as with the revolution
of the seasons vegetation died and was renewed. Along with
this belief went the notion that by magical ceremonies the
worshipers of the gods could aid them in recovering their
wasted energies.
240
Laws of Manu, i. 88–91.
241
Ibid. i. 93.
242
Ibid. ii. 32, 35.
243
The Gentoo Code (1776), xvi. 1.
244
Laws of Manu, iv. 80, 81.
245
Ibid. viii. 379.
246
Ibid. viii. 380.
247
Ibid. viii. 381.
248
Ibid. iv. 147.
249
Laws of Manu, xi. 247.
250
Ibid. iv. 148.
251
Even the sudra is not shut out from this hope. If he be pure,
the faithful servant of his betters, gentle in his speech and free
from pride, he will at death be reborn into a higher caste (Laws
of Manu, ix. 335).
252
Laws of Manu, xi. 60, 69, 71, 72, 132–138, 140–142, 144.
Especially severe is the penance imposed for killing a cow.
See Ibid. xi. 109–117.
253
Ibid. vi. 68.
254
Ibid. vi. 69.
255
It is better, however, to abstain wholly from the use of meat,
since this can be obtained only through pain to sentient beings
(Laws of Manu, v. 48). There is no sin in eating meat, “but
abstention brings great rewards” (Ibid. v. 56).
256
Laws of Manu, v. 40.
257
Ibid. v. 45.
258
Ibid. vii. 101.
259
Ibid. vii. 103.
260
Laws of Manu, vii. 90–93, 104.
261
Ibid. viii. 84.
262
Ibid. v. 106.
263
Ibid. xi. 231.
264
Ibid. vi. 48.
265
Ibid. viii. 312.
266
Laws of Manu, viii. 313.
267
Gautama or Buddha, “The Enlightened,” the founder of
Buddhism, died about b.c. 480. Long before he began his
teachings moral reform was in the air in India. Many reforming
sects came into existence. The most important of these was
the sect of the Jains. The central teaching of Jainism is the
sacredness of all life, and its first and chief commandment, Do
no harm to any living thing. Its spirit of universal benevolence
left a deep impress not only upon Buddhism but also upon
later Hinduism.
268
Dhammapada (Sacred Books of the East, 2d ed., vol. x), xiv.
190, 191. Cf. Oldenberg, Buddha (1882), p. 209.
269
Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 286.
270
Cf. Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures (1881), p. 21; Hopkins, The
Religions of India (1895), pp. 316 f.
271
272
Dhammapada, xx. 283. This doctrine that peace and
contentment of mind come through suppression of desire was
also the teaching of the Greek Cynics.
273
“No sentient being can tell in what state the karma that he
possesses will appoint his next birth, though he may be now,
and continue to be until death, one of the most meritorious of
men. In that karma may be the crime of murder, committed
many ages ago, but not yet expiated; and in the next existence
its punishment may have to be endured. There will ultimately
be a reward for that which is good, but it may be long delayed.
It acts like an hereditary disease.”—Hardy, Manual of
Buddhism (1880), p. 411.
274
“The difficulties attendant upon this peculiar dogma [karma]
may be seen in the fact that it is almost universally
repudiated.... In historical composition, in narrative, and in
conversation, the common idea of transmigration is continually
presented” (Hardy, Manual of Buddhism (1880), p. 412). By
250 b.c. “in the North and also in the South the old heresy of
the soul-theory had crept back by side issue into the doctrine
from which it had been categorically and explicitly excluded by
Gautama and his earlier followers” (Rhys Davids, Buddhism
(1896), p. 198).
275
Hibbert Lectures (1881), pp. 31, 206. Cf. Hopkins, The
Religions of India (1895), p. 321.
276
But this, as we have just seen, is not the Buddhism of the
Buddhist world in general. The masses in Buddhist lands have
never accepted the doctrine of Nirvana in the sense of
extinction of existence. The following conversation between
Moncure Conway and a Singhalese priest discloses the
meaning of the term to an orthodox Buddhist of Ceylon: “I
asked, ‘Have those who are in Nirvana any consciousness?’ I
was then informed that there is no Singhalese word for
consciousness. Sumangala said, ‘To reach Nirvana is to be no
more.’ I pointed to a stone step and said, ‘One is there only as
that stone is here?’ ‘Not so much,’ answered the priest; ‘for the
stone is actually here, but in Nirvana there is no existence at
all’” (My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East (1906), p.
134).
277
These eight requirements are often condensed into four, and
then the formula is called the fourfold path to deliverance.
278
Cf. Oldenberg, Buddha (1882), p. 211; Hopkins, The Religions
of India (1895), p. 305.
279
There is in this teaching respecting desirelessness an
apparent inconsistency, for with all other desires suppressed,
there remains the desire for Nirvana. But the difficulty here is
only apparent. A Buddhist priest, questioned respecting this,
replied as follows: “The desire for Nirvana escapes from the
mesh that entangles all other desires, because it is not desire
for any object at all” (Conway, My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men
of the East (1906), p. 134). But all other desires aside from this
desire for Nirvana are in a sense sins of covetousness. And
this is the cardinal sin in the view of the true Buddhist, for
covetousness “is a strong desire for something, and all desire
is a hindrance in one’s way to Nirvana.”
280
This teaching that mental illumination comes through
contemplation is the doctrine in general of the religious and
moral teachers of the East, and of all mystics. It differs
fundamentally from the scientific view, which makes
observation and study the means of enlightenment.
281
Buddhism limits transmigration to the animal creation;
Brahmanism, it will be recalled, supposes the soul to
transmigrate into vegetable as well as into animal forms.
282
“To be a true Buddhist, one must renounce, as lust, all desire
of evil, which brings evil; and must live without other hope than
that of extinguishing all desire and passion, believing that in so
doing he will at death be annihilated.”—Hopkins, The
Religions of India (1895), p. 564.
283
Dhammapada, vii. 90–99.
284
But—and differing in this from Dr. Hopkins—Professor Rhys
Davids makes this perfection which results in annihilation to
consist not in the extinction of every desire, but only of craving
desire and evil passions.
285
The Religions of India (1895), p. 322.
286
Hopkins, The Religions of India (1895), p. 317. Stoicism
indeed approaches Buddhism in this respect; but its attitude
toward the doctrine of a future life was in general merely
agnostic—it made no positive denial of immortality.
287
Cf. Rhys Davids, Hibbert Lectures (1881), p. 123.
288
Zeller represents Pythagoreanism as springing from an effort
to give an ethical content to life. “We may consider it proved,”
he says, “that the school of Pythagoras, believing in the
almighty favor of the gods, and in future retribution, enforced
purity of life, moderation and justice, minute self-examination
and discretion in all actions, and especially discouraged self-
conceit” (History of Philosophy (1881), vol. i, p. 496).
Oldenberg (Ancient India (1896), p. 87) conceives
Pythagoreanism—together with the Orphic worship—as “a bit
of Buddhism in the midst of Greek civilization.”
289
Gautama’s attitude toward ascetic practices is shown by the
following: “Not nakedness, not platted hair, not dirt, not fasting,
or lying on the earth, not rubbing with dust, not sitting
motionless, can purify a mortal who has not overcome desires”
(Dhammapada, x. 141).
290
291
This is well illustrated in the following incident related by
Moncure Conway. In the island of Ceylon he was visited by an
aged Buddhist priest, who came in a sedan borne by men.
Asked why he did not use a carriage drawn by horses, the
priest replied that “he was afraid a horse might be vitally
injured by carrying him.” “But,” said Mr. Conway, “might it not
be the same with one of those men while he is carrying you?”
After a moment’s silence the priest answered, “But a man can
tell me if he is suffering” (My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the
East (1906), pp. 116 f.).
292
Thousands of rats were formerly kept at public expense in a
hospital at the Indian town of Kutel.
293
Toleration is not even recognized as a virtue in the moral
codes of ancient Judaism, dogmatic Christianity, and Islam.
294
Hibbert Lectures (1881), p. 231.
295
Under Asoka, it is true, Buddhism, like Christianity under
Constantine the Great, became militant. But Asoka was a
gentle warrior and made war gently. He neither killed his
prisoners nor tortured them, a common practice with Oriental
conquerors, nor did he sell them as slaves.
296
“Les paisibles sujets du Grand-Lama thibetain ont cessé
d’aimer la guerre et presque de la faire” (Letourneau, La
guerre dans les diverses races humaines (1895), p. 213).
297
Edward A. Ross, The Changing Chinese (1911), p. 29.
298
See above, p. 79.
299
Mozoomdar, a leader of the Brahmo-Somaj.
300
Buddhism, like Christianity, teaches that hatred must be
overcome by love: “Let a man overcome anger by love, let him
overcome evil by good” (Dhammapada, xvii. 223). “For hatred
does not cease by hatred at any time; hatred ceases by love,
this is an old rule” (Ibid. i. 5).
301
For the influence of Buddhism on the Japanese character, see
Count Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan (1909), vol. ii, chap.
iv, “Japanese Religious Beliefs: Buddhism.”
302
Laws, tr. Jowett, x. 896. And the thought is near even in the
latest philosophy: “But it feels like a real fight,” says Professor
William James, “as if there were something really wild in the
universe which we, with all our idealities and faithfulness, are
needed to reform.”
303
Is. xlv. 7.
304
This dualistic world philosophy is regarded by some students
of the Zend-Avesta as being in the nature of a protest against
“the inert asceticism of Buddhism and the ethical indifference
of Brahmanism” (Darmesteter, “Introduction,” Sacred Books of
the East, 2d ed., vol. iv, p. lxviii). Ranke views it as the product
of environment: “If we keep well in view the contrasts between
the various districts and nations included within the limits of
Persia and her provinces, the incessant struggle between the
settled populations and the inhabitants of the steppes,
between the cultivated regions and the desolation of the
desert, thrust back, indeed, yet ever resuming its
encroachments, the ideas of the Zend-Avesta will appear to us
natural and, as we may term it, autochthonic” (Universal
History, vol. i (1885), p. 105).
305
The way in which such a conception acts upon the moral life is
well illustrated in the history of English Puritanism. The ethical
strenuousness of the Puritan was the outcome of his deeply
felt consciousness of the ineradicable antagonism between
good and evil. It is all brought vividly before us in Bunyan’s
Holy War, in the struggle between Immanuel and Diabolus—of
which the myth of Ahura and Ahriman was the prototype.
306
Mihir Yasht (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxiii), vii. 26.
307
See Jackson, Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran.
308
See above, p. 115.
309
Zoroastrian ethics, as Wedgwood says, is best understood
when viewed as a protest against the Hindu conception of the
universe and life. “The injunction to industry, the elaborate
provisions for agriculture, the constant stimulus to exertion of
every kind, are most intelligible when we see in them a recoil
from the faith which appeared to this active race [the Iranian] a
confusion of good and evil” (The Moral Ideal, 3d ed., p. 59).
310
Vendîdâd (Sacred Books of the East, 2d ed., vol. iv), Farg. iv.
47.
311
Ibid. Farg. iii. 33.
312
Ibid. Farg. iv. 49.
313
“Aryan morality came down from the heavens in a ray of light”
(Selected Essays of James Darmesteter, ed. Morris Jastrow, p.
304).
314
Vendîdâd, Farg. ii. 29.
315
Ibid. Farg. iv. 49 (bis)-55.
316
Mihir Yasht, i. 2.
317
Ibid. xxix. 116, 117.
318
The Moral Ideal, 3d ed., pp. 71 ff. It is significant that the
sacred standard of the early Persians was the apron of a
blacksmith.
319
Vendîdâd, Farg. iii. 31.
320
Ibid. Farg. iii. 4.
321
Laws of Manu, x. 84.
322
Vendîdâd, Farg. iii. 38, 39.
323
The king who reigned in Persia at the time of Nero, going from
Asia to Italy, traveled by land along the shore instead of going
by ship, “because the Magi are forbidden to defile the sea”
(James Darmesteter, Sacred Books of the East, vol. iv, p. xl).
But the anxious observance by the Persians of the
requirements of the code is best disclosed in the disposition
which they made of their dead. Since corpses could neither be
burned nor buried nor thrown into the water without defiling a
sacred element, they were exposed on the summits of
mountains or on the top of low towers (dakhmas), the so-called
“Towers of Silence,” that the flesh might be eaten by birds of
prey.
324
Zend-Avesta, pt. ii, Yasht xxii (Sacred Books of the East, vol.
xxiii, pp. 314 ff.).
325
Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxxi, “Introduction,” p. xx.
326
“Their [the servitors of Mithra] dualistic system was particularly
adapted to fostering individual effort and to developing human
energy.”—Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra (1903), p. 141.
327
Herod. i. 139. We quote Rawlinson’s version.

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