Properties of Double Stars: A Survey of

Parallaxes and Orbits Leendert

Binnendijk
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Properties of Double Stars
^Má/i-e'ta- etc/ S^ó^ótcc
Plate I. Tailpiece of the 24-inch refractor at Sproul O b s e r v a t o r y used
f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c parallax d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Notice the plate holder a n d
the guiding eyepiece. (Courtesy Dr. P. van de K a m p . )
Properties of Double Stars
A SURVEY OF PARALLAXES AND ORBITS

LEENDERT BINNENDIJK

Professor of Astronomy
University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS
© 1960 by the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania

Published in Great Britain, India, and Pakistan

by the Oxford University Press
London, Bombay, and Karachi

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 58-8011

Printed in Great Britain

by W. & J. Mackay & Co Ltd, Chatham
 Preface
THIS BOOK IS BASED ON LECTURES GIVEN BY THE AUTHOR IN
an advanced year course for students who had finished at least a
descriptive course in astronomy and who had the necessary basic
knowledge in physics and mathematics.
The intention has been to give the student an understanding
of the double star problem, beginning with the precautions one
has to take even before observations are started and concluding
with the final results of the orbital elements. As a consequence,
considerable space is used to explain provisional solutions. The
definitive solution is then described using the least squares
method of the professional astronomer.
In Chapters I, III, and V, the student will find an introduc-
tion to astrometry, spectroscopy, and photometry, respectively,
as a preparation for the observational techniques and the reduc-
tions to be carried out. In the same chapters a rather complete
summary of methods of parallax determination is given, because
it is important to know the distance both for a binary and for a
single star. Some other topics are only touched upon. These
chapters can be read in this succession if desired.
In Chapters Π, IV, and VI, the different methods of orbital
determination which are still in use are discussed and funda-
mental properties, like mass, size, and density, are studied.
The standard nomenclature has been followed as far as
possible. After each chapter selected references are included.
No completeness is intended here. As a rule the original
publications are mentioned and those which give a summary of
the subject or have an extensive bibliography.
5
6 Preface

It is a privilege to extend my sincere thanks to three astro-

nomers who are experts in the three fields of double stars
covered in this volume and who have given me very valuable
assistance in the preparation of the manuscript. They are Dr.
Peter van de Kamp of Swarthmore College for Chapters I and
II, Dr. Dean B. McLaughlin of the University of Michigan for
Chapters III and IV, Dr. F. Bradshaw Wood of the University
of Pennsylvania for Chapters V and VI. It is a pleasure to
express my gratitude to Dr. William Blitzstein, Dr. Robert H.
Koch and Mrs. Beverly B. Bookmyer, all of the University of
Pennsylvania, for their help during the reading of the proofs.
L. Binnendijk
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
 Contents
Preface page 5
I. ASTROMETRY 17
1. Three fundamental formulae of spherical
trigonometry 17
2. Trigonometric parallax 21
3. Parallax in celestial longitude and latitude 23
4. Comparison with aberration 25
5. Parallax in right ascension and declination 25
6. Parallax factors 28
7. Proper motion and parallax 30
8. Photographic stellar parallaxes 32
9. Observation 34
10. Measurement 37
11. Dependences 37
12. Method of dependences 40
13. Plate solutions 42
14. Computation of dependences 44
15. Number of comparison stars 44
16. Relative and absolute trigonometric parallax 45
17. Proper motions 48
18. Solar motion and apex 48
19. Secular parallax 51
II. VISUAL DOUBLE STARS 56
20. Observation 56
7
8 Contents

21. Orbital elements defined page 59

22. Gravitation law and Kepler's laws 61
23. Apparent ellipse and true ellipse 62
24. Method of Kowalsky and Glasenapp 63
25. Method of Zwiers and Russell 69
26. Method of Thiele and Innes 72
27. Differential corrections 81
28. Application to the line of sight 81
29. Apparent orbit a straight line 83
30. Interferometer 85
31. Sum of the masses 88
32. Mass-luminosity relation 89
33. Dynamical parallax 91
34. Astrometric double stars 92
35. Resolved astrometric binary 93
36. Photocentric orbit 94
37. Unresolved astrometric binary 97
38. Mass determination 99
39. Résumé 100
40. Proofs of certain formulae 100

III. SPECTROSCOPY 106

41. The Spectrograph 106
42. Observation and measurement 108
43. Reduction 109
44. Daily rotation 113
45. Yearly revolution 114
46. Heliocentric correction in α, δ 120
47. Variable radial velocity 123
48. Equivalent width 124
49. Curve of growth 126
50. Spectral classification in two dimensions 128
51. Spectroscopic parallax 132
 Contents 9
52. Peculiar spectra page 136
53. Interstellar lines 138
54. Parallax from differential galactic rotation 138

IV. SPECTROSCOPIC DOUBLE STARS 148

55. One spectrum visible 148
56. Method of Lehmann-Filhés 152
57. Method of Schwarzschild and Zurhellen 157
58. Method of Wilsing and Russell 163
59. Method of Russell 165
60. Method of Laves and King 168
61. Mass function (one spectrum visible) 170
62. Rotation effect 171
63. Gas streams 173
64. Two spectra visible 176
65. Mass ratio (two spectra) 178
66. Influence of reflection effect 179
67. Ratio of intensities 180
68. Diameter of Cepheids 186
69. Period-luminosity relations 193

Y. PHOTOMETRY 198
70. Intensity 198
71. Magnitude 199
72. Color and reddening 201
73. Black body energy distribution 201
74. Observed energy distribution 210
75. Visual method 214
76. Photographic method 216
77. Objective grating 217
78. Rich star field 219
79. Measurement 220
80. Reduction 221
10 Contents

81. Magnitude systems page 223

82. Discovery of variables 224
83. Bright variable 226
84. Faint variable 227
85. Light time 228
86. Period 232
87. Photo-electric method 233
88. Open clusters 237
89. Extinction 239
90. Light curve 244
91. Polarization 246
92. Moving cluster parallax 247
93. Spectrum-magnitude diagram 248
94. Color-magnitude diagram 250
95. Open cluster parallax 251
96. Globular clusters 253

VI. ECLIPSING VARIABLES 258

97. Units defined 258
98. Algol type 259
99. Loss of light 263
100. Depth relations 264
101. The relation between S/rg, k and α 265
102. Dynamical condition 267
103. Determination of k, rg, i with / f u n c t i o n
(method I) 268
104. Differential corrections 271
105. Complete eclipses with Φ and φ functions
(method II) 272
106. Incomplete eclipses with χ and q functions
(method II) 276
107. Limb darkening 280
108. Influence of limb darkening 283
 Contents 11
109. β Lyrae type page 288
110. Oblateness 290
111. Dynamical condition for oblate stars 293
112. Oblateness with limb darkening 298
113. W Ursae Majoris type 304
114. Kinds of eclipses 307
115. Gravitation effect 308
116. Gravitation effect and limb darkening 312
117. Reflection effect 313
118. Approximate rectification 316
119. Reflection and reradiation 317
120. Correct rectification 320
121. Visible and invisible companions 324
122. Résumé 325
123. Eccentricity of the orbit 326
124. Rotation of the line of apsides 330
125. Position angle of the node 334
126. Extended atmospheres 335
127. Information about masses, sizes, densities 337
Index of Authors 343
Index of Subjects 345
 Plates
I Tailpiece of the 24-inch refractor at Sproul Observatory
used for photographic parallax determination frontispiece
II Illustration of the parallax and proper motion of Barnard's
star facing page 32
III Micrometer of the 36-inch refractor at Lick Observatory
facing page 33
IV Double star camera attached to the Dearborn 18£-inch
refractor facing page 64
V Photographs of the visual binary system Krueger 60
facing page 65
VI The new spectrograph attached to the 72-inch reflecting
telescope of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory,
Victoria facing page 192
VII Negative spectra of the spectroscopic double Mizar on
ten different dates facing page 193
Vili The Pierce photo-electric photometer attached to the
15-inch horizontal telescope at Flower and Cook Ob-
servatory facing page 224

IX Photo-electric photometer attached to the 16-inch Good-

sell refractor, now attached to the 28^-inch reflecting tele-
scope at Flower and Cook Observatory facing page 225
13
 Abbreviations
A.A.A.S. American Association for the Advancement of Science
A.J. Astronomical Journal
A.N. Astronomische Nachrichten
Αρ. J. Astrophysical Journal
Β. Α.Ν. Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Nether-
lands
I.A.U. International Astronomical Union
L.O.B. Lick Observatory Bulletin
Μ.Ν. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
Mt. W. Mount Wilson Observatory
P. Α.S.Ρ. Publications of the Royal Astronomical Society of the
Pacific
Pop. Astr. Popular Astronomy
R.A.S.C. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
Z.f Aph. Zeitschrift für Astrophysik

14
Properties of Double Stars
 I
Astrometry
ASTROMETRY MEANS POSITION DETERMINATION FOR THE
purpose of deriving the proper motion, and parallax of a star,
and in addition the orbital motion for a double star. J. Bradley's
effort to obtain a measurable parallax led to the discovery of
aberration and nutation, both of which are much larger shifts
in stellar positions than the annual parallax. W. Herschel's
attempt to measure parallax led to the discovery of the physical
double stars. In 1838 the first parallaxes were measured with a
meridian circle and with a heÜometer. Those were thus visual
observations. Now we observe the parallax only by photo-
graphic means. However, in case of the orbital motion of
double stars, both the visitai and photographic methods are
used.

1. Threefimdamentalformulae of spherical trigonometry. Since

astrometric measures are essentially measures of a star's posi-
tion on the celestial sphere, we must consider first some of the
fundamentals of spherical trigonometry. A spherical triangle is
a part of the surface of a sphere bounded by three great circles.
Both the angles and the sides of the spherical triangle are ex-
pressed in degrees. The derivation of the three fundamental
formulae of spherical trigonometry follows :
(1) In Figure 1 the center of the sphere is at O. The spherical
triangle ABC has the sides a, b, c. The plane ADE is tangent
17
18 Properties of Double Stars
0

Figure 1. The spherical triangle ABC. The center of the sphere is

at O. The plane ADE is tangent to the sphere at A.
to the sphere at A, and therefore Z. OAE = / . OAD = 90°. In
Δ ADE and Δ ODE we express DE with the cosine rule (OA= 1) :
DES = tan2ò + tan2c — 2 tan b tan c cos A
DE2 = sec26 + sec2c — 2 sec b sec c cos a
= 1 + tan2¿> + 1 + tan2c — 2 sec b sec c cos a
Thus : — tan b tan c cos A = 1 — sec b sec c cos a
— sin b sin c cos A = cos b cos c — cos a
The result is the cosine rule, which we will write for all the three
sides.
cos a — cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A "j
cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos Β > (1)
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C J
When C = 90° we get:
cos c = cos a cos b (2)
 Astrometry 19
(2) S q u a r e sin b sin c cos A = cos a — cos b cos c
s i n s è sin 2 c c o s M = cos 2 a — 2 cos a cos b cos c + cos 2 6 c o s 2 c
T h e left side o f t h e e q u a t i o n c a n b e w r i t t e n a s :
sin 2 ô sin 2 c (1 — s i n M ) - sin 2 6 sin 2 c — sin 2 6 sin 2 c sin*<4
= (1 - c o s * 6 X l — cos 2 c) - sin2¿> sin 2 c s i n M
= 1 — c o s *b — c o s 2 c + cos2 6 cos 2 c — sin*6 sin 2 c s i n M
T h u s w e find n o w :
sin 2 £ sin 2 c s i i i M = 1 — cos a a — cos 2 6 — cos *c + 2 c o s a c o s b c o s e

T h i s is positive. W e define n o w a positive X so t h a t :

A r 2 sin , a s i n ' è sin 2 c = 1 — cos2a — cos'ò — cos'c
+ 2 cos a cos b cos c
m sinM , sinM ,„ sin Λ
Thus: — — 2 = 1 , - —2 - = X*, + -— = X
X* san a sin a sin a
T h e r e is o n l y t h e positive sign b e c a u s e A a n d a a r e b o t h < 180°.
W e find i n this w a y t h e sine rule.
sin A sin Β sin C
— = -—- — , or written out:
sin a sin b sin c
sin A sin b = sin Β sin a \
sin A s i n e = sin C sin a > (3)
sin Β sin c = sin C sin b J
F o r C = 90° t h e s e c o n d e q u a t i o n o f t h e a b o v e n o w gives :
S Ì n a
•
sin AΛ = / A \
(4)
sine
(3) W e s t a r t w i t h t h e s e c o n d expression of t h e c o s i n e r u l e a n d
u s e this r u l e o n c e m o r e .
sin a sin c cos Β = cos b — cos a cos c
= c o s b — (cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A) c o s c
= cos b — cos b cos 2 c — sin b sin c cos c cos A
= cos b sin 2 c — sin b sin c c o s c cos A
20 Properties of Double Stars

Division by sin c gives the third rule :

sin a cos Β = cos b sin c — sin b cos c cos Α Λ
sin b cos C = cos c sin a — sin c cos a cos Β > (5)
sin c cos A = cos α sin è — sin a cos b cos C J
For C = 90° the last line gives : sin c cos A = cos a sin b
The cosine rule gave : cos c = cos a cos b
Division gives : tan c cos A = tan b
Thus : cos A = (6)
tane
There is also another proof of the third rule. In Figure 2 express
χ in Δ DBC and Δ DAC with the cosine rule.
o

cos χ = cos a cos 90 + sin a sin 90 cos Β

= cos b cos (90—c) + sin b sin (90— c) cos (180-Λ)
sin a cos Β = cos b sin c— sin b cos c cos A
 Astrometry 21
2. Trigonometric parallax. Stellar parallax means the maximum
difference in the lines of sight to a star as seen from the earth
and the sun. Let us assume first a circular revolution of the
earth around the sun in the plane of the ecliptic. Because the
earth's orbit is an ellipse, we thus introduce a very small error,
but we will correct for this later. The parallax is also the maximum
angle an observer on the star "sees" the distance sun-earth,
or the angle the astronomical unit subtends at the star (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The circular revolution of the earth E in the plane of the

ecliptic causes the star to describe a parallactic ellipse in the plane of
the sky.
22 Properties of Double Stars
The star as observed from the earth has an apparent move-
ment about the position as observed from the sun which is
called the heliocentric position. In space in the direction of the
star this will be the exact reflection of the earth's orbit and is
thus a circle in a plane parallel to the ecliptic plane. Observed in
the plane of the sky we see it thus projected as an ellipse with the
semi-major axis equal to the radius of the circle. This semi-
major axis is called the parallax. In the line of sight we have
also a yearly periodic motion by which the radial velocities are
affected. This is independent of the distance and the results are
measured directly in kilometers per second. The astronomical
unit can be determined from these radial velocity measurements
as we will see later.
Let 7Ta be the absolute parallax. If the parallax is expressed in
degrees and the distance r in astronomical units we have accord-
ing to the definition of parallax (Figure 4) :
S

heliocentr

E
Figure 4. Parallax is the maximum difference in the lines of sights as
seen from the earth and the sun.
 Astrometry 23

sin πΛ = - (7)
r
Because π, is very small we can omit the sine if π, is expressed in
radians. If we express wa in seconds of arc we have :
206,265
ιτΛ =
r
We often use the parsec as a unit of distance. One parsec is the
distance at which a star has a parallax of one second of arc. It
thus equals 206,265 astronomical units. If πα is expressed in
seconds of arc and r in parsecs the relation becomes simply :

Ta = J (8)
In Δ S®E we have according to the sine rule :

sin (θ - Θ') = - sin θ

r
Again (θ — Θ') is small. Substitution of (8) gives a relation which
is independent of the units used.
(θ - Θ') = 7Ta sin θ (9)
As seen from the earth the heliocentric direction, the geocentric
direction, and the direction towards the sun are in one and the
same plane through the earth, sun and star. The geocentric
position always will lie on a great circle between the heliocentric
position and the sun.

3. Parallax in celestial longitude and latitude. Let S (λ, β) be the

heliocentric position, S' (λ', β') the geocentric position, and the
sun (®, 0) the sun's position in Figure 5. Let P^ be the pole of
the ecliptic. SS' ® is a great circle and SS' = θ - θ'. Further
SU is made parallel to the ecliptic. If <p= Z.USS' in the little
plane triangle USS' it can be seen that:
24 Properties of Double Stars

rp Χ δΧ
Figure 5. Parallax in celestial longitude and latitude.

US = AX cos β = SS' cos φ = 7Tasin θ cos φ

US'=- Δ/3 = SS'sin9 = 7 7 a s i n 6 s i n φ
In Δ SPec ® according to the sine rule and the third rule we have :
sin θ cos φ = sin (® - λ)
sin θ sin φ = cos (® — λ) sin β
Thus we find now, introducing χ and y :
χ = ΔΛ cos β = + πΛ sin (® — λ)
(10)
y — Aß = - πΛ cos (® - Λ) sin β,
By squaring these expressions and eliminating the (® — A) we
find:

: + 1 (11)
> sin2/9
This is the equation of the parallactic ellipse. The semi-major
axis 7ra is found to be parallel to the ecliptic; the semi-minor
axis (τη, sin β), perpendicular to the ecliptic. At the pole of the
ecliptic sin β — 1 and we get a circle. The geocentric position of
the star differs by 180° from the position of the earth in its orbit.
In the ecliptic plane sin β = 0 and we get a straight line.
 Astrometry 25

The place of the star in the sky with respect to the ecliptic
determines the shape of the parallactic ellipse; the distance of
the star determines its size. All stellar parallaxes are found to
be smaller than 0.*76.

4. Comparison with aberration. In a similar way we can find the

expressions for the aberration:
χ = Δ λ cos β = — k cos (® — λ) "ì
1
y = Δβ = — k sin (® - Λ) sin β J '
and for the equation of the aberration ellipse :

+ *=20!5 (13)
k* k* sin2/3
As far as the aberration is concerned the geocentric position of
the star is 90° ahead of the earth in its orbit. Both ellipses have
the same shape, but the sizes are very different (Figure 6). The
semi-major axis for the aberration ellipse is k = 20 '5 depending
on the finite velocity of light and on the speed of the earth in
its orbit. Stars in a smallfieldhave the same aberration ellipse.
Assume (® — λ) in the first quadrant. The sine and cosine are
positive. For parallax we get positive χ and negative y, for
aberration both χ and y are negative and the sine and cosine are
reversed here. This means 90° difference in rotation if we omit
sin β and look thus at the auxiliary circle. Projection gives the
points on the ellipses.

5. Parallax in right ascension and declination. We have to find

now the expressions using right ascension and declination be-
cause these are the coordinates used at the telescope. The right
ascension direction at the telescope can be found by stopping the
clockdrive during the observation. The star will move then from
east to west opposite to the right ascension direction. A bright
star will show a trail parallel to the equator at the moment of
26 Properties of Double Stars

Figure 6. The heliocentric position of the star is S. The geocentric

position of the star is S' on the parallactic ellipse (drawn too large)
and S" on the aberration ellipse.

the photographic exposures. Because essentially we are plan-

ning nothing more than a rotation of our axes keeping the same
origin, we expect a somewhat more complicated expression.
Let S (α, δ) be the heliocentric position and S' (α', δ') the
geocentric position of the star while (A, D) gives the position of
the sun in Figure 7. Further e is the angle between ecliptic and
equator. Take US parallel with the equator. If φ = /_ USS ' then
in the small plane triangle USS' we have:
US = Δα cos δ = SS' cos φ = ira sin θ cos Φ "ì
U S ' = - AS = SS'sin Φ = 77 a sin0sin Φ J
 27

,ec

eq
Τ
Figure 7. Parallax in right ascension and declination.

In Δ SP«, ® according to the sine rule and the third rule :

sin θ cos ψ = cos D sin (A — a) ì
— sin θ sin φ = sin Ζ) cos δ — cos D sin 8 cos (A — a) J
In Δ τ ®T we have according to the three rules :
cos ® = cos D cos A
sin ® sin e = sin D
sin ® cos € = cos D sin A
Thus we have now :
Δα cos δ = π, cos D (sin A cos o — cos A sin a)
AS = 7Ta sin D cos δ — νΛ cos D sin δ (cos A cos α
+ sin A sin o) J
which give the final expressions :
Δ α COS δ = ir a -[(COS e COS a ) s i n ® — s i n a COS ® }
Δδ = πΛ {(sin e cos δ — cos e sin a sin δ) sin ® > (14)
- COS a sin δ COS ® } J
If we work out our result for the longitude and latitude we can
see that the underlined terms are introduced by the rotation.
28 Properties of Double Stars

The e is a constant for a long time interval. The α, δ are constants

for the star after correction for precession. The longitude of
the sun ® varies with time and has a period of a year. For a
certain date this is also a constant and we find in this way the
coordinates of the unit parallactic ellipse = 1.
6. Parallax factors. These are the coordinates of the unit paral-
lactic ellipse for a certain date. In case of longitude and latitude
we have:
P\ = sin ( ® - λ), Ρ β = - cos (® - λ) sin β (15)
The longitude of the sun can be found in the almanac for each
date. The values of Α, β can be computed from the known values
of α, δ with help of the parallactic triangle Ρ„,Ρ«£ in Figure 8

Figure 8. The parallactic triangle P^P^S.

sin β = cos e sin δ - sin e cos δ sin α = cos SP«
cos A cos ß= COS δ c o s a = cos S t >
sin A cos β = sin e sin δ + cos e cos δ sin a = cos SQ J
The three expressions are nothing more than the direction
cosines of the star with respect to the ecliptic.
 Astrometry 29
In case of right ascension and declination we proceed in the
following way. For simplicity define:
Ρ = COS e COS O, q = -sina χ
a = sin « cos δ — cos « sin α sin δ, b = — cos a sin δ J
The expressions for the parallax factors are then :

S
Pa = ρ sin ® + q cos ® X
(17)
Pe = α sin ® + b cos Θ X
The p, q, α, b are constants for the star under observation. The
coordinates P„ Pt are thus linear functions of sin ® and cos ®
and depend consequently only on the date. The angle ν in
Figure 9 is situated between + 23¿° and - 2 3 f o r the given
star. For right ascension 6h and 18h this angle is zero because the
ecliptic and equator run parallel here.
north
8 β
geocentric
~ ~Γ 1
λ cos β // //•1 - -
~"
r ^ t ^ Ρ Pa IPb N.
α COS S * \ O iT-r^ J' h e l i o c e n t r i c \
eos t
\ P* 1

Figure 9. Parallax factors are the coordinates of the unit ellipse.

In our derivation we assumed a circular orbit for the earth

with a radius of one astronomical unit. This is not exactly true
because we know the true orbit to be an ellipse. The radius
vector of the earth's orbit or the distance to the sun R is very
close to unity and is given in the almanacs. The largest difference
30 Properties of Double Stars

is 0.017 astronomical unit. If we take this into account, we have

always instead of πΛ in our formulae. It is customary to
include the factor R in the final stage in the expression for the
parallax factors, which should be computed to three decimals.
One can note here that the parallax will be determined best
when Ρ λ or P a are near + 1 ornear — l,thus for® — λ = 90°
or 270°, thus ® = λ + 90° or ® = A + 270° = λ - 90°. For
most accurate results one therefore has to observe the parallax
star when the sun differs 90° in longitude from the star. For the
star in the meridian this happens at the beginning and end of
the night.

7. Proper motion and parallax. Let nt be the relative parallax

with respect to the comparison stars. A single star has a linear
proper motion μ and a parallactic ellipse with semi-major axis
77r (Figure 10). The heliocentric path of a star is given by
cx + μχί, Cy + μγί, linear with the time t in years. For the geo-
centric path we have to add π,Ρα, nTPt. The result is an equi-
distant spiral. Except for some circumpolar stars we can observe
only half of this spiral because the angular distance between the
sun and star is too close for the other half of the year.
ξ = Cx + μχί + πτΡα i ^jg-j
η = Cy + μ,ί + τττΡa )

The known factors are the measured quantities ξ, η, the time t

and the parallax factors Pa, Pa. Unknown are cx, cy, μχ, μ,, πτ and
they have to be determined from the observations. The con-
stants cx, Cy are added because the proper motion will not go
exactly through the origin. A graphical method to determine
the constants roughly is as follows.
Take two observations which are exactly one year apart.
They give us the proper motion and its components μ„ μ^ thus
we have now size and direction of the proper motion. Now
 Astrometry 31
determine the width of the strip in which all observations are
situated. We know also the unit ellipse in its true orientation.
Decrease this ellipse in such a way that it fits in the strip. The
semi-major axis is the parallax -π,. The straight line of the proper
motion gives for / = 0 the constants c„ cy. In practice we com-
pute this still more accurately. Because the parallax is so small,
we have to take many precautions in taking the observations,
in the measurement, and in the reduction in order to get reliable
results, and these we must study first.

α cos δ /
/

' * /
t h'''

Figure 10. The observed equidistant spiral for a single star consists of
proper motion and parallactic ellipse.
32 Properties of Double Stars

8. Photographic stellar parallaxes. At present parallaxes of about

6000 stars have been determined. F. Schlesinger was the first to
study the basic precautions one has to take in photographic
parallax work. One needs a refracting telescope of long focal
length because then the scale is large. The scale factor is defined
as the number of seconds of arc per mm. It can be found by
measuring the distance between two known stars in an open
cluster for which the right ascensions differ but the declinations
are the same. It is best to take this plate during meridian passage.
For accurate work one has to take the refraction into account
which in the vertical circle is given by the refraction constant
times tan z, where ζ is the zenith distance and the so-called
refraction constant is the atmospheric refraction at ζ = 45°.

to o b j e c t i v e

t
positive
lens

o
sharp f o c u s
o
20
focal setting

plate sensitivity

Figure 11. The focal curve of an objective.

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Plate III. Micrometer of the 36-inch refractor at Lick Observatory
used for measuring angular distance and position angle of the com-
ponents of a visual double star. (Courtesy Dr. G. E. Kron.)
 Astrometry 33

Any vertical angular distance suffers a contraction, and any

horizontal distance, measured along the great circle suffers a
contraction. In the zenith the refraction is zero, but not the
differential refraction on the zenith plate. The scale factor in use
for various telescopes refers to the zenith. The value 1 mm
usually refers to the pitch of the measuring machine.
A photovisual refractor is the best for this kind of work. The
focal curve or secondary spectrum of the objective shows the
relation between wavelength and focal setting (Figure 11). This
can be found by using monochromatic light of a monochro-
mator and observing the focal setting where the image is sharp.
A yellow filter absorbs all wavelengths except in the yellow. The
plate sensitivity is chosen in such a way that the effective wave-
length region which affects the plate is still smaller. We have
thus nearly monochromatic light coming in practically the same
focus. The images are thus sharp. In this way we overcome the
chromatic aberration of the objective. A reflecting telescope
does not have this trouble. In this figure we would thus get a
horizontal line. However, there we have difficulties with the
diffraction images of the secondary mirror system. Therefore,
for this work we prefer not to use reflecting telescopes.
The spherical aberration of the objective can be found with
help of the so-called Hartmann disk in which holes are made in
successive rings. One takes two exposures, far out of focus—one

Figure 12. Determination of the spherical aberration of an objective

with the Hartmann disk.
D.S.—Β
34 Properties of Double Stars

on either side of the focal plane (Figure 12). From the pattern
of the images on the plate one can find the best focal setting
for each of the rings.
u : ν = a : b, u : (u + v) = a :(a + b)
a , x ac
u = -(u + v) = £
a+b a+b

9. Observation. The sky condition has to be judged before we

start observing. The seeing must be good in order to get small
images on the plate. There are two ways in which we can get
large images. The star image may jump around in the field, an
effect caused by turbulence in our atmosphere due to a strong
wind at high altitude. Or the star image may also look steady
but blown up. This latter effect is caused by high humidity in
the atmosphere. We have unusually fine seeing when the sky is
slightly overcast and the transparency bad.
The field covered by the plate is so small that the refraction,
aberration, nutation and precession for all stars are nearly the
same. We measure in a relative way and take into account the
first order differences. However, the refraction constant de-
pends on the wavelength and our light is not strictly mono-
chromatic. This causes the atmospheric dispersion (d tan z).
The star images are thus in reality small spectra in a vertical
direction. The red rays of the star show the smallest deviation
of the original direction. Therefore the blue rays appear closer
to the zenith than do the red rays. For a zenith distance of 60°
the distance between the G-iine (4308 A) and the ZMine (5893 A)
is 1 "A.
In Δ P«,ZS of Figure 13 let χ = ¿ P ^ SZ. We have according
to the sine rule:
sin τ
sin χ = -— cos<p
sinz
 Astrometry 35

Figure 13. The spherical triangle PeqZS.

We have to project the atmospheric dispersion on the right

ascension direction and have thus :
d tan ζ sin χ = d sin τ cos φ sec ζ
«s τ d cos φ sec (φ — δ)
The dispersion in right ascension is small but approximately
linear with the hour angle. In declination the dispersion is large
but practically constant. In relative work this is an advantage,
and the declination observations are less affected. We can over-
come most of the trouble by the following precautions : (1) Use a
yellow filter. (2) Observe not more than one hour from the
meridian. (3) Choose the comparison stars of the same color as
the parallax star.
The observer has to guide or to keep the star on the cross-
wires in thefield.This is necessary because the man-made clock
drive does not work as regularly as the sky rotates. By a mechan-
ical arrangement the plate holder can be moved with respect to
the whole telescope so that quick resetting is possible (Plate I).
36 Properties of Double Stars

Guiding errors have a different effect on bright images than on

faint images. Because the guiding error lasts only a short time
for a good observer, one cannot notice it on the faint images.
It is therefore necessary to dim the bright nearby parallax star
until it gives the same brightness on the plate as the distant
comparison stars. This is done with a rotating sector in front of
the plate near the center. One has to take care that the star's
image falls under the sector and the images of the comparison
stars outside the sector.
There is another reason why the brightness of all stars should
be the same. The sensitivity of the filter-plate combination
usually falls off more sharply toward longer wavelengths than
toward the shorter ones (Figure 14). A faint star will have an
effective wavelength around the maximum of the sensitivity
curve. The bright star will have a shorter effective wavelength.
Atmospheric dispersion thus will move the bright star more
towards the zenith.

Figure 14. Sensitivity curve of a filter-plate combination used in

parallax observation.
 Astrometry 37

After about four exposures in a row, the plate is taken out

in a darkroom, rotated 180° in its own plane and again four
exposures are taken. This cancels any emulsion shift if this shift
is linear.
The development is done in tanks in this succession: develop-
ment 6 minutes at 68°F = 20°C, rinsing 1 minute, hardening
5 minutes, fixing 30 minutes, rinsing 60 minutes. The water
has to flow constantly because the fixing salts are heavier than
water. It is important that the drying occurs in a natural way,
not in draft or near a stove.
10. Measurement. The measuring machine has a long screw.
The screw error can be determined by measuring the same
distance interval between two stars several times on different
parts of the screw. This screw error must be small and has to
be checked regularly. The screw has to be lubricated with ex-
cellent oil.
One of the plates during the middle of the observing interval
is taken with a trail, which gives us the direction of the equator
at that moment. We will call this our standard plate.
We rotate our plate to a convenient equinox, t0 = 1950 for
example, according to the formula :
Δ θ = - 0?0057 (t - t0) sin α sec δ (19)
A position of a star is now measured by bisecting the image.
This can be done within 1 % of the size of the image, which may
be 0.1 mm. After measuring a sequence of stars the plate is
rotated 180° and measured again. We always measure along the
screw in the same direction. Thus the screw error is partly
balanced out. A weight is given according to the appearance of
the image on the plate. By adding all the weights we get the
weight of the measurements on the plate.
11. Dependences. Dependences are relative weights given accord-
ing to the positions of the comparison stars with respect to the
38 Properties of Double Stars

position of the parallax star in the configuration on the standard

plate. For three comparison stars these dependences have a
geometric meaning (Figure 15). We will find that they are the
D, ρ

αι

Figure 15. The dependence D is the area of the opposite triangle

expressed in the area of the whole triangle as a unit.

areas of the opposite triangles expressed in terms of the whole

triangle as a unit. A provisional value of these dependences can
then be found from the following ratio of lines :
Δυτς a TTA
(20)
Aprq b pA
Similar expressions hold for the other two dependences. The
sum of the dependences equals unity.
Let (xvVi)» C*ys)> (xajs) be the coordinates of the three com-
parison stars measured on the standard plate and X0 Y0 those of
the parallax star (Figure 16). For another plate we will write
with primes, thus (χ'ι/Ο, {x\y'i), (x' 3 / 3 ) for the comparison
stars and X'Y' for the parallax star, which has moved in the
time elapsed (Figure 17). The zero point, scale and orientation
 Astrometry 39

measured are close to that of the standard plate, but it is im-

possible to do this exactly. The scale correction a„is proportional
to xlt the orientation bx is proportional to yu while the zero point
correction is cx. We have then :
axxι + bxy! + cx = x l - x\
axx% + bxy2 + cx = x t - x\ (21)
axxa + bxys + cx = x8 - x'a
αχΧ0 +bxY0 + c% = X - X' (22)
respectively for the comparison stars and the parallax star.
After multiplication and adding wefind:
A(*i-*'i) + A ( * t - x ' ¿ + Da(xa-x'9) - ( Χ - X') =
= a,( Α*ι + Dix* + D3Xs - X0)
+ bx(Diyi + Z t y , + Daya - Y0)
+ cx(Di + A + -1) A
The elimination of the plate constants ax, bx, c., is effective if :
Dix1 + D2Xt + A*» = X0
Dyι + Dty2 + ϋ φ = Y0 }• (23)
A + A + A =1
The solution can be written in the form :
A ι
*2 *8 X% *a
y» (24)
Yo ya yi y* y»
1 ι ι ι
1 ι
The determinant in the right denominator represents the area of
the whole triangle; the determinant of the left fraction equals
the area of the triangle opposite to the star associated with A ·
Dependences are here thus the areas of the opposite triangles
expressed in the whole triangle as a unit.
For the parallax star we get now what remains over in the
equation.
40 Properties of Double Stars

X - X' = D1(x1 x\) + D¿x2 x'ù + A>(*3 - x't)

3 3

= 2 ^ -2
i = 1 i = 1
D x i

We usually use here the symbol [ ] instead of the Σ sign.

χ = [Dx] + X' - [Dx']
(25)
Y= [Dy] + r - [Df]
The [Dx] is found on the standard plate, and the [Dx'] from the
other plate. We can thus correct X' to X in our standard system.
12. Method of dependences. For more than three comparison
stars we cannot give such a geometrical picture. The number of
equations is no longer equal to the dependences to be found.
We have to proceed by least squares. For simplification we take
the zero point in such a way that the average value of the χ and
the y are zero for the η comparison stars on the standard plate.
Thus [x] = [j] = 0. This determines the gravity center G of the

*iyi

±9
XG
lieq, tQ-- 1950

0
Il e q , t i m e t

*îV}
Figure 16. Standard plate and reference frame. G is the gravity
center. H is the dependence center.
 Astrometry 41

triangle in Figure 16. We will solve only for the x-coordinate ;

the j-coordinate goes in the same way. Our linear equation of
condition was:
axx + b x y + cx = χ - x'

OyX + b y y + C y = y - y '

For the x-coordinate the normal equations are :

[χ2] ax F [xy] bx = [x(x-x')]
[ x y ] a x + [ f ] b x = [ y ( x - x ' ) ]

ncx = [(x—x')] = — [ * ' ] J

The unknowns ax and bx can be solved with help of deter-
minants.
[x(x-x')] [xy]
IXx-x')] [y*]
ax -etc.
-

[ χ · ] [xy]

[xy] [ / ]

The [χΐ]> [xy], [.y*] are constants from measurements on the

standard plate. Therefore:
[y*] [x(x -x')] - [ x y ] [><x -x')]
ax = 2 2 2
[χ ] [y ] -[xy]
[x*][y(x-x')]-[xy][x(x-x')]
bx =
[x*][/] -[XJ]
[ Γ ]
Cx =
n

Another notation is as follows :

V j x d f ] -ydxy]}
—I jéî
i= 1 M
2
[y ] - [xy]
2 (Xi - X'd

n
y { j , [x2] - X j [ x j ]\}
(Xi - x'd
2
¿ l [x ][y*]-[xy]
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1795 A reaction sets in in Geneva. The insurrection at Stäfa
is suppressed.
1797 Bonaparte incorporates the Italian bailiwicks of the
Valtellina with the Cisalpine Republic. La Harpe calls on
the Directory to protect the liberties of Vaud against the
oppression of Bern.

The Helvetic Republic

1798 French troops in response occupy Mülhausen, Bienne,

and part of the lands of the prince-bishop of Bâle.
Insurgents open the prison of Chillon. Another French
army enters Vaud and the Lemanic Republic is
proclaimed there. The French occupy Fribourg and
Solothurn; defeat the Bernese after fierce fighting at
Neueneck; take Bern, the stronghold of the aristocratic
party, and pillage the treasury. The Revolution triumphs
over the Confederation. By order of the Directory, the
Helvetic Republic, one and indivisible, is proclaimed.
Peter Ochs of Bâle supplies a constitution. Ten of the
thirteen members of the old confederation accept the
new government. Twenty-three “cantons,” or
administrative districts, are created. The forest districts
rebel. Their resistance, headed by Alois Reding, of
Schwyz, is put down after desperate conflicts at
Schindellegi, Morgarten, and at Rothenthurm. An
insurrection of the mountaineers of Upper Valais against
the French is bloodily repressed. The French put down
an insurrection in Nidwald with great bloodshed. (The
days of terror of Nidwald end.)
1799 Zurich, the forest cantons, and Rhætia become the
scene of the struggle of the Austrian and Russians
against the French in the wars of the Coalition.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1802 Strife between the centralists and the federalists.
Bonaparte withdraws the French troops. The Helvetian
government is driven from Bern. Bonaparte convenes
Swiss statesmen at Paris in the consulta, and acts as
mediator. The Frickthal, the last Austrian possession in
Switzerland, is given to the Helvetic Republic by
Bonaparte.

The Confederation of Nineteen Cantons

1803 Napoleon’s Act of Mediation is made the constitution of

“Switzerland.” This name for the first time is used as the
official name of the country. The thirteen members of the
old confederation are set up again and six new cantons
are added. There are to be no more privileged classes
or subject lands. Switzerland enjoys ten years of peace
and prosperity.
1804 Insurrection breaks out at Horgen in the canton Zurich.
1806 Neuchâtel is given to Marshal Berthier.
1810 Valais, which has been a separate republic, is made
into the French department of the Simplon. The Swiss
Society of the Public Good is founded. Pestalozzi and
Fellenberg work out an educational system.
1813 Austrian and Russian troops, supported by the
reactionary party, enter Switzerland; the diet abolishes
the constitution of 1803.
1814 “The long diet” at Zurich attempts to adjust party
differences. Bern heads a party anxious to restore the
old order. Zurich and the majority stand out for the
nineteen cantons of Napoleon. The allies enter
Switzerland.

The League of Twenty-two States

1815 The Swiss diet accepts the decisions of the congress
of Vienna and a new constitution, the Federal Pact, is
adopted. The league of States (Staatenbund) is made to
include twenty-two members. The sovereign rights of
each canton are recognised. The federal diet exercises
supreme sovereignty only in purely national concerns.
The great powers at the congress of Vienna guarantee
the neutrality of Switzerland. Switzerland is freed from
subserviency to France. New aristocracies make
themselves felt.
1817 Switzerland becomes a party to the Holy Alliance.
1819 The Helvetic Society again takes up political reforms.
1823 Freedom of the press is restricted under influence of
the great powers. Intellectual reaction and ultra-
montanism become noticeable and cause dissensions.
1830 The July revolution in Paris finds an echo in
Switzerland. Twelve cantons reform their constitutions in
a democratic sense. Popular demonstrations at the
assembly of Uster.
1831 The aristocracy of Bern submits to liberal reforms.
1832 The cantons Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Solothurn, St. Gall,
Aargau, and Thurgau agree to united action looking
toward reform (Siebener Concordat). They are opposed
by the reactionary cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden,
Valais, and Neuchâtel which form the league of Sarnen
(Sarner Bund).
1833 Bâle is divided into a rural (Baselland) and an urban
(Baselstadt) half-canton because of the desire of the
rural population for proportional representation in the
Diet.
1834 Political refugees to Switzerland increase to such an
extent that measures are taken by the diet to prevent
abuse of the privilege of asylum.
1835 Religious tumults in Aargau.
1836 Difficulties with France over tariff regulations. Religious
tumults in the Bernese Jura.
1838 The Society of the Grütli is founded at Geneva.
1839 Reaction in Zurich against radicals and freethinkers.
(Strauss’ Life of Jesus).
1840 Clericals revolt against the radicals in Aargau.
1841 They are put down. Eight monasteries in Aargau are
suppressed. The quarrel provokes disputes in the diet.
1843 The diet effects a compromise in the religious quarrel
in Aargau by which four instead of eight of the
monasteries are suppressed. The seven Catholic
cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug,
Fribourg, and Valais hereupon form a separate league,
the Sonderbund.
1844 The Sonderbund declares for the reopening of all the
monasteries in Aargau. The clericals in Lucerne, the
Vorort, give high posts to Jesuits. Parties of free-lances
attempt to capture the city.
1845 The attack on Lucerne is renewed but is unsuccessful.
The radicals gain control in Zurich.
1846 The radicals become the majority in Bern and Geneva.
1847 The radicals get a majority in St. Gall. The diet in which
the radicals are now in the majority declares the
Sonderbund contrary to the Federal Pact. The diet
resolves to revise the pact and asks the cantons to
expel the Jesuits. The attempt to enforce the decree
leads to the Sonderbund War. This is quickly ended by
the defeat of the rebellious Catholic cantons at Gislikon,
largely because of the good generalship of Dufour.

Switzerland as a Federal State

1848 A new constitution is accepted by the majority of the
cantons. Switzerland becomes a federal state
(Bundesstaat). A central government is organised
consisting of a council of states (Ständerath), a national
council (National Rath) and a federal council or
executive (Bundesrath). German, French, and Italian
are recognised as national languages. Bern is chosen
the national capital.
1855 The federal polytechnic school is opened at Zurich.
Improvements in the educational system are introduced.
1856 A royalist conspiracy in Neuchâtel is put down and
causes a dispute between Switzerland and the king of
Prussia, the overlord of Neuchâtel.
1857 Neuchâtel is definitely ceded to Switzerland.
1859 Switzerland posts troops on the Italian frontier to
preserve neutrality in the Italian War and puts an end to
foreign enlistments.
1860 The Swiss government protests against the cession of
Nice and Savoy to France.
1861 French troops occupy the Valée de Dappes.
1862 The question of the frontiers in the Valée de Dappes is
arranged with France by mutual cession of territory.
1864 The convention of Geneva introduces humanitarian
reforms in warfare. Election riots at Geneva lead to
bloodshed.
1865 International social science congress meets at Bern.
1866 Restrictions on religious liberty of Jesuits, etc., are
removed. An attempt is made to revise the constitution
in a democratic sense but fails.
1867 An international congress of workmen is held at
Lausanne.
1869 The construction of the St. Gotthard tunnel is decided
upon.
1871 Switzerland shelters French refugees of the Franco-
German War though insisting on the maintenance of
neutrality. The growth in power of the “old Catholics”
causes disturbances in western Switzerland (the
struggle against Ultramontanism). The Alabama
Arbitration Commission meets in Geneva.
1872 An attempt at revision of the constitution is defeated by
a small majority.
1873 Abbé Mermillod, appointed by the pope “apostolic
vicar” of Geneva, is banished from Switzerland. The see
of Bishop Lachat of Bâle is suppressed by several
cantons because he upholds the doctrine of papal
infallibility.

Switzerland under the Constitution of 1874

1874 A new constitution, a revision of that of 1848, is

accepted by the people. The referendum hereby
becomes a part of the machinery of the federal
government as it had already been part of that of most
of the cantons. The new constitution increases
centralisation in the government. The international
postal congress meets at Bern and lays the foundation
for the international postal union.
1876 Religious and political differences cause an armed
encounter in Ticino.
1877 A law regulating the working hours in factories is
passed, marking an advance in labour legislation.
1878 James Fazy, noted statesman, dies.
1879 Legislation puts an end to dissensions over the
financeering of the St. Gotthard railway.
1882 The St. Gotthard railway is opened.
1883 Mermillod is appointed bishop of Lausanne.
1884 Bishop Lachat is made apostolic vicar of Ticino. An
international conference is held at Bern to secure the
protection of copyright.
1887 Alcohol is made a state monopoly.
1888 The creation of a see at Lugano excites the opposition
of the radicals. An important law for the protection of
patents is passed.
1889 Bismarck’s spy Wohlgemuth is expelled. Germany
protests. Difficulties arising out of the Swiss custom of
granting political asylum are settled.
1890 Religious riot at Ticino. The principal compulsory
insurance against sickness and accident is accepted by
popular vote.
1891 The federal constitution is amended so that fifty
thousand citizens by the “initiative” can compel the
federal authorities to prepare and submit to the people
any reform in the constitution demanded by the
petitioners. The establishment of a state or federal bank
is approved by the people. The purchase of the Central
Railway by the confederation is rejected by popular
vote.
1893 The killing of animals in Jewish fashion is prohibited by
exercise of the initiative.
1894 An attempt by the initiative to secure the adoption for
the government of a socialist scheme to provide
employment fails.
1896 A National exhibition is held at Geneva. Labour riots
directed against the employment of Italians cause many
of these to leave Zurich. The eighteenth international
congress on copyright meets at Bern and takes steps
for copyright reform in Germany and Great Britain.
1897 The national council adopts a bill authorising the
confederation to purchase the five principal railroads
when the terms of the concessions expire. The
proposals of the government as to a federal bank are
rejected by the people. An international congress for the
protection of labor is held at Zurich. It votes in favor of
the prohibition of Sunday labor, except under special
conditions for the restriction of unhealthful trades and
night-work, for the betterment of the conditions of
employment for women and for a working day of eight
hours by legal enactment.
1898 The government authorises the construction of the
Simplon tunnel. The people vote for the unification of
the cantonal laws civil and criminal into a set of federal
codes. The principle of the purchase by the
confederation of the principal railroads is approved by
popular vote. The empress Elizabeth of Austria is
assassinated by an Italian anarchist in Geneva.
Expulsion of anarchists follows.
1899 The scheme for the establishment of the “double
initiative” is launched. The law for the compulsory
insurance of working men against sickness and accident
is passed by the legislature.
1900 This proposal, however, is rejected by the people by a
large majority. The proposals for proportional
representation in the national council and for the
election of the federal council by the people (the “double
initiative”) are rejected by popular vote.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1901 On representation of the Turkish government the

federal council suppresses publications of the party of
Young Turkey criticising the sultan for the Armenian
massacres. Public opinion condemning the action of the
 council as a violation of the right of asylum finds
expression in many places. Anti-Russian
demonstrations are made at Geneva and Bern by
socialists. The socialist movement gains in strength.
1902 Difficulties with Italy over the publication in an anarchist
organ at Geneva of an article reflecting on the murdered
king Humbert causes the temporary withdrawal of the
diplomatic representatives of the two countries. A
general strike in Geneva leads to disturbances which
are put down by troops. The federal council issues a
decree suppressing such religious congregations or
orders as have not been authorised by law. The radical
democratic majority in the national council is
considerably strengthened.
1903 A new protective tariff is adopted by popular vote. The
Zionist congress at Bâle votes to investigate Great
Britain’s offer of land in East Africa for Jewish
colonisation.

PART XXI

THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA

 BASED CHIEFLY UPON THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES

R. BELL, R. N. BESTUZHEV-RIUMIN, V. A. BILBASOV, A.

BRÜCKNER, A. DE
HAXTHAUSEN, E. HERMANN, N. M. KARAMZIN, W. K. KELLY, N.
I.
KOSTOMAROV, M. KOVALEVSKI, A. LEROY-BEAULIEU, P.
MÉRIMÉE, NESTOR,
A. RAMBAUD, T. SCHIEMANN, J. H. SCHNITZLER, A. A.
SCHUMAKR, N. K.
SHILDER, G. M. SOLOVIEV, P. STRAHL, N. TURGENIEV, D. M.
WALLACE

TOGETHER WITH A STUDY OF

THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA

BY

S. RAPPOPORT

WITH ADDITIONAL CITATIONS FROM

ALEXANDER II, A. ALISON, R. N. BAIN, T. VON BERNHARDI, A. J.

BEVERIDGE,
CATHERINE II, A. P. DE CUSTINE, T. DELORD, J. ECKHARDT, A.
DE
FERRAND, I. GOLIKOV, P. DE LA GORCE, R. GOSSIP, A. N.
 KUROPATKIN,
LEO, M. LÉVESQUE, C. A. DE LOUVILLE, H. MARTIN,
MAURICIUS,
A. MIKHAILOVSKI-DANILEVSKI, H. NORMAN, PROCOPIUS, C. C.
DE RULHIÈRE,
F. SCHLOSSER, P. DE SÉGUR, P. SHCHEBALSKI, F. H. SKRINE,
STORCK, H. TYRRELL, VOLTAIRE

Copyright, 1904,
By HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS.
All rights reserved
 RUSSIA
INTRODUCTION
THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA
Written Specially for the Present Work
By DR. A. S. RAPPOPORT
School of Oriental Languages, Paris
“Russia evolves very slowly, like an empire that is not of yesterday
and that has ample time before it,” is one of Nietzsche’s remarks
before his reason had hopelessly gone adrift in the vast ocean of
insanity. This remark of the German poet-philosopher is true enough.
What Nietzsche, however, did not know or did not say is that one can
hardly speak of any evolution, as far as general civilisation,
intellectual culture, and development are concerned, of Russia as a
whole. Only a small minority, the so-called intelligentia, has evolved
intellectually, not Russia itself. Here lies the fundamental difference
between Russia and the rest of Europe.
There is a vast gulf, ever broadening, between the Russian
intelligentia and the muyiks. Thought and culture, nay even
civilisation, seem to be limited to a select few. The bulk of the people
has not only failed to advance from a state in which it was surprised
by Jenghiz Khan, but it has actually retrograded to a more savage
condition. Revolutions have passed over their heads without in the
least affecting them. “The Russian masses,” says Leroy-Beaulieu
(The Empire of the Czars), “have not felt the breath of either the
Renaissance, or the Reformation, or the Revolution. All that has
been done in Europe or America for the last four centuries, since the
time of Columbus and Luther, Washington and Mirabeau, is, as far
as Russia is concerned, non-existent.”
The people never think, or at least have not yet left that crude
state of barbarism which precedes the dawn of civilisation; the first
rays of thought have scarcely tinted with orient hues the dark horizon
of ignorance and superstition of the Russian population; the great
events have failed to stir its mental inertia. I am, however, far from
maintaining that the fault lies with the nature and national character
of the people. The rich nature, the subtle spirit of the Slav, his power
of adaptation and imitation make him not only accessible to western
civilisation and culture but also capable of producing something
which bears the impress of the peculiarity of the Slavonic genius.
The intelligentia is now giving ample proof corroborating this
statement. The Russian intelligentia has passed the phases of
growing and changing and doubting and has reached a condition of
maturity, asserting its manhood and right. Before examining the
intellectual development of the Russian intelligentia and the point it
has reached, as compared with western Europe, we must try to find
out the causes that first produced that gulf between the few and the
many, and the circumstances that were instrumental in widening it.
It is a mistake to imagine that the very first foundations of Russian
intellectual development were laid by Peter the Great and that
Russia, although behind western Europe in culture and civilisation, is
still in her youthful vigour and freshness and will soon overtake the
old world. There was a time, at the beginning of the eleventh century,
when the Slavonic countries under the rule of the Norman
conquerors were on the same level of civilisation as western Europe.
The foundations were laid before the Norman invasion and very
frequent were the relations between this people in the east and
those in the north of Europe. Long before the ninth century, Kiev was
known to the inhabitants of Scandinavia. Many a jarl sought refuge
there and many a merchant ship found its way to the shores of
Russia. On the road along which the commercial connection
between the East Sea and Byzantium developed were situated the
towns of Smolensk, Tchernigov, Pereiaslavl (cf. V. der Brüggen, Wie
Russland Europaisch Wurde, p. 22). When the Norman princes, the
warags as they were called by the Slavonic nations, conquered
these towns and subdued one tribe after the other, the already
existing civilisation developed rapidly under the protection of the new
rulers. Forth from Byzantium and Greece, from Italy, Poland, and
Germany, with which countries the descendants of Rurik kept up a
connection, western influence came to the north. Learned monks
came from Byzantium, architects, artisans, and merchants from
Greece, Italy and Germany, and were instrumental in spreading the
languages, customs and ideas of the west. Not only did the kniazi
(princes) of Kiev build churches and edifices after the model of
Greek and Italian art, but they established schools to which Vladimir
compelled his nobles and boyars to send their children. The
commercial relations with the west and the south were very vivid and
frequent, and on the market places of Kiev and Novgorod a motley
crowd of Normans and Slavs, Hungarians, Greeks, Venetians,
Germans, Arabs, and Jews were to be seen.
The intellectual culture of the time had not yet, one must admit,
penetrated the masses of the Slavonic tribes. Yet the Normans, as
the propagators of culture, speedily and easily merged into one with
the conquered tribes, much easier perhaps than the Normans who
came with William the Conqueror amalgamated with Britons and
Saxons in England. Had the Tatar invasion not taken place, it is
highly probable that the intellectual development of Russia would
have followed the same lines as that of western Europe. The
commercial and intellectual relations with the rest of Europe, so
eagerly sought after and cultivated by the Norman princes, would
have continued and brought the Slav countries in increasingly closer
contact with the west and under the influence of all the currents that
were destined to traverse Europe later on. The Renaissance and the
revival of learning which shed their light upon the dark mediæval age
(and only a few rays of which found their way to Russia by way of
Poland at a much later period) would have made themselves felt in
Russia. This was, however, not to happen. The Mongolian invasion
had actually cut off Russia from Europe, and brought it under the
Tatar influence. The Norman civilisation, which was in a nascent
state, was crushed; the threads connecting Russia with Europe were
cut off. The wave of Mongolian invasion had inundated the flat land
situated between Europe and Asia, carried away and destroyed
every vestige of western influence. Kiev, Moscow, Tver, Riazan,
Tchernigov, and Smolensk were conquered by the hordes of the
Great Khan, who from his seat somewhere in the heart of China or in
the centre of Asia sent down his generals and tax collectors.
 Hundreds of thousands of Mongols came to Russia, mixed with
the Slavs, and influenced habits, customs, civilisation, social life,
administration and even language. The influence was a very far-
reaching and deep one; Mongolism has penetrated Russian life to a
much higher degree than a Russian would care to admit or western
Europeans have realised. Greater and greater became the gulf
between the Russian and the Romance and Teutonic worlds. But
that gulf might have been bridged over and Russia might have been
saved, when the dawn of better and happier days broke in, by
another power: the influence of the church. Here again, however,
owing to circumstances, this in many respects civilising agent was
powerless.
In spite of all the reproaches hurled at the church, it must be
admitted that it had all the education in its hands. In Russia,
however, the case was different. From the very beginning, ever since
Christianity was introduced, ever since Vladimir had accepted
baptism in Kiev, the Russian people as Christians were divided into
two distinct groups. Whilst the enthusiastic adherents of the new
religion endeavoured to introduce the piety of Byzantium, the mass
of the people, although nominally Christian, remained heathen in
reality and has remained so up to the present. This was due to two
reasons. Vladimir had accepted the Greek form of worship with its
asceticism. Asceticism and monasticism, a retirement from the world,
became the Christian ideal. This ideal was too high, too unattainable
and too foreign for reality and for daily life, whilst on the other hand
the perfect Christians considered the life of the world as sinful and
dangerous. Thus the clergy sought retirement in cloisters and
monasteries and the mass, whilst accepting the ceremonies of
Byzantium, had learned nothing of its ethical teachings. The gulf thus
arising between clergy and people was also due to another reason.
The first members of the clergy were Greeks, monks coming from
Byzantium, who spoke a language incomprehensible to the Slavs.
The Russian bishops, who gradually took the place of the learned
eastern monks, and who could communicate with the people, were
still too ignorant themselves. And then suddenly the Tatar invasion
came. Connection with Byzantium was cut off. The influx of the
Greek clergy and Byzantine learning had ceased too early, before
the Russians had had time to acquire some amount of knowledge to
replace it. Thus whilst the intellectual development of the mass took
place very slowly, the intellectual level of the clergy sank rapidly. The
consequence was that when the Russian clergy met the people they
were both on the same intellectual level, the priests had nothing to
teach and had no prestige. This also explains, psychologically, the
origin of so many religious sects in Russia. Having no respect and
no admiration for the ignorant priest, addicted to drink, the peasant
goes his own way when he suddenly feels a craving for religious
ideals.
Thus the Mongolian invasion had cut off Russia from Europe and
whilst the latter was passing through the phases of transition,
approaching slowly but gradually the times of light and learning,
Russia stood still. The Europe of the Renaissance was not a creatio
ex nihilo. It was the result of a slow process of development. The
barbarians who had built their realms on the ruins of the ancient
worlds, Hellas and Rome, had taken over the classical heritage left
to them after the disappearance of the Roman Empire. Rude and
barbarous, however, these new conquerors had no understanding
for the value of the heritage and destroyed many of its richest
treasures. Worlds of intellectual culture were lost. But slowly the age
of understanding dawned and the former barbarians brought forth
many of the treasures which they had relegated to the lumber-room,
added many of their own, and blended them into one whole. The
result was the Græco-Roman, Romance, and Teutonic civilisation.
Crusades, Arabian civilisation passing by way of Spain,
scholasticism, Reformation, Renaissance, revival of learning, the
discovery of new worlds, the spread of commerce, scientific
inventions and discoveries, stimulating the desire for learning and
creating impulses in every new direction—all these new and stirring
events were so many phases through which European society and
European life passed before they reached the state of modern
development. Many were the streams and cross-currents that
traversed Europe separately before they united and continued the
more rapid advance of a new life and civilisation. All this was lacking
in Russia. Russia missed during its Mongolian period, the time of
general transition. None of the forces which, although invisibly, were
steadily furrowing the European soil and preparing it for the influx of
fresh air and new light, were at work in Russia. The phase of
transition had not yet commenced. That period of constant change,
of mingled decadence and spiritual growth, that ceaseless blending
of the old and the new, unnoticed at the time but clearly
distinguished from the distance of later ages, was lacking in Russia.
There was no pope, no powerful church, and consequently no
Reformation and no spirit of individualism—no feudalism, no knights,
no Crusades and no acquaintance with foreign lands, no spread of
commerce, and no widening of the mental horizon of the people.
There were no learned monks copying Greek and Latin manuscripts,
paving the way for scholasticism and modern thought. There was
even no language in which the treasures of the ancient world could
be communicated to the Slavs. Few people could write, few even
count properly.
There were no schools and the attempts to establish some such
institutions during the seventeenth century failed. A school was
founded at Moscow under Alexis, but here only a foreign language or
two were taught. Its aim was to train translators for the government.
There was no art, nor technical science. There were no medical
men. The two or three foreign practitioners were considered as
sorcerers.
Towards the end of the seventeenth century therefore Russia had
absolutely no culture of her own. All that the Normans had
established had been wiped out. The Byzantine influence had no
effect. And when after a struggle extending over three centuries the
czardom of Moscow had thrown off the shackles of the Great Khan,
liberated itself from thraldom and laid the foundations of the great
empire of Russia, it had only established, on the ruins of the old
Mongolian, a new state which was Mongolian and Tatar in its
essence and spirit, in its customs and institutions, and had little or
nothing in common with the rest of Europe.
Moscow was the inheritor of Mongolism, the Czar was spiritually,
and even physically, a descendant of Mongol princes. Ivan IV
married a Mongolian princess, his son married a sister of the Mongol
Godunov. They had actually taken over the inheritance of the khans
of Kiptchak. It was in this barren soil that Peter sowed the seed of
European culture. What happened?
Peter was undoubtedly great and deserves this title. He was one
of the great makers of history. But though great in his plans, great in
what he wished to accomplish, he was not great in what he really
attained. He only saw the superficiality of European civilisation. He
introduced it like some foreign product, like some fashionable article,
like some exotic plant, without first asking whether the national soil
was propitious for its cultivation. He, at the utmost, created a hot-
house atmosphere where his plants could vegetate, and they
remained what they originally were: exotic. He failed to see that
civilisation is the product of a long process of evolution, the natural
product of the social and national conditions, drawing its life and sap
from the inner forces of the people. Instead of making use of these
inner forces of his people, he endeavoured to introduce civilisation
by his power of will. He only had an eye for the effects but not for the
causes that were working as the hidden springs.
In France, in England, in Germany, in all western Europe,
civilisation, the moral and intellectual evolution, was a natural
phenomenon, the effect of previous causes. In Russia, civilisation
was the outcome of a sudden revolution, the slavish, reluctant and
half-hearted compliance with the commands of an individual will. The
former was natural, the latter artificial. An evolution is a slow change,
an unconscious and imperceptible process, finding a state prepared
for innovation, a soil, furrowed and fertile, ready to receive the seed
and to bring forth fruit. A revolution, on the other hand, is a radical,
sudden change which seldom succeeds and, in most cases, calls
forth reactions. In Western Europe there was, as we have see
above, a time of transition from the barbarous to the civilised state.
The morning of the Renaissance had dawned upon mediæval
Europe and tinted with orient colours the sombre sky. The first rays
appeared on the horizon of the Italian poets, dissipating the
darkness here and there. The sun gradually rose higher and higher,
penetrated the houses of the people and woke them (who had been
lulled to sleep by the mysterious whisperings of superstition) from
their prolonged slumbers. They awoke, opened their windows and
allowed the light of the morning to penetrate into their dark abodes.
Not so in Russia. There the people were suddenly awakened,
dragged out from the utter darkness, without any transition, into the
broad midday of an artificial light. They opened their eyes, but the
light was too strong, too glaring; so they shut them again. Peter
wanted to jump over three centuries and catch up with Europe. He
established a fleet without Russian sailors, an administration with
foreign administrators, an academy of science in a land without
elementary schools. He began a race with Europe but his people
could not follow him. He borrowed everything from Europe and
instead of giving his people a chance to develop naturally and freely,
he crushed the spirit of independence and introduced a knout
civilisation. Everything had to be done by order. He forced his people
to swallow Europeanism. The bulk of his subjects, however, could
not digest it. The consequence was that they could not follow the
few, and remained far behind them. The gulf therefore between the
few, who form the present intelligentia, and the great mass—a gulf
which was but narrow towards the end of the sixteenth century when
by way of Poland and Livonia a glimpse of the western sun
penetrated into Russia—suddenly widened considerably. Thus the
origin of the striking phenomenon which Russia offers in her
intellectually high developed intelligentia and her uneducated,
ignorant masses is to be sought in Russia’s past, in the absence of a
period of transition, and in Peter’s misunderstanding the process of
European civilisation, in his admiration for the effects, but utter
ignorance of the causes that brought about these effects.
There is, however, yet another factor—a factor which, whilst
accounting for the existence of an intelligentia, or a coterie of
intellectuals, and of an utterly ignorant mass, will also throw some
light upon the intellectual development of this very intelligentia and
explain the reasons which compelled it to choose certain channels
by which it sends forth the currents of its thoughts. This factor is the
despotic government of the czars. If Russia’s unhappy past and
Peter’s good intentions but great blunders produced the present
state of intellectual development in that country, the government of
the Reformer’s successors has done its very best to preserve this
condition.