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Physics of Data Science
and Machine Learning
Physics of Data Science
and Machine Learning
Ijaz A. Rauf
Adjunct Professor
School of Graduate Studies, York University, Toronto, Canada
Associate Researcher
Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
President
Eminent-Tech Corporation, Bradford, ON, Canada
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. While all rea-
sonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, neither the author[s] nor the
publisher can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Rauf, Ijaz A., author.
Title: Physics of data science and machine learning / Ijaz A. Rauf.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021023415 | ISBN 9780367768584 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781032074016 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003206743 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Physics—Data processing. | Physics—Methodology. | Machine
learning. | Data mining. | Statistical mechanics. | Quantum statistics.|
Probabilities. | Mathematical optimization.
Classification: LCC QC52 .R38 2022 | DDC 530.0285/53—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021023415
ISBN: 978-0-367-76858-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-07401-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20674-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206743
Typeset in Minion
by codeMantra
Dedicated to:
My beautiful wife, Najiba, and our four wonderful children,

Shahrukh, Sherjeel, Shahroze, and Rumessa, everyone
admirable, smart, and outstanding in their unique ways, and to
Rosemah, who is now part of our family by marrying Shahrukh.
And
to all those brave physicists who like to challenge
the conventional way of doing physics.
Contents
Preface: Motivation and Rationale, xiii

Author, xv
Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction 1

1.1
A PHYSICIST’S VIEW OF THE NATURAL WORLD
AND PROBABILITIES1
1.2
DATA – TYPES OF DATA 3
1.2.1
Data to Information 4
1.2.2
Information to Knowledge 6
1.2.3 Critical Differences between Information
and Knowledge 6
1.3
DATA MINING FOR KNOWLEDGE 7
1.4
MACHINE LEARNING AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 7
1.5
SCOPE: WHAT THIS TEXT COVERS 9
1.5.1
What This Text Does Not Cover 10
Chapter 2 ◾ An Overview of Classical Mechanics 11

2.1
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS 12
2.1.1
Newton’s Laws of Motion 13
2.1.2
Angular Momentum, Work, and Energy 14
2.1.3
Multiple Interactions and Center of Mass 15
2.1.4
The Law of Gravitation 16
2.2
LAGRANGIAN MECHANICS 17
2.2.1
Constraints 18
vii
viii ◾ Contents
2.2.2 Degrees of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates 19

2.2.3 Virtual Work and Lagrange’s Equations 20
2.3 HAMILTONIAN MECHANICS 24
2.4 CLASSICAL FIELD THEORY 26
2.4.1 Nonrelativistic Field Theory 26
2.4.1.1 Gravitational Field 26
2.4.1.2 Charged Particle in an Electrical Field 27
2.4.1.3 Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field 28
2.4.1.4 Electrodynamics 29
2.4.2 Relativistic Field Theory 30
2.4.2.1 The Action Principle 30
2.4.2.2 Field Theory for Scalar Field 31
2.4.2.3 Generalization of Field Theory 32
2.5 MAXWELL AND BOLTZMANN EQUILIBRIUM
STATISTICS 33
Chapter 3 ◾ An Overview of Quantum Mechanics 37

3.1 KINEMATICAL FRAMEWORK 38
3.1.1 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 41
3.1.2 Quantum Mechanical Operators 43
3.1.3 Quantum Mechanical Energy States 45
3.1.4 Quantum Confinement 48
3.2 DYNAMICS OF QUANTUM MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 49
3.2.1 Energy Eigenvalue for Harmonic Oscillator 52
3.2.2 Eigenfunction for the Harmonic Oscillator 54
3.2.3 Non-Eigen States 55
3.3 QUANTUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS 55
3.3.1 Expected Value and Standard Deviation 55
3.3.2 Quantum Statistics 56
3.4 QUANTUM FIELD THEORY 58
3.5 PERTURBATION THEORY 61
Contents ◾ ix
Chapter 4 ◾ Probabilistic Physics 65

4.1
PROBABILITY THEORY 67
4.1.1
Events and Sample Space 68
4.1.2
Expected Value 70
4.1.3
Probability Amplitude 71
4.1.4
Two-Slit Quantum Interference 72
4.2
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 74
4.2.1
Binomial Distribution 75
4.2.2
Poisson Distribution 76
4.2.3
Normal Distribution 77
4.2.4
Uniform Distribution 78
4.2.5
Exponential Distribution 79
4.3
CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM 80
4.3.1
Confidence Level and Interval 81
4.4
HYPOTHESIS TESTING 82
4.4.1
Types of Error in Hypothesis Testing 83
4.4.2
Types of Tests and Test Statistics 84
4.4.2.1
z-test 85
4.4.2.2
t-test 85
4.4.2.3
Test of Proportions 86
4.4.2.4 Test of k-Proportions or Test of
Independence 87
4.4.2.5
Summary of Hypothesis Testing 87
Chapter 5 ◾ Design of Experiments and Analyses 89

5.1 M
EASUREMENT SYSTEM ANALYSIS 90
5.1.1 Precision and Accuracy 90
5.1.2
Types of Errors 91
5.1.3
Error Estimation and Reporting 93
5.2
MULTIVARIATE REGRESSION ANALYSIS 95
5.3
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 98
x ◾ Contents
5.4
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 101
5.4.1 Two-Level Full Factorial Design and Analysis 106
5.4.2
Three-Level Full Factorial Design and Analysis 111
5.4.3 Partial Factorial or Fractional Factorial Designs 116
5.4.3.1 Half Fraction of 2k Design 116
5.4.3.2 Orthogonal Array Designs or Taguchi’s
L Designs 118
5.4.4
Historical Data Analysis 120
5.5
SYSTEMS MODELING 121
5.5.1
Linear Models 122
5.5.2
Nonlinear Models 124
Chapter 6 ◾ Basics of Machine Learning 125

6.1
INFORMATION THEORY 126
6.1.1
Channel Speed Limit 126
6.1.2
Communication System Architecture 127
6.1.3
Digitalization of Information 128
6.1.4
Source Coding 128
6.1.5
Entropy and Information Content 128
6.2
DATA HANDLING 132
6.2.1
Supervised Learning 133
6.2.1.1
Classification 133
6.2.1.2
Regression 134
6.2.1.3
Time Series Prediction 134
6.2.2
Semisupervised Learning 134
6.2.3
Unsupervised Learning 135
6.2.3.1
Projection 135
6.2.3.2
Clustering 136
6.2.3.3
Density Estimation 136
6.2.3.4
Generative Models 136
6.3
LEARNING INPUT AND OUTPUT FUNCTIONS 137
6.3.1
Input Vectors 138
6.3.2
Output 139
Contents ◾ xi
6.4 BAYESIAN DECISION THEORY 139

6.4.1 Sampling Theory Approach 142
6.4.2 Bayesian Inference Approach 143
6.5 NEURAL NETWORKS 144
6.5.1 Multilayer Neural Networks 147
6.6 SUPPORT VECTOR MACHINES 149
6.7 THE KERNEL FUNCTION 153
Chapter 7 ◾ Prediction, Optimization, and New

Knowledge Development 157
7.1 DIGITAL TWINS 159
7.1.1 Advantages of Digital Twins 161
7.1.2 Development of Digital Twins 161
7.2 MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS 165
7.3 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY 168
7.3.1 The Sequential Application of Response Surface
Methodology 171
7.3.2 Robust Design 172
7.3.3 Simulation Tools for Response Surface
Methodology 174
7.4 MODEL VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION 179
7.4.1 Various Model Validation Techniques 180
7.4.2 Automation Tools for Model Verification and
Validation 183
REFERENCES, 187
INDEX, 191
Preface: Motivation
and Rationale
Physicists first realized as early as the seventeenth century that material

systems can be described by a small number of descriptive parameters
related to one another through formulae, explaining natural laws. This use
of descriptive parameters gave birth to what later became known as statis-
tical physics that referred to parameters such as geometric, dynamic, and
thermodynamic properties of materials.
The older theory had no probabilistic qualifications to its laws. Later,
Maxwell and Boltzmann introduced the concept of equilibrium in excit-
ing ways that generated a new “statistical thermodynamics,” and imported
the new probabilistic structures into the older theory. In the 1900s, Max
Plank brought in additional concepts to the mix, introducing a discrete
way of explaining physical phenomena, changing to a quantum mechani-
cal theory.
Though physicists’ fundamental contributions to the development of
basic principles and theories in both statistical and quantum mechan-
ics, diversification, and specialization started to give birth to new fields
and areas of focus in science, there have been significant advancements
by mathematicians, statisticians, and computer scientists in developing
applied methodologies that enhance the speed of knowledge discovery and
scientific advancement. Although one can find some physics courses on
Bayesian analysis, methodologies such as neural networks, and the design
of experiments, though readily adopted by biologists, chemists, and engi-
neers, are only mentioned in research papers for physicists.
Physicists are the most suitable candidates, as they excel in the emerg-
ing fields of data mining, data science, machine learning, and artificial
intelligence through self-learning. The advanced concepts of quantum and
xiii
xiv ◾ Preface: Motivation and Rationale
statistical mechanics that form the basis of statistical design of experiments

and neural networks seldom find their way into any physics degree require-
ments, even at institutes that offer an engineering physics degree.
It is hard to find any book written explicitly for physicists linking the
fundamental concepts of quantum and statistical mechanics to modern
data mining, data science, and machine learning. This book is expected to
be the first of its kind written explicitly for physicists explaining the con-
cepts of design of experiments, neural networks, and machine learning,
building on fundamental concepts of statistical and quantum mechanics.
Even though I graduated from Cambridge University with a Ph.D. in
physics in 1991, I had no clue about the Statistical Design of Experiments.
My Ph.D. was in experimental physics, and all the experiments were per-
formed by varying one factor at a time while keeping all the others con-
stant. This one factor at a time remained the way of experimenting for
many of my colleagues and me when I worked in physics departments at
Queen’s University, the University of Alberta, and the University of Illinois
at Chicago (UIC). In the year 2000, I left the academic world. I joined
PerkinElmer Optoelectronics as a senior scientist. I was introduced to the
Statistical Design of Experiments concepts when I received my Master
Black Belt Certification in Six Sigma Methodologies. Although initially
skeptical, as a hardcore physicist, but seeing the results during applica-
tion, I fell in love with the Design of Experiments and later the machine
learning concepts because of the speed of experimentation and knowledge
development it provided. I have always tried to introduce these concepts
to physicists by offering introductory courses at York University, where I
am an adjunct professor. However, these courses have usually been more
appealing to engineers than physicists; still few pioneering physicists have
shown interest in these concepts, encouraging the writing of this book.
This book is expected to generate a new trend among research physicists
to utilize these techniques to advance and discover new knowledge. This
book also provides a self-learning tool for physicists interested in a career
in data science, machine learning, and artificial intelligence.
Ijaz A. Rauf
March 2021
Author
Dr. Ijaz A. Rauf is a physicist, data scientist, and a

Lean Six Sigma Master Black Belt (MBB). He is an
innovator, experienced consultant, educator, and
a seasoned program manager. Dr. Rauf obtained
a Ph.D. in physics from Cambridge University,
England. He started his career as a consultant for
a small business, while working as a researcher
and then educator at various universities in
Canada and the United States. After spending
eight years in academia, he moved to the high-tech industry before start-
ing his own businesses.
Dr. Rauf has founded and cofounded three high-tech companies, has
served as the President and CEO at SolarGrid Energy Inc., and is currently
managing his own data science and Lean Six Sigma consulting company,
Eminent-Tech Corporation. Besides leading his business ventures, he is
also an adjunct professor in the School of Graduate Studies, Department
of Physics and Astronomy, York University, and a research associate at
Ryerson University in Toronto, Canada.
Dr. Rauf has been awarded patents for industrial designs and processes
invented during his career, and has authored more than 50 international
scientific publications. He has served as a council member for the Ontario
College of Teachers, vice-chair for Blue Hills Child and Family Centre’s
board of directors, and a panel expert for the International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA). He has also served as a visiting professor at
the University of Energy and Natural Resources in Ghana and as foreign
faculty at COMSATS Institute for Information Technology in Pakistan.
He is also a member of the International Scientific Advisory Board for the
University of Energy and Natural Resources, Ghana.
xv
xvi ◾ Author
Dr. Rauf’s own research focuses on predictive analytics and machine

learning. Besides data science and Lean Six Sigma, Dr. Rauf also has
expertise in the areas of nanotechnology, thin films, and nanomaterials,
especially for their applications in solar cells and nanobiotechnology-
based sensors and detectors for point-of-care diagnostics.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 A PHYSICIST’S VIEW OF THE NATURAL

WORLD AND PROBABILITIES
Physicists aim to find a single theory that can explain the whole uni-
verse, but to do so, they must solve some of the most challenging prob-
lems of science. Before Newton, a physicist’s view of the world was only
two-dimensional. By introducing gravity, Newton enabled us to pass
from a picture with two-dimensional symmetry to a picture with three-
dimensional symmetry. Building on this, Einstein expanded this three-
dimensional view of the world to a four-dimensional view by introducing
the time domain. The time domain was introducing the particular theory
of relativity that considers the four-dimensional world view to be linear.
Einstein further expanded this view by proposing relativity’s general the-
ory, where the space–time continuum is curved (or nonlinear). The gen-
eral theory of relativity helps explain most of the physical phenomenon;
however, it fails when phenomenon at microscopic scales (atomic scales)
is considered. The atomic-scale phenomenon is the area that leads to the
emergence of the quantum theory, and it pertains to the discussion of tiny
things – subatomic phenomenon.
The quantum theory first emerged when Planck realized the need to
conclude that electromagnetic waves’ energy can only occur in multiples
of a certain amount; this depended on the waves’ frequency to justify
the law of black-body radiation. Then, Einstein discovered that the same
energy unit occurs in the photoelectric effect. Bohr’s atomic model pro-
vided an incomplete and very primitive picture of the physical world on a
small scale. The quantum theory’s significant breakthrough came in 1925
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206743-1 1
2 ◾ Physics of Data Science and Machine Learning
when quantum mechanics was advanced by Heisenberg and Schrodinger

independently. This development resulted in a dramatic shift in the image
of the universe by the physicist because we had to give up the deterministic
image that we often took for granted. We are guided to a hypothesis that
does not predict with certainty what is expected to happen in the future
but instead gives us knowledge about the likelihood (probability) of occur-
rence of different events.
Physicists are used to working with massive amounts of data, but
they are lucky because their experimental data are of very high quality.
The advent of big data has resulted in an influx of data sets with a much
more complicated structure – a trend needing new methods and a differ-
ent mindset. The growth of big data offers an opportunity for physicists.
Nevertheless, they need a slight yet necessary change in attitude to take
full advantage. Physicists like to think they understand the data to figure
out the causal relationships between events; they have scientific meth-
ods, mathematical tools, and analytical knowledge. Some data structures
are more complex than others. However, if correctly performed, well-
designed experiments produce clean data that can be analyzed to draw
simple, empirical conclusions about nature’s inner workings. However,
this is exceptionally wishful thinking as it tends to downplay the role of
experimental design.
The experimental design is where physicists excel by working in a natu-
ral system where clean experiments are possible. A strong understanding
of calculus, arithmetic, and programming helps. Physicists are compara-
tively superior from a technological viewpoint compared with their col-
leagues in other natural sciences. The truth is that statisticians, computer
scientists, biologists, psychologists, and economists frequently lack the
privilege of working with clean data.
An increasing number of problems come in a shape opposite of what
physicists are used to seeing, for example, to evaluate user experiences
on individual websites or social media or assess epidemics’ dynamics to
determine the consequences of economic policy, which can be quanti-
fied meaningfully. These are situations where “experiments” are far from
optimal but relatively easy to conduct and generate data streams with an
incredibly complex structure.
Physicists must learn a new lexicon to translate their expertise to be
useful in new unknown circumstances. An essential move in this process
is to acknowledge that while models have a high degree of applicability to
evaluate large-scale data sets, their use is just one approach. Physicists tend
Introduction ◾ 3
to opt for generative models, namely those that allow synthetic data gen-
eration before any observation. Nevertheless, a depiction of nature relies
on numerous assumptions and approximations. In comparison, discrimi-
native models do not have a mechanism for generating the data. These
are based on a series of techniques that view the experimental data as a
direct input, which is then used to refine the fitting model iteratively. This
method is possible thanks to Bayes’ theorem.
There is also plenty that physicists can learn from modern statistics
and probability, and the information theory. Complemented by a few
primary principles from these disciplines, the techniques already mas-
tered by physicists from statistical mechanics and field theory can be
adapted for use in the most complex data analysis tasks facing other dis-
ciplines of science. It may be surprising that mathematical techniques
initially developed in physics, including those necessary to calculate the
partition function, were transferred and further developed into other
research domains. It is time that physicists to learn and reclaim these
advancements.
1.2 DATA – TYPES OF DATA

Humans have collected, processed, and analyzed data from time immemo-
rial without developing a name for this. It was 1640 when the word “data”
first appeared in the English language when physicists realized that the
material systems are better understood when described in a small num-
ber of parameters. Values prescribed for these parameters became to be
known as data. Data can broadly be divided into two main classes: quan-
titative and qualitative data. Both can be further divided into two sub-
classes, as shown in Figure 1.1. The quantitative data could be continuous,
Continuous
Numerical/Quantitative
Discrete
Data Types
Binary
Qualitative/Descriptive
Categorical
FIGURE 1.1 Various classifications of data.

where it could be measured on an infinitely divisible scale provided we

have sensitive enough measuring equipment. For example, the distance
between two points, the length, and height of an object are all examples of
continuous data. Alternatively, it could be discrete when it can only have
specific values, such as the number of students in the class and the number
of electrons in an atom.
On the other hand, the qualitative data can be either binary. It can have
only one of the two prescribed values: the charge on a particle (positive or
negative) and exam result (pass or fail). Alternatively, it could be an attri-
bute, for example, color, religion, or nationality.
1.2.1 Data to Information

One may drive some meanings from given data itself when there is only a
small amount of data. As the amount of data starts to increase, it becomes
increasingly difficult to derive meaning from the data. Table 1.1 shows
data from a semiconductor manufacturing line showing various causes
for chip failure. Data in its raw form require a bit of human effort to sort
through and get the information. However, if these data are transformed
into Pareto charts, as shown in Figure 1.2, significant information becomes
readily available for decision-making by the observer.
The term “information” is defined as the data presented in context,
structured, organized, and processed, making it meaningful and useful
to the individual who needs it. Data mean raw facts and statistics about
people, locations, or something else represented as numbers, letters, or
symbols.
Information is the converted and classified data into an intelligible
form that can be used in the decision-making process. In short, when the
data after processing turn out to be significant, it is called knowledge. In
essence, it is something that tells; it addresses a particular query.
TABLE 1.1 Data from a Semiconductor Chip Manufacturing Line

Defect Type Frequency (Count) Loss Per Defect ($)
Cracking 12 100
Soldering 33 300
Others 3 50
Etching 27 600
Pinhole 4 200
Flacking 8 150
Molding 13 250
Introduction ◾ 5
FIGURE 1.2 Data from Table 1.1 transformed into information for the observer
for better decision-making.
Accuracy, relevance, completeness, and availability are the key features

of the knowledge. It can be conveyed in the form of a message text or by
observation. It can be obtained from various sources such as newspapers,
television, the internet, people, and books.
As the amount of data increases, the transformation required to derive
information from the data for meaningful decision-making becomes
increasingly complex and challenging, requiring advanced statistical and
graphical tools. A large amount of information can be transformed into
knowledge by understanding the underlying relationships that help gener-
alize the formulae or the theoretical framework for the phenomenon that
generated the data. Converting information to useful knowledge is even
more difficult and complicated, requiring tools to develop models for the
systems under observation.
1.2.2 Information to Knowledge

Knowledge means a person’s insight and understanding, location, activi-
ties, thoughts, queries, ways of doing things, or something learned through
studying, perceiving, or discovering. This new learning is the state of cog-
nizance, recognizing something through the comprehension of concepts,
research, and experience.
In short, information connotes an entity’s firm theoretical or realis-
tic understanding, along with its ability to use it for a specific reason. A
combination of information, experience, and intuition leads to knowledge
that can draw inferences and develop insights based on our expertise. This
knowledge also helps in decision-making and action-taking.
1.2.3 Critical Differences between Information and Knowledge

The points given below are essential. The difference between informa-
tion and knowledge is concerned: The information denotes the orga-
nized data about someone or something obtained from various sources
such as newspapers, the internet, television, and discussions. Knowledge
refers to the understanding or comprehension of the acquired subject
from a person’s education or experience. Knowledge is nothing but the
distilled data type that helps to understand the context. Knowledge, on
the other hand, is the appropriate and objective information that helps
to conclude.
Information is generated by data gathered within the appropriate con-
text. Conversely, it results in knowledge when the information is paired
with experience and intuition. Processing enhances the representation,
thus ensuring a simple understanding of the information; despite this,
processing results in enhanced knowledge, thereby increasing the subject’s
understanding. The information helps comprehend the facts and figures,
unlike the knowledge that contributes to the subject’s understanding. The
transmission of information is secure by different means, that is, verbal or
nonverbal signals. Conversely, knowledge transfer is a little complicated,
as it requires the user to develop an understanding.
Information can be reproduced at a low cost. However, precisely similar
knowledge reproduction is not possible because it is based on experiential
or individual values and perceptions. It is not enough to use information
alone to make generalizations or predictions about someone or something.
Knowledge may, on the contrary, predict or draw inferences. Every piece
of information is not necessarily a piece of knowledge, but all knowledge
is based on information.
Introduction ◾ 7
1.3 DATA MINING FOR KNOWLEDGE

As the name goes, the process of data mining could be understood by
comparing it to traditional mining operations, where we dig through vast
amounts of dirt and stones to find the gems hidden deep down. Data min-
ing is thus the process of digging through a sea of raw data to discover
new and previously unknown insights and information. Data mining is
part of a more comprehensive knowledge discovery process, including
data extraction, data cleaning, data fusion, data reduction, and feature
creation, known as preprocessing and postprocessing steps such as pat-
tern and model analysis, confirmation, and generation of hypotheses. The
information creation and the method of data mining appear to be strongly
incremental and interactive.
Data mining is a process based on using tools to extract useful infor-
mation that can be transformed into knowledge from large data sets and
extend human knowledge. Thus, data mining tools could help a person or
an organization discover hidden knowledge in enormous data. Data min-
ing refers to discovering new patterns from a wealth of data in databases
by focusing on algorithms to extract useful knowledge. Data mining is the
mechanism of discovering insightful, exciting, and novel patterns, as well
as descriptive, understandable, and predictive models for the process of
interest from large-scale data.
1.4 MACHINE LEARNING AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Learning, in general, is the process of gaining knowledge or skills through
study, education and training, observation, or experimentation. Learning
is a procedure that leads to a permanent capacity and or capability change
in living beings. Learning through personal experience and knowledge is
at the root of human intelligence, propagating from generation to genera-
tion. Learning shapes our brains and develops our intellect that translates
into intelligence. Social learning comes from experience, observations,
interactions, and traditional education and training. In an institutional-
ized setup, human beings are taught the concepts; then, examples help
them solve the concepts. The human capacity or skills developed through
this exercise of knowledge transmission are then evaluated by providing
them related but a new set of problems that use the same concepts to solve.
In this way of evaluation, the learner’s ability to generalize is tested.
A problem may also be solved by a machine that learns. Generalization
is perhaps the best way machine learning can be conceptualized. Machine
learning is emerging as an umbrella noun for methods studied and
developed for many decades in different scientific communities, such as

statistical learning, pattern recognition, image processing and analysis,
computer vision, and computational learning, among many others. A
machine processes the data and automatically finds structures in the data,
i.e. learns. The knowledge about the extracted structure in the data is then
used to solve the problems at hand. This approach of problem-solving is
called inductive. Machine learning is about inductively solving problems
by machines, i.e. computers. The ability to provide accurate predictions
and forecasts stems from machine learning models by considering real-
time input data and historical data. Although an accurate prediction or
forecast is invaluable, it is priceless to make analytics-driven decisions
about the best course of action to be taken.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is referred to as machines’ ability to mimic the
human trait of decision-making based on data analyses and prior knowl-
edge. AI took birth with the invention of the mechanical calculators in the
mid-seventeenth century and has advanced significantly to the invention
of the first mechanical computer (historically known as Jacquard Loom)
in 1804–1805. AI took a new turn with the advent of solid-state electronic
calculators in the 1960s and then modern computers in the early 1970s.
The definition of AI continues to evolve, as many operations (for example,
simple calculations as performed by calculators or computers) are now
taken for granted.
The modern definition of AI assumes that human intelligence can be
defined so that machines can simulate it. Machine simulation of human
intelligence can be accomplished by feeding the learning and the prediction
or forecasts generated by machine learning models as inputs to a decision
optimization model. The decision optimization model can then consider
the various trade-offs and constraints to develop the optimal solution for
the situation under consideration and automatically trigger an allowed
action. Subsequently, once an optimization model has triggered or recom-
mended an action plan and that plan is in operation, the data from the
execution operations of that plan can be used by machine learning models.
These new data help the machines improve predictions and forecasts to
make the decision models more precise and accurate automatically.
The ability of AI to make decisions, refine the models through con-
stant learning to improve the precision and accuracy, minimize the risks
involved faster than human beings, plus the possibility of eliminating
human errors, makes it very attractive for a myriad of applications, from
simple applications such as spell checkers, autocorrections, Alexa, Siri, and
Introduction ◾ 9
video games to more complex applications such as autonomous vehicles

for human transportation, AI-assisted medical diagnostics, and AI-based
law clerks, and the list continues. As technology advances further, even
more applications come to the surface that can use AI for much faster,
precise, and accurate actions.
1.5 SCOPE: WHAT THIS TEXT COVERS

This book is written for postgraduate levels, and thus to understand this
book, a learner needs to understand sciences at the undergraduate level,
especially in fundamentals of physics and statistics.
For a physicist, this text is designed to review fundamental physics con-
cepts and build on these concepts through the fundamentals of probabil-
ity theory leading to the modern concepts in data science and machine
learning, opening the way for a deeper understanding of both sides of the
equation.
For statisticians and data scientists, it provides a basic understanding of
the underlying physics that has led to the modern tools, which are so pop-
ular with businesses. They can understand these fundamental concepts of
physics and build on these to solve problems in the areas where modern
data science, machine learning, AI, and the internet of things are facing
challenges.
This book introduces many concepts for physicists, statisticians, and
data scientists that may incite further studies into more complex and
advanced topics in these areas.
Following this brief introductory chapter, Chapter 2 introduces
Newtonian mechanics starting with fundamental laws of motion,
concept of center of mass, and the law of universal gravitation. Then,
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics are discussed before classical
field theory is described, and based on all these concepts, Maxwell–
Boltzmann equilibrium is introduced. Chapter 3 focuses on the quantum
mechanics where concepts such as kinematical framework, wave func-
tions, and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle are introduced. Discussion
on boundary conditions, energy states, and quantum confinement is
followed by introduction of harmonic oscillator, and probability den-
sity including the concepts of expected value and finally quantum field
theory is described.
Chapter 4 is focused on probabilistic physics, where concepts such as
probability theory that included expected value, probability amplitude
and quantum interference are introduced. Probability distributions are
described before introducing the central limit theorem that is followed by

description of hypothesis testing, confidence level, and confidence interval.
Chapter 5 carries detailed practical discussions on the statistical design
of experiments. Starting with measurement systems analysis, concepts of
random and systematic errors are introduced. Regression analysis and
analysis of variance are discussed, which lead to the concept of statistical
design of experiments and systems modeling.
Starting with the basics of information theory, Chapter 6 introduces
machine learning including the concepts of supervised and unsupervised
learning, modeling input and output functions, and Bayesian decision
theory. Finally, neural networks and application to classification problem
are discussed. Modern machine learning techniques make it possible to
develop models that accurately depict the physical systems in a digital
world, known as digital twins, a concept that is discussed at the start of
Chapter 7. Later parts of this chapter discuss the simulation and optimiza-
tion techniques developed to take advantage of digital models. Concepts
for verification and validation of the models along with automation of
verification and validation process are discussed at the end of this chapter.
1.5.1 What This Text Does Not Cover

This text is not a specific course in itself, or a review of such a course. It
does not cover all basic concepts in fundamentals of physics or data sci-
ence and machine learning; it covers only those that are very important or
especially useful for both sides of the equation.
The detailed derivation of physics’ fundamental concepts is not pro-
vided as that was thought to be out of scope for this book, as many texts
already exist where such derivations can be found. However, some basic
concepts in probability theory that lead to the concepts of design of experi-
ments are derived for physicists.
Chapter 2
An Overview of
Classical Mechanics
T he physical science that studies the displacement of bodies under

the motion of forces is classical mechanics. The modern age of mechan-
ics was introduced by Galileo Galilee, using mathematics to explain the
movement of bodies. He added the idea of force and defined the continu-
ously accelerated motion of objects near the Earth’s surface. Seventy years
later, Newton developed his Laws of Motion and addressed the most sig-
nificant scientific dilemma of his time by applying his Universal Law of
Gravitation to establish planetary motion.
Because Newton’s laws of motion provide the basis for classical mechan-
ics, it is also called Newtonian mechanics. Mechanics has two parts: kine-
matics and dynamics. Kinematics deals with the geometric definition of
object motion without taking into account the forces causing the movement.
Dynamics is the component concerned with the details causing changes in
motion or changes in other properties. This component leads us to the con-
cept of force, mass, and the laws that regulate the movement of objects.
The equations developed before 1900 were still ideally suited to describe
objects of typical sizes and velocities. The concepts of energy gradually
evolved, resulting in the discovery of energy conservation theory and its
subsequent application to the laws of thermodynamics. Conservation the-
ories are now fundamental to our understanding of mechanics; conserv-
ing momentum, energy, and angular momentum have allowed Newtonian
mechanics to be reformulated. The reformulation occurred to apply the
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206743-2 11
laws to different situations, such as the Lagrange, the Hamilton, and the
Hamilton–Jacobi theoretical systems.
Italian French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange
developed a mathematical technique known as the Lagrangian that is a
function of the generalized coordinates, their time derivatives, and time
and contains details about system dynamics. Lagrangian mechanics is
suitable for conservative force systems and, in any coordinate system, for
bypassing constraint forces. It is possible to compensate for dissipative and
induced effects by splitting the external forces into a total of potential and
nonpotential strengths, resulting in a set of modified Euler–Lagrange (EL)
equations. For simplicity, EL equations may use generalized coordinates to
leverage symmetries in the system or the geometry of the constraints that
can simplify the system’s motion solution. As a case of Noether’s theorem,
Lagrangian mechanics also shows conserved quantities and their sym-
metries directly. Lagrangian mechanics is essential for its wide-ranging
applications and for its role in advancing profound physics understanding.
The Hamilton mechanics is the formulation of the theory of static action
by William Rowan Hamilton. He claims that a physical system’s dynamics
are defined by a fundamental equation based on a single function, which
incorporates all the physical details about the system and the forces acting
on it. The variational problem is analogous to and permits the derivation
of the physical system’s differential equations of motion. While initially
formulated for classical mechanics, Hamilton’s principle still applies to
physical fields such as the electromagnetic and gravitational fields. It plays
a vital role in the theories of quantum mechanics, quantum field theory,
and criticality.
2.1 NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
In Newtonian mechanics, a given body’s movement is evaluated in terms
of the forces acting upon it. Space and time are the two fundamental prin-
ciples for the study of motion, all of which are continuous variables. A body’s
location in space must be defined as a function of time to understand and
describe its motion. A coordinate system is used as a reference frame for this
reason. One simple method that we often use is the Cartesian coordinate
method. The position of a point P in a Cartesian coordinate system is speci-
fied by three coordinates (x, y, z) or spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, ϕ), as
shown in Figure 2.1. The particle P motion can then be studied by the change
in the position coordinates over time.
An Overview of Classical Mechanics ◾ 13
, ,
P=
, ,
x
X
y
Y
FIGURE 2.1 Cartesian and spherical coordinate system to describe the position
of a particle.
Kinematics is primarily concerned with motion mechanics, but

dynamics attempts to address the question as to what movement can occur
when defined forces act upon a body. Newton’s laws of motion are the rules
that allow one to make the relation. They are physics laws that are founded
on scientific data and stand or fall because their predictions are correct.
2.1.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law of Motion: An object remains at rest unless acted up by an unbal-
anced force. Newton’s first law suggests that no external force is required
to sustain a body’s uniform motion; it continues unchanged because of the
body’s intrinsic property, which we call inertia. Because of this, the first
law of motion is also called the law of inertia. Inertia is a body’s normal
inclination to remain at rest or in continuous motion in a straight line.
Quantitatively, a body’s inertia is determined by its mass (m) and its veloc-
ity (v), that is, its momentum. A body’s momentum (p) is proportional to
its velocity. In mathematical terms, Newton’s first law can be expressed as
follows: In the absence of an unbalanced external force, p = mv = constant;
this is the law of momentum conservation.
Second Law of Motion: A net force acting on an object can change the
momentum of the object, the rate of which is proportional to and in the
direction of the net force.
dp dv d 2r
F= = m = m 2 = ma (2.1)
dt dt dt
where a stands for acceleration and r is the position vector in the Cartesian
space. Equation 2.1 is also called the particle’s motion equation. It is a
differential equation of the second order. Provided force F, the position
and velocity of a particle are known at a specific time; the particle’s position
and velocity can be found at any other time with the help of the second law.
It means that the correct values of coordinates and velocity (or momentum
p = mv) must be known simultaneously at a given moment to understand
the particle’s trajectory fully.
Third Law of Motion: When an object exerts a force on another object,
there is an equal but opposite in direction force exerted simultaneously
by the second object on the first. In two particles (1 and 2), the force F12
applied by particle 1 on particle 2 is equal but opposite in direction to the
force F21 exerted by particle 2 on particle 1. In other words:
dp1 dp
F12 = − F21 or = − 2 or m1a1 = −m2a2 (2.2)
dt dt
2.1.2 Angular Momentum, Work, and Energy

Our discussion so far has been about particle systems with linear motion.
In systems with rotation motion, torque and angular momentum are two
equivalent essential parameters. A force induces linear acceleration, while
a torque causes angular acceleration. A particle’s angular momentum
about a point O (say origin), denoted by L, is defined as L = r×p, where r is
particle’s displacement vector from the origin “O.” The expression for the
torque Γ or the moment of the force about the origin is
dp d ( r × p ) dL
Γ=r×F =r× = = (2.3)
dt dt dt
The law of conservation of angular momentum dictates that if the torque

acting on an object in a circular motion is zero, then the angular momen-
tum is constant.
dL
Γ =0= implies L = Constant (2.4)
dt
The most common examples of constant angular momentum are planets

traveling around the Sun and satellites circling the Earth.
Considering the work done by a force leads us to the derivation of the
law of energy conservation. Work done by an external force in moving a
particle from position 1 to position 2 is given by the force’s scalar product

and the displacement vectors.
2 2 2
dv m 2
∫ ∫
W12 = F .dr = m .dr = m v dv =
dt 2 ∫ ( )
v 2 − v12 = K 2 − K1 (2.5)
1 1 1
where K2 and K1 are the particle’s kinetic energies at positions 1 and 2,

and work is performed by force on the particle if K2 > K1. As a result, the
kinetic energy of the particle increases. If K2 < K1, the work is done by the
particle against the force; thus, the kinetic energy of the particle decreases.
If the force acting on a particle is such that the work carried out along a
closed path is zero, then the force is conservative. For a conservative force
F,
∫ F .d r = 0 based on stokes theorem, if the closed path encloses a surface
∫ ∫
“s” then F . d r = ( ∇ × F ) . d s = 0, for an arbitrary surface, ∇×F = CurlF =
s
0, which is a necessary condition for a conservative force. The curl of a vec-
tor is zero if it can be expressed as a gradient of a scalar function of posi-
tion; hence, F = – ∇U(r). This scalar function U(r) is called the particle’s
potential energy at the position represented by vector r. If the force F is a
conservative force, the work done can be described as:
2 2
∫
1
∫
W12 = F .dr = − U ( r ).dr = U1 − U 2
1
(2.6)
From Equations 2.5 and 2.6, we get K1 + U1 = K2 + U2, which describes

the law of conservation of energy mathematically. The potential energy
introduced here is not unique, and thus the absolute potential value has no
significance. Likewise, the kinetic energy also has no absolute value since
we use an inertial reference frame to calculate the velocity and, thus, the
kinetic energy.
2.1.3 Multiple Interactions and Center of Mass

The dynamics of a system of particles can be studied using a simple appli-
cation of Newton’s laws. In addition to the externally applied forces, this
application of Newton’s laws considers the forces acting between the
particles. One can easily use the Newtonian mechanics’ principles of a
single-particle to a multiparticle system, too. Let us consider a system of
n particles P1, P2, …Pn all interacting with each other. Supposing all other
influences are removed from the system, then acceleration a0 induced by
the interaction from the rest of the particles is given as:
a0 = a01 + a02 +…+ a0 n (2.7)
where a01 and a02 are accelerations induced on P0 as if P1 and P2 were indi-
vidually interacting with P0. Multiplying both sides of Equation 2.7 with
mass m0 of the particle P0 gives us:
Therefore, Newton’s second law remains valid for multiple interactions,

provided the “resultant force” F0 acting on P0 is understood to mean the
(vector) resulting from the individual forces acting on P0. If the position
vectors of this system of n particles are given as r1, r2, … rn, respectively,
then the center of mass of this system of n particles is a point in space
whose position vector R is given as:
∑ ∑
n n
m1r1 + m2 r2 +…+ mn rn mi ri mi ri
R= = i=1
= i=1
(2.8)
∑
n
m1 + m2 +…+ mn mi M
i=1
The center of mass for a particle system is essentially a “weighted” mean of

the particle position vectors, where the particle masses are the “weights.”
Center of mass is an essential concept in multiparticle system mechanics.
2.1.4 The Law of Gravitation

Physicists only consider four distinct kinds of forces of interaction that
exist in nature. These are gravity forces, electromagnetic forces, and weak/
strong nuclear forces. The nuclear forces are only essential inside the atomic
nucleus, and they will not affect us here. The most remarkable achieve-
ment of Newton was to eventually discover the law of universal gravity
and solve the question of two centuries of planetary motion. Kepler started
the conception of gravitation as an attractive force between two bodies. He
also suggested the gravitation of the Sun would hold the planets orbiting
around the Sun. However, it was mainly Hooke (and Halley and Wren)
who successfully demonstrated that gravitational force was an attractive
force toward the Sun. Newton took up the gravitation problem and proved
that the second law of Kepler is valid for every central force, not just for the
inverse square force due to gravitational attraction.
Newton’s law of gravitation postulates that any object with mass attracts
any other object with mass, with force called gravitation. The third law
stipulates that when gravitational interaction occurs between particles, the
interaction forces must be equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and
parallel to the straight line that separates the particles. Equation 2.9 sets
the magnitude of the forces of gravitational interaction:
m1m2
F12 = F21 = G (2.9)
R2
Here m1 and m2 are masses of the particles, R is the distance between them,
and G is the universal gravitational constant. G is not dimensionless; its
numerical value depends on the units of mass, length, and force. In SI
units, the constant of gravitation is given by G = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2. The
same is true for a mass distributed over a large volume; for example, if M is
the mass of the Earth that is spread over the radius R of the Earth, it can be
treated as a point mass, M being placed at the center of the planet. Thus a
small particle of mass m experiences a force given as:
Mm M
F =G = mg or g = G 2 (2.10)
R2 R
Equation 2.14 shows that the acceleration g experienced by any object on

the surface of the Earth is independent of its mass and is equal to 9.8 m/s2.
2.2 LAGRANGIAN MECHANICS
During previous sections, we illustrated the usefulness of Newton’s laws
of motion in addressing several issues. Nevertheless, if the system is sub-
ject to external constraints, it can be challenging to solve the equations
of motion, and often it can even be challenging to formulate them. The
forces of constraints are typically very complex or unknown, which hin-
ders formalism. Two separate approaches, Lagrange’s and Hamilton’s
formulas, were created to solve these difficulties. Both methods are con-
structed based on an energy approach so that Newtonian formalism
derives from it.
2.2.1 Constraints
A constrained object is not able to move in any form freely. The conditions
that restrict the object’s motion are called constraints. For example, in a
container, the gas molecules are limited by the vessel’s walls to travel only
within the box. Mainly there are two types of constraints: holonomic and
nonholonomic. When a system has constraints that are only geometric or
integrable kinematic, it is holonomic. When it does have nonintegrable
cinematic constraints, it is nonholonomic.
Holonomic constraints are those where the conditions of constraint are
expressed as equations connecting the spatial coordinates and time only
and do not require higher-order derivatives such as velocity or acceleration
in the following form:
f ( r1 , r2 , r3 ,rn , t ) = 0 (2.11)
For example, in a rigid body, the distance between any two particles of the
body remains constant during motion, which is expressible as:
2
ri − rj = cij2 (2.12)
where cij is the distance between the particles i and j with position vectors ri
and rj. Another example could be of a beaded particle sliding on a circular
wire of radius a in the xy plane. In this case, the equation of constraints is:
x 2 + y 2 = a 2 which can be expressed in differential form as xdx + ydy = 0.

(2.13)
A nonholonomic system is one in which there is a continuous, closed circuit

of the governing variables. These governing variables can transform the
system from any given state to any other state. Since the system’s final state
depends on its trajectory’s intermediate values through parameter space,
a conservative potential function cannot represent the system as can, for
example, the inverse square law of the gravitational force. In this case,
the coordinates are either constrained by inequalities or by nonintegrable
differentials.
Gas molecules in a spherical container of radius R are one example of
nonholonomic systems. If ri is the ith molecule’s position vector, then the
constraint inequality can be expressed as:
xi2 + yi2 + zi2 ≤ R 2 (2.14)
The center of the sphere here is the origin of the coordinate system.
In nonholonomic constraints, the constraints are expressed as relation-
ships between the velocities of the system’s particles as:
f ( x1 , x 2 , …, x1 , x 2 , …, t ) = 0 (2.15)
If integrating these equations of nonholonomic constraints can define

relationships among the coordinates, then the constraints become holonomic.
Constraints are additionally categorized as scleronomous and rheonomous.
A scleronomous constraint is a time-independent one, whereas a rheono-
mous constraint includes time. An example of a scleronomously constrained
system is a pendulum with an inextensible string of length l0 that is described
by Equation 2.16:
x 2 + y 2 = l02 (2.16)
A pendulum with an extensible string is rheonomous; the condition of

constraint is:
x 2 + y 2 = l 2 (t ) (2.17)
where l(t) is the length of the string at time t. Constraints add two types of
technical issues in solving mechanical problems. The ri coordinates are no
longer independent because constraint equations relate them. This problem
is overcome in the case of holonomic constraints by the use of generalized
coordinates. The second problem is because the forces of the constraints
cannot be clearly defined. These are among the problem’s unknowns,
which must be derived from the solution. This difficulty can be overcome if
the problem is formulated in the Lagrangian form, in which the restriction
forces do not appear.
2.2.2 Degrees of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates

The number of independent ways a mechanical device can move without
infringing any constraints is called the number of system’s degrees of free-
dom. It is the minimum number of possible coordinates needed to define
the system accurately. It has three degrees of freedom when a particle travels
through space. If it is constrained to travel along a curve in space, it has just

one degree of freedom, while if it moves in a plane, it has two degrees of free-
dom. In classical mechanics, the motion of a particle to be described requires
three space coordinates and one time coordinate; thus, to fully describe the
motion of the particle, one has to make use of the three position coordinates
( x , y , z ) and the rate of change of these coordinates with respect to the time
domain, i.e. ( x , y , z ); thus the particle has six degrees of freedom.
Let “s” be a mechanical system that is geometrically constrained. Then
the number of generalized coordinates needed to define configuration of s
is called degrees of freedom of s. For an N particle system, free from con-
straints, we need a total of 3N independent coordinates to define its con-
figuration fully. Let there be k constraints in the form 𝑓s (r1, r2,…, rN, t) = 0,
s = 1, 2, 3,…, k acting on the system. Now there are only 3N − k inde-
pendent coordinates or degrees of freedom in the system. These 3N − k
independent coordinates are called the generalized coordinates and are
defined by the variables q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., q3 N – k . The old coordinates r1 , r2 ,..., rN
can be expressed as:
r1 = r1 ( q1 , q2 , …, q3 N − k , t ) , r2 = r2 ( q1 , q2 , …, q3 N − k , t ) , ....,
rN = rN ( q1 , q2 , …, q3N − k , t ) (2.18)
In analogous with Cartesian coordinates, time derivatives q1 , q2 , q3 ,… are
defined as generalized velocities. We have shown that a system’s entire
structure can be determined by n = 3N − k independent generalized coor-
dinates q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qn . To consider the n q’s as the coordinates of a point in
an n-dimensional space is useful. This n-dimensional space is called the
configuration space, with a coordinate representing each dimension. Since
generalized coordinates are not necessarily coordinates of position, con-
figuration space is not necessarily related to the three-dimensional physi-
cal space. The motion path also does not necessarily resemble the actual
particle spatial direction.
2.2.3 Virtual Work and Lagrange’s Equations

A virtual displacement, denoted by δri, refers to an imaginary, infinitesimal,
instantaneous displacement of the coordinate compatible with the
constraints. It is distinct from the actual device displacement δri that
occurs in a time interval δt. Since displacement is instantaneous, it is called
virtual. Because there is no real system motion, the work performed in

such a simulated displacement by the forces of constraint is zero. Consider
an equilibrated scleronomic array of n particles. Let Fi be the force that
acts upon the ith particle. The force Fi is a vector sum of the force applied
Fi e and the forces of the constraints fi externally. That is, Fi = Fi e + fi , and
the virtual work performed is then given as:
δ Wi = Fi .δ ri = ( Fi e + fi ) .δ ri (2.19)
If the system is in equilibrium, the total force must be zero on each

particle: Fi = 0 on all i. Hence the dot product Fi .δ ri is zero, too. The sum
of the above vanishing products is the total virtual work performed on
the system δW:
n n n n
δW = ∑
i =1
δ Wi = ∑(
i =1
)
Fi e + fi .δ ri = ∑
i=1
Fi e .δ ri + ∑ f .δ r = 0
i =1
i i (2.20)
The work done by forces of constraint under a virtual displacement is zero;

thus, Equation 2.20 reduces to:
n n
δW = ∑δW = ∑F .δ r = 0
i=1
i
i =1
i
e
i (2.21)
Equation 2.21 describes the concept of virtual work, which is stated as

follows: In the n-particle system, the total work done by external forces
when virtual displacements are performed is called virtual work, and the
total virtual work performed is zero. The coefficients δ ri in Equation 2.21
can no longer be set at zero since they are not independent. It is important to
note here that the virtual work concept deals only with statics. d’Alembert
suggested a principle that involves the general motion of the system. In the
n-particle system, then by Newton’s law, Fi = p i or Fi − p i = 0. This equa-
tion means that the ith particle in the system would be in equilibrium
under a force equivalent to the actual force plus a “reversed effective force”
− p i , as called by d’Alembert. Thus from Equations 2.19 and 2.20, we get:
∑( F
i=1
i
e
)
+ fi − p i .δ ri = 0 (2.22)
Considering the virtual work performed by the forces of constraints to be

zero, Equation 2.22 reduces to
∑( F
i=1
i
e
)
− p i .δ ri = 0 (2.23)
Generalizing this we can write:
∑( F − p ).δ r = 0
i=1
i i i (2.24)
Lagrange used the d’Alembert theory to derive equations of motion,

now known as Lagrange equations. Lagrange assumed that the virtual
displacements δ ri in Equation 2.24 are not independent but involve virtual
displacement of independent generalized coordinates. Assuming a system
of N particles positioned at r1, r2,…, rN, with k holonomic constraint
equations, this system will have n = 3N − k generalized coordinates
q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qn . The transformation from r variables to q variables is given
by ri = ri ( q1 , q2 , …, q3N − k , t ). Since virtual displacement is instantaneous
and does not involve time, the virtual displacement of generalized coordi-
nates can be written as:
∂ ri ∂r ∂r
∂ri =
∂ q1
δ q1 + i δ q2 + …+ i δ qn =
∂ q2 ∂ qn ∑ ∂∂qr δ q
j
i
j
j (2.25)
∂ ri ∂r ∂r ∂r
ri =
∂ q1
.q1 + i .q2 +…+ i .qn + i =
∂ q2 ∂ qn ∂t ∑ ∂∂qr .q + ∂∂rt
j
i
j
j
i
(2.26)
From Equations 2.28, 2.29, and 2.30, we can write:
 ∂ ri 
∑i=1
Fi .δ ri = ∑∑
j

 i
 .δ q j =
∂ qj  ∑Q .δ q
j
j j (2.27)
The Q j is the jth component of the generalized force Q. Considering the

second portion of Equation 2.28:
    
∑ p .δ r = ∑ ∑ dtd  m r ∂∂qr  − ∑m r dtd  ∂∂qr   δ q
i
i i
j i
i i
i
j
i
i i
i
j
j
d ∂   ∂   n
= 
dt ∂ q j  ∑ i
1
2
mi vi2  − 
 ∂ qj 
∑
i
1
2
mi vi2  =

∑( dtd ∂∂ qK − ∂∂ qK )
j =1
j j
(2.28)
Substituting Equations 2.32 and 2.31 in Equation 2.28, we get:
n
 
∑ dtd ∂∂ qK − ∂∂ qK − Q  δ q = 0
j =1
j j
j j (2.29)
Considering
Fi = − ∇iU or Q j = − ∑∇ U ∂∂qr = − ∂∂Uq

i
i
i
j j
(2.30)
d ∂ K ∂ K ∂U
Equation 2.29 can be rewritten as − + = 0, and if the
dt ∂ q j ∂ q j ∂ q j
∂U
potential U is a function of position only, i.e., = 0, we can write:
∂ q j
d ∂ ∂
(K −U )− (K −U ) = 0 (2.31)
dt ∂ q j ∂ qj
This introduces the Lagrangian function L(q, q, t) = K (q, q, t) − U(q), and
d ∂L ∂L
thus Equation 2.31 can be written as − = 0 for all j = 1,2,3, …, n.
dt ∂ q j ∂ q j
Those n equations are known as Lagrange’s equations, one for each inde-
pendent generalized coordinate. These constitute a set of n differential
equations of the second order for n unknown functions q j(t), and the
general solution includes 2n constants of integration.
For specific systems, the forces acting are not conservative, say where
one component can be obtained from potential, and the other is dissipa-
tive. For such cases, it is possible to write the Lagrange equations as:
d ∂L ∂L ´
− =Qj (2.32)
dt ∂ q j ∂ q j
´
where the force Q j does not arise from the potential.
2.3 HAMILTONIAN MECHANICS
Lagrangian formulation describes a system of differential equations of
second order, written for a series of variables representing the location
of a physical system of interest. The Hamiltonian theorem implies an
analogous definition of the system’s position and velocity in terms of first-
order equations written for independent variables. Hamiltonian equations
can be derived from Lagrangian ones by successive application, in a the-
ory of differential equations, of two well-known procedures: reduction of
order and change of variables. Both procedures are intended to obtain a
system of equations equal to a given system.
In Lagrangian formalism, generalized coordinates (qi ’s) and generalized
velocities (qi ’s) are used as independent coordinates to formulate complex
issues that result in linear differential equations of second order. In
Hamilton’s formalism, generalized coordinates and generalized momenta
(pi ’s) are essential variables for problem formulation. The formulation is
based primarily on the system’s Hamiltonian function, a combination of
system qi ’s and pi ’s. Mathematically, the resulting linear differential equa-
tions in the first order are simpler to manage. The formalism of Hamilton
also serves as the base for further advances such as quantum mechanics.
The Hamiltonian function for a system is defined as:
H= ∑p q − L(q, q, t )
i
i i (2.33)
where q stands for the generalized n coordinates q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qn and

∂L
given that pi = , we can write:
∂ q j
meaning H is expressed as a function of generalized coordinates,

generalized momenta, and time. The configuration space in Lagrangian
formalism is spanned by the n generalized coordinates. The q’s and p’s
are viewed in the same way here, and the space involved is called phase
space. It is a space of 2n variables q1 , q2 , q3 ,..., qn and p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pn . Each
space point represents both the position and the momentum of each
particle.
Hamiltonians of the system and variational principles help derive

Hamilton’s equations of motion. Differentiating Equation 2.33, we get:
 
dH = ∑ p .dq + q .dp − ∂∂qL dq − ∂∂qL dq  − ∂∂Lt dt
i
i i i i
i
i
i
i
 
= ∑ q .dp − ∂∂qL dq  − ∂∂Lt dt
i
i i
i
i (2.35)
Differentiating 2.34 we get:
 
dH = ∑ ∂∂ Hq dq + ∂∂ Hp dp  + ∂∂Ht dt
i
i
i
i
i (2.36)
Comparing Equations 2.35 and 2.36, we obtain:
∂H ∂H ∂H ∂L
qi = , p i = & =− (2.37)
∂ pi ∂ qi ∂t ∂t
Expressions given in Equation 2.37 are Hamilton’s equations of motion.

These are sometimes called canonical equations of motion. They constitute
a set of differential equations of first order 2n, which replace Lagrange’s
differential equations of second order n. Hamilton’s equations refer to tra-
ditional, holonomic structures. If one of the forces acting on the system is
∂L
nonconservative, by replacing with pi , the Lagrange equation from
∂ q j
Equation 2.32 becomes:
∂H ∂H
qi = and p i = − + Qi (2.38)
∂ pi ∂ qi
From Equation 2.37, since ∑p q = ∑mv

i
i i
i
2
i = 2 K , the Hamiltonian func-
tion can be redefined as H = K + U. Therefore, the Hamiltonian function

can explain particle dynamics in the system.
The work performed along any closed path is not zero for a noncon-
servative force, like a particle that is subject to frictional forces. The force
principle was developed to ensure object motion can be defined as a simple
cause and effect mechanism. It is presumed that a force field exists in

three-dimensional space and is represented mathematically as a continu-
ous, integrable field of vectors, F(r). If time is also continuous and inte-
grable, it is convenient to partition conservative force field energy between
a kinetic and a potential term and preserve total energy.
You can find a differential equation that describes the object’s dynam-
ics by only representing the total energy as a function or Hamiltonian,
H = K + U. Integrating the differential equation of motion gives the object’s
trajectory as it passes through space. These concepts are compelling in
practice and can be applied to many problems concerning macroscopic
objects’ motion.
2.4 CLASSICAL FIELD THEORY

The classical field originated in the nineteenth century when scientists
established the proper degrees of freedom for electromagnetic interaction,
and the theory was later generalized. A classical field, in real terms, is a
dynamical system with an infinite number of degrees of freedom defined
by spatial position. A classical field, in mathematical terms, is a section
of some fiber bundle that obeys some partial differential equations. Of
course, the story has much more to it, but this is a decent first pass at the
concept. In contrast, a mechanical system is a dynamic system described
by ordinary differential equations with a finite number of degrees of free-
dom. The ultimate description here is through quantum field theory. Still,
sometimes the classical approximation has widespread macroscopic valid-
ity (e.g. Maxwell theory), or the classical approximation can help under-
stand the theoretical structure.
Classical fields occur naturally in physics when nonrigid extended
objects such as water bodies, elastic solids, and parts of the atmosphere are
represented using a classical continuum approximation to their structure.
Another place where classical fields appear is a simple definition of matter
and its interactions.
2.4.1 Nonrelativistic Field Theory

2.4.1.1 Gravitational Field
Many of the physical fields that are the simplest are vector force fields.
The first field theory of gravity was Newton’s law of gravitation, in
which an inverse square law defines the interaction between two masses.
This theory has proven very helpful in predicting planets moving around
the Sun. From Equation 2.10, we get:
M M
g =G 2
or in general in vector form, we can write g ( r ) = −G 2 r̂ (2.39)
r r
where rˆ is the position unit vector and the negative sign indicates that
the gravity always points toward the Earth. The scientific discovery
that inertial mass and gravitational mass are equal with unprecedented
precision amounts contributes to the definition of the gravitational force’s
strength equivalent to the particle’s acceleration. This discovery is the
starting point for the equivalence principle, which contributes to general
relativity. For an independent collection of masses Mi, with the center of
mass located at ri , the gravitational field is given as:
g ( r ) = −G ∑ Mr −(rr− r )
i
i
i
3
i
(2.40)
If instead of the collection of masses, we have a continuous mass distribu-

tion ρ (X), the summation in Equation 2.40 is replaced with an integral
over volume, and we have:
ρ ( X )d 3 X ( r − X )
g ( r ) = −G
∫∫∫V r−X
3 (2.41)
Considering Gauss’s law for gravity, the gravitational field g(r) can be
described as a gradient of a gravitational potential Φ(r) as follows:
g ( r ) = −∇Φ( r ) (2.42)
2.4.1.2 Charged Particle in an Electrical Field

A charged test particle with charge q encounters a force F dependent on its
charge alone. We may define the electric field E, so that F = qE. Where E
is the electric field due to a single charged particle, using Coulomb’s Law,
this field is defined as follows:
1 q
E (r ) = rˆ (2.43)
4πε 0 r 2
Since the electrical field is conservative, it can also be expressed as a gradi-

ent of the electrical potential V(r), a scalar quantity. So
E ( r ) = −∇V ( r ) (2.44)
Since F = qE ( r ) = −q∇V ( r ) = ma (2.44a)
Equation 2.44a can be used to describe the motion of a test charge particle
in an electrical field.
2.4.1.3 Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

Imagine a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field B, with a charge q,
mass m, and velocity v. The force which the charge experiences is given by
F = qv × B. The equation of motion is written as:
dv
m = qv × B (2.45)
dt
Taking the dot product with v on both sides, the right side of the equation
becomes zero, thus providing us with the equation:
dv
v.m = 0 or
dt
d 1 2
 mv  = 0 or K = constant

(2.46)
dt 2
That is to say that the kinetic energy of a charged particle in a magnetic

field remains constant. We can resolve the arbitrary velocity v of the
charged particle into two components: one vll parallel to the direction of
the magnetic field and the other v⊥ that is perpendicular to the magnetic
field; the equation of motions in Equation 2.45 can be rewritten as:
d
m ( vll + v ) = q ( vll + v ) × B (2.47)
dt
Equation (2.9) splits into two equations, one of which describes the motion
of the particle parallel to the field and the other describes the motion per-
pendicular to the magnetic field as:
dvll dv
m = 0 and m = q(v × B ) (2.48)
dt dt
The set of expressions in Equation 2.48 indicates that the velocity com-
ponent parallel to the magnetic field vll is constant. Simultaneously, the
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THE BICENTENARY OF GRAY.
BORN DECEMBER 26, 1716.
by the dean of norwich.

It is a mere chance, but none the less suggestive, that
Shakespeare’s commemoration this year should be followed by that
of Gray. Shakespeare, of course, would cut up into many poets, but
one of them would have been not unlike Gray; a man of a fastidious
and somewhat melancholy temper but with a rare affectionateness,
and a sincere love of his kind, which mingled with his critical faculty
to produce a fresh and very delightful humour. However this may be,
the lesser poet was drawn to the greater by a sure instinct from
school-days. In a letter to Horace Walpole, written when he was just
eighteen, he finds it natural to disguise his boyish affection in terms
borrowed from Mrs. Quickly: ‘I have born and born, and been fub’d
off and fub’d off,’ &c.; and he does so again later: ‘If I don’t hear from
you this week, I shall be in a thousand Tyrrits and Frights about you.’
To his more literary friend, Richard West, another member of the
‘Quadruple Alliance,’ whose early death he was to mourn in the most
exquisite of elegies, he writes with enthusiasm about Shakespeare’s
language.
‘Every word in him is a picture. Pray put me the following lines into
the tongue of our modern Dramatics:
“But I, that am not shaped for sportive tricks,

Nor made to court an amorous looking-glass:
I, that am rudely stampt, and want love’s majesty
To strut before a wanton ambling nymph:
I, that am curtail’d of this fair proportion,
Cheated of feature by dissembling nature,
Deform’d, unfinish’d, sent before my time
Into this breathing world, scarce half made up”—
and what follows. To me they appear untranslatable; and if this be
the case our language is greatly degenerated.’
‘Every word in him is a picture.’ He said the same thing in a fine
quatrain of the poem to Richard Bentley, contrasting the great
masters of old with the poets of his own day, especially with himself,
whose poems Bentley was illustrating:
‘But not to one in this benighted age

Is that diviner inspiration giv’n
That burns in Shakespeare’s or in Milton’s page,
The pomp and prodigality of heaven.’
In another letter to West of the same year he defends the practice

of ‘judiciously and sparingly’ inserting phrases from Shakespeare
into modern poetry because of their greater energy; a practice which
he himself was to adopt in his later odes. Gray’s Shakespearian
borrowings are always judicious, but it may be questioned whether
the effect of such quotations from a greater writer by a less is not to
create an impression of poverty in the borrower. It is more important
to inquire how far Gray was successful in emulating the
Shakespearian ‘pomp and prodigality’ of imagination. The prodigality
clearly was beyond even his ambition. His Pegasus always required
the spur rather than the reins. But the pomp, it must be admitted, he
did not infrequently achieve. No one can be blind to the
magnificence of the lines about Pindar in the ‘Progress of Poesy’:
‘Oh! Lyre divine, what daring Spirit

Wakes thee now? Tho’ he inherit
Nor the pride, nor ample pinion,
That the Theban eagle bear
Sailing with supreme dominion
Thro’ the azure deep of air.’
And in the ‘Elegy’ we have many imaginative pictures that have

the true Shakespearian quality:
‘The paths of glory lead but to the grave.’

‘And shut the gates of Mercy on mankind.’
‘Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death.’
‘Along the cool sequester’d vale of life

They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.’
‘Left the warm precincts of the chearful day,

Nor cast one longing, ling’ring look behind.’
‘Even in our Ashes live their wonted Fires.’
It will be remembered that in the ‘Progress of Poesy’ English

poetry is represented by three names—Shakespeare, Milton, and
Dryden. Dryden is praised for the energy of his heroic couplet,
symbolised by the
‘Two coursers of ethereal race

With necks in thunder cloath’d and long-resounding pace,’
who draw his car, and also for his one great lyrical achievement, the
Ode on St. Cecilia’s day. Gray’s admiration for Shakespeare and
Milton as models was tempered by his recognition of what Dryden
had done for the English language, in rendering it more ‘refined and
free.’ To Beattie he wrote, ‘Remember Dryden and be blind to all his
faults,’ and he told him in an interview (according to Mason) that ‘if
there was any excellence in his own numbers he had learned it
wholly from that great poet; and pressed him with great earnestness
to study him, as his choice of words and versification were singularly
happy and harmonious.’ If Dryden’s ‘Alexander’s Feast’ be
compared with the ‘Progress of Poesy’ we can see how successfully
Gray has blended the qualities he most admired in his several
masters. From Dryden he has caught the smoothness and strength
of his line; but Gray’s rhythm owes more to ‘L’Allegro’ and ‘Comus’
than to the commonplace movement of Dryden’s ode; while the
imaginative beauty of its many pictures was part of his debt to the
greatest of them all. There is one other great English poet to whom
Gray was ready to acknowledge a debt. He told Norton Nicholls that
he never sat down to compose poetry without reading Spenser for a
considerable time previously. I do not remember that Gray ever
incorporates a Spenserian phrase in his own verse; his instinct
would have told him that the two styles would not agree. But his
instinct would also tell him that to bathe himself in Spenser before
entering the temple of his Muse was a sure way of freeing himself
from any pollution of mind or spirit.
The ‘Elegy written in a Country Churchyard’ was composed at
intervals between 1746 and 1750, and sent to Walpole in June of
that year. Walpole showed it to many friends and in some way it got
into the hands of a publisher, who wrote to Gray announcing his
intention of printing it, and begging his ‘indulgence.’ Gray wrote at
once to Walpole desiring him to let Dodsley print it without delay from
his copy, and it accordingly appeared in February 16, 1751, in a
quarto pamphlet, priced sixpence, and entitled ‘An Elegy wrote in a
Country Church Yard.’ The fashionable solecism must be attributed
to Walpole, who saw the poem through the press, and prefixed this
short ‘advertisement’:
‘The following Poem came into my hands by Accident, if the

general Approbation with which this little Piece has spread,
may be call’d by so slight a Term as Accident. It is this
Approbation which makes it unnecessary for me to make any
Apology but to the Author: As he cannot but feel some
Satisfaction in having pleas’d so many Readers already, I
flatter myself he will forgive my communicating that Pleasure
to many more. The Editor.’
In his letter thanking Walpole for his ‘paternal care’ of the poem
Gray speaks of the advertisement as ‘saving his honour’; which can
only mean that he thought the poem unworthy of being offered to the
public by its author. That this was not a mere affectation is shown by
his annoyance at its instant popularity, which he thought to be due to
its subject. He said it would have been equally popular if written in
prose. He writes to his friend Dr. Wharton, after speaking of ‘A Long
Story,’ which had been ‘shew’d about in Town, and not liked at all’:
‘On the other hand the Stanzas have had the Misfortune by
Mr. W.’s fault to be made still more publick, for wᶜʰ they
certainly were never meant, but is too late to complain. They
have been so applauded, it is quite a Shame to repeat it. I
mean not to be modest; but I mean it is a Shame for those,
who have said such superlative Things about them, that I
can’t repeat them.’
Gray’s modesty was still further tried in the autumn of the same
year by Walpole’s insistence that he should allow his still
unpublished odes, on Spring, on Eton College, and on Walpole’s cat,
with whatever else he had to furnish a volume, to appear with
illustrations by Walpole’s protégé, Richard Bentley, a son of the great
Master of Trinity. The negotiations, so far as we have them in Gray’s
correspondence, are diverting. Gray discovered that it was in
contemplation to prefix his own portrait; this he forbade, though it
was already half engraved. He objected to the proposed title and
insisted that it should be ‘Designs by Mr. R. Bentley for six poems of
Mr. T. Gray,’ on the ground that ‘the verses were only subordinate
and explanatory to the Drawings and suffered to come out thus only
for that reason.’ Lastly, he objected to Dodsley’s proposal to omit the
‘Mr.’ before the names of the poet and artist, as being ‘an uncommon
sort of simplicity that looks like affectation.’ This modesty may have
been excessive, but it is not ridiculous when we reflect that Gray had
not yet produced his finest work, and knew that he had it in him to
write something more worthy of himself and English poetry than the
occasional pieces which Walpole wished to publish, or even than the
deservedly popular Elegy.
In 1757 Walpole issued, as the first book from his new printing-
press at Strawberry Hill, a quarto pamphlet entitled ‘Odes by Mr.
Gray,’ with a vignette on the title-page of his Gothick castle, and a
motto from Pindar ΦΩΝΑΝΤΑ ΣΥΝΕΤΟΙΣΙ which Gray englished as
‘vocal to the intelligent alone.’ It contained two odes, here called
simply Ode I and Ode II, ‘The Progress of Poesy’ and ‘The Bard.’
The first of these odes is undoubtedly Gray’s masterpiece, and
deserves all the study that can be given to it. The subject, that of the
great power of poetry, was one very near to Gray’s heart as well as
to his mind, and the scheme is well thought out. There is no feeling
of strain in any part of it. Personification, with Gray generally a sign
of strain, is kept within the limits approved by the great masters.
Thus we have ‘antic Sports and blue-eyed Pleasures’ just as in the
‘Allegro’ we have ‘Jest and youthful Jollity’; but there is no elaborate
series of abstract figures like that in the two stanzas on the Passions
in the Ode on Eton College. This fashionable personification perhaps
justified itself to Gray as a combination of the imaginative method of
Shakespeare with the clear definition of Dryden. What in
Shakespeare would have been a metaphor, hinted at and
immediately succeeded by another, becomes too often with Gray a
substantial allegorical personage. There seems to us to-day
something essentially unpoetical, because artificial, in the posturing
groups of Furies and Graces, and we wonder that Gray with his fine
critical sense did not feel this. We must recognise, however, that
whenever he is deeply moved he escapes from the snare. Two
consecutive stanzas in the ‘Ode on Vicissitude’ show how his verse
becomes more direct as it deepens in feeling.
‘Still, where rosy Pleasure leads,

See a kindred Grief pursue;
Behind the steps that Misery treads,
Approaching Comfort view:
The hues of Bliss more lightly glow,
Chastised by sabler tints of woe,
And blended form, with artful strife,
The strength and harmony of Life.
See the Wretch, that long has tost

On the thorny bed of Pain,
At length repair his vigour lost,
And breathe and walk again:
The meanest flowret of the vale,
The simplest note that swells the gale,
The common Sun, the air, the skies,
To him are opening Paradise.’
When the two odes were reissued they were styled Pindaric, and
they justify their title, being constructed in a series of strophe,
antistrophe, and epode like the odes of Pindar. Ben Jonson had
furnished one example in the ode to the memory of Sir Lucius Cary
and Sir Henry Morrison, one strophe of which is the often-quoted
stanza beginning, ‘It is not growing like a tree.’ But the name
‘Pindarique’ had been abused by Cowley, who, holding the theory
that ‘the lost excellences of another language’ should be supplied by
others of our own, had substituted an expansive eloquence, one
might almost say loquacity, for the terse musical phrase of his model,
and had entirely ignored the interrelation of strophe and antistrophe.
Gray recovered for the Pindaric ode both the music of phrase and
the balance of its parts.
Gray’s second ode cannot be reckoned as unequivocal a success
as its companion. It is founded on a tradition of the murder of the
Welsh bards by Edward I, and the earlier portion, which consists of
the spirited and justifiable curses of the last survivor on the king’s
progeny to the third and fourth generation, is proper to the subject,
and contains much fine rhetoric and a few passages of a nobler
quality. But having written the first three groups of stanzas, Gray held
his hand for a couple of years; and the conclusion does not carry out
the scheme originally proposed. From the argument, which Mason
printed from Gray’s commonplace book, we learn that the Bard was
to predict that all the king’s cruelty ‘shall never extinguish the noble
ardour of poetic genius in this island; and that men shall never be
wanting to celebrate true virtue and valour in immortal strains, to
expose vice and infamous pleasure, and boldly censure tyranny and
oppression.’ When Gray resumed the Ode he had changed his plan,
and the present conclusion can appeal to none but Welshmen, for
whom it is certain that Gray did not specially write. The consolation
which the Bard finds in the future is the prospect of a line of Welsh
kings, the Tudors, culminating in Elizabeth:
In the midst a Form divine

Her eye proclaims her of the Briton-line;
Her lyon-port, her awe-commanding face,
Attemper’d sweet to virgin-grace.’
Elizabeth’s reign is to be marked by a revival of poetry in Spenser,
Shakespeare, and Milton, and an unending line beyond them. It must
be allowed that the skill of the poet has disguised the weakness of
the argument. For to make the consolation effective the
efflorescence of poetry should have occurred under the first Tudor
sovereign, in which case it might poetically have been presumed to
be due to him; and the Bard should not have overlooked Chaucer,
who flourished under the sway of Edward’s direct descendant
Richard II, of whose accession the Bard sings in the only passage of
the Ode which has passed into popular currency:
‘Fair laughs the Morn, and soft the Zephyr blows,

While proudly riding o’er the azure realm,
In gallant trim the gilded Vessel goes;
Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm;
Regardless of the sweeping Whirlwind’s sway,
That, hush’d in grim repose, expects his evening-prey.’
The ‘Elegy’ is an expression of the common heart, though of that

common heart purified and ennobled, and therefore it is of universal
appeal; of the Odes it is true to-day as in Gray’s lifetime that they are
vocal only to the intellectuals. But apart from its merits all Gray’s
poetry has a special interest owing to its place at the meeting-point
of the Augustan and Romantic schools. On the one hand it retains
the notion of poetry as a happy combination of words. Gray, in a
letter to Mason, says: ‘Extreme conciseness of expression, yet pure,
perspicuous, and musical, is one of the grand beauties of lyric
poetry’; adding ‘this I have always aimed at and could never attain.’
Gray’s instrument was always the file; he had no taste for the verse
cast at a jet; and so he could accuse Collins of having a bad ear. In
the second place, there are signs in Gray of that first-hand interest in
nature and that respect for the whole of human nature, and not only
its intellect, which was soon to inspire Cowper and Wordsworth.
Perhaps Gray is at his modernest in the ‘Ode on Vicissitude,’ and in
that impromptu couplet which Norton Nicholls preserved:
‘There pipes the woodlark, and the song-thrush there

Scattering his loose notes in the waste of air’—
if not most modern of all in that quatrain of the ‘Elegy’ which Gray’s
feeling for unity expunged, but which we cannot spare:
‘There scatter’d oft the earliest of the year,

By Hands unseen, are show’rs of violets found:
The red-breast loves to build and warble there,
And little footsteps lightly print the ground.’
Leslie Stephen says happily about Gray and his friends that ‘they
were feeling round vaguely for a new mode of literary and artistic
enjoyment.’ This feeling after something more satisfying to the whole
range of thought and emotion than was afforded by the critical
school of Pope had already given evidence of itself in several ways.
Thomson and Dyer, following each his particular bent, had found
inspiration for poetry in country life and landscape. Gray welcomed
the venture of both these poets. We know from his letters how
attentive was his own observation, and how he took long journeys in
search of the picturesque, especially in mountain scenery; but the
evidence of this in his poetry is only incidental, as in the reference to
‘Snowdon’s shaggy side.’ Another form taken by this dissatisfaction
was the revival of interest in the popular ballad literature. The
discovery by Thomas Percy of his famous folio started a new form of
poetry in which Goldsmith led the way. But though Gray had seen
Percy’s book as early as 1761, it came too late to influence his
production; and we may guess that his mind was too erudite to have
found expression in the simplicity of the ballad. Of far more interest
to him was Macpherson’s discovery of fragments of Highland poetry.
He describes himself as ‘extasié with their infinite beauty’; on which
the late Mr. Tovey, to whom a great debt is owed for his scholarly
edition of Gray’s letters, makes the dry comment that some of the
fragments were worked up from passages in ‘The Bard.’ We may be
glad that Macpherson’s discovery came, like Percy’s, too late to
influence Gray’s own poetry. His interest in the early literature of the
European nations has given us a few fragments from the Norse and
Welch. The remark of Leslie Stephen quoted above referred to the
interest that Gray and Walpole took in Gothic architecture. This
influenced Gray’s poetry only indirectly; but it had some effect in the
way it was presented to the public. When Walpole undertook to
convert his newly purchased house at Twickenham into a Gothick
castle, the artist he employed to help him in his designs was Richard
Bentley; and when Gray had sprung suddenly into fame by the
‘Elegy,’ Walpole urged him to publish his other poems with designs
by Bentley. Whether these deserve the poetical encomium Gray
made upon them, I will not presume to say; but they are undoubtedly
very ‘Gothick.’
It is as a poet that we celebrate Gray’s bicentenary, but those
persons who do not care for poetry may celebrate him as a man and
a letter-writer. As a man he is secure of our affection as soon as we
get to know him, and any one may know him who will read his
letters, of which there is a great store; and still more have come to
light lately, and have been well edited by Mr. Paget Toynbee. There
are few men of letters of so attractive a nature as Gray. Perhaps he
is the most lovable of all except Charles Lamb, and with Lamb,
despite many obvious differences, he has many points in common.
They were both solitary creatures living a recluse life, in the world
but not of it, their best companions among the dead; they were both
exquisite critics; they were both a prey to melancholy, or rather, as
Gray said, to ‘leukocholy’; white bile not black; they had both a
delicate and delightful humour; they were both the soul of gentle
goodness. And so it comes about that the letters of both, in which
they live to us, are among the few external goods which are
necessary to happiness. The charm of a letter of Gray’s lies partly in
this interest of his character, and partly in the perfect felicity with
which everything is said. There is nothing slovenly, or far-fetched, or
pompous, or makeshift; even in the shortest and apparently most
hasty note, his touch is perfectly sure and his taste faultless; if we
except some Hogarthian passages which smack of the age rather
than the individual. It might not seem probable beforehand that the
letters of a man whose days went ‘round and round like the blind
horse in the mill’—‘swinging from chapel or hall home and from
home to hall or chapel’—could have much to say that would be of
general interest. Occasionally, indeed, he goes a journey—the grand
tour with Walpole, or to the Highlands, or to see his friend Wharton at
Old Park, or to Stoke Poges to his relations, and then we get lively
enough descriptions. But these are episodes. The main topics of his
every-day correspondence are his melancholy or his indolence,
Mason’s poetry, Cambridge and Church news, the British Museum,
politics, criticism of current literature,—Rousseau, or Sterne, or
Dodsley’s poets,—his dab of musick and prints,’ gothick, hyacinths,
and the weather. Occasionally, only occasionally, he allows himself
to slip out a little town gossip, ‘as a decayed gentlewoman would a
piece of right mecklin or a little quantity of run tea, but this only now
and then, not to make a practice of it.’
THE REAL THING: ‘S. O. S.’
by william hope hodgson.
Copyright, 1917, by William Hope Hodgson, in the United States of America.
‘Big liner on fire in 55.43 N. and 32.19 W.,’ shouts the Captain,
diving into his chart-room. ‘Here we are! Give me the parallels!’
The First Officer and the Captain figure busily for a minute.
‘North, 15 West,’ says the Master; and ‘North, 15 West,’ assents
the First Officer, flinging down his pencil. ‘A hundred and seventeen
miles, dead in the wind!’
‘Come on!’ says the Captain; and the two of them dash out of the
chart-room into the roaring black night, and up on to the bridge.
‘North, 15 West!’ the Master shouts in the face of the burly
helmsman. ‘Over with her, smart!’
‘North, 15 West, Sir,’ shouts back the big quartermaster, and whirls
the spokes to starboard, with the steering-gear engine roaring.
The great vessel swings round against the night, with enormous
scends, smiting the faces of the great seas with her seventy-feet-
high bows.
Crash! A roar of water aboard, as a hundred phosphorescent tons
of sea-water hurls inboard out of the darkness, and rushes aft along
the lower decks, boiling and surging over the hatchways, capstans,
deck-fittings, and round the corners of the deck-houses.
The ship has hit the fifty-mile-an-hour gale full in the face, and the
engine telegraph stands at full speed. The Master has word with that
King of the Underworld, the Chief Engineer; and the Chief goes
below himself to take charge, just as the Master has taken charge on
deck.
There is fresh news from the Operator’s Room. The vessel
somewhere out in the night and the grim storm is the S.S.
Vanderfield, with sixty first-class passengers and seven hundred
steerage and she is alight forrard. The fire has got a strong hold, and
they have already lost three boats, smashed to pieces as they tried
to launch them, and every man, woman, and child in the boats
crushed to death or drowned.
‘Damn these old-fashioned davits!’ says the Master, as he reads
the wireless operator’s notes. ‘They won’t lift a boat out clear of the
ship’s side, if she’s rolling a bit. The boats in a ship are just
ornaments, if you’ve not got proper machinery for launching them.
We’ve got the new derricks, and we can lower a boat, so she strikes
the water, forty feet clear of the side, instead of bashing to pieces,
like a sixty-foot pendulum, against our side!’
He shouts a question over his shoulder, standing there by the
binnacle:
‘What’s she doing, Mister Andrews?’
‘Twenty and three-quarter knots, Sir,’ says the Second Officer, who
has been in charge. ‘But the Chief’s raising her revolutions every
minute.... She’s nearly on to the twenty-one now.’
‘And even if we lick that we’ll be over five hours reaching her,’
mutters the Master to himself.
Meanwhile the wireless is beating a message of hope across a
hundred miles of night and storm and wild waters.
‘Coming! The R.M.S. Cornucopia is proceeding at full speed in
your direction. Keep us informed how you are....’
Then follows a brief unofficial statement, a heart-to-heart word
between the young men operators of the two ships, across the
hundred-mile gulf of black seas:
‘Buck up, old man. We’ll do it yet! We’re simply piling into the
storm, like a giddy cliff. She’s doing close on twenty-one, they’ve just
told me, against this breeze; and the Chief’s down in the stokeholds
himself with a fourteen-inch wrench and a double watch of stokers!
Keep all your peckers up. I’ll let you know if we speed-up any more!’
The Operator has been brief and literal, and has rather under-
stated the facts. The Leviathan is now hurling all her fifty-thousand-
ton length through the great seas at something approaching a
twenty-two knot stride; and the speed is rising.
Down in the engine-room and stokeholds, the Chief, minus his
overalls, is a coatless demi-god, with life in one hand and a fourteen-
inch wrench in the other; not that this wrench is in any way
necessary, for the half-naked men stream willing sweat in a silence
broken only by the rasp of the big shovels and the clang of the
furnace-doors, and the Chief’s voice.
The Chief is young again; young and a King to-night, and the
rough days of his youth have surged back over him. He has picked
up the wrench unconsciously, and he walks about, twirling it in his
fist; and the stokers work the better for the homely sight of it, and the
sharp tang of his words, that miss no man of them all.
And the great ship feels the effect. Her giant tread has broken into
an everlasting thunder, as her shoulders hurl the seas to port and
starboard, in shattered hills of water, that surge to right and left in
half-mile drifts of phosphorescent foam, under the roll of her
Gargantuan flanks.
The first hour has passed, and there have been two fresh
messages from that vessel, flaming far off, lost and alone, out in the
wild roar of the waters. There has been an explosion forrard in the
burning ship, and the fire has come aft as far as the main bunkers.
There has been a panic attempt to lower two more of the boats, and
each has been smashed to flinders of wood against the side of the
burning ship, as she rolled. Every soul in them has been killed or
drowned, and the Operator in the burning ship asks a personal
question that has the first touch of real despair in it; and there
ensues another little heart-to-heart talk between the two young men:
‘Honest now, do you think you can do it?’
‘Sure,’ says the Operator in the Cornucopia. ‘We’re doing what
we’ve never done at sea before in heavy weather. We’re touching
within a knot of our “trials” speed—we’re doing twenty-four and a half
knots; and we’re doing it against this! Honour bright, old man! I’ll not
deceive you at a time like this. I never saw anything like what we’re
doing. All the engineers are in the engine-room, and all the officers
are on the boat-deck, overhauling the boats and gear. We’ve got
those new forty-foot boat derricks, and we can shove a boat into the
water with ’em, with the ship rolling half under. The Old Man’s on the
bridge; and I guess you’re just going to be saved all right.... You
ought to hear us! I tell you, man, she’s just welting the seas to a
pulp, and skating along to you on the top of them.’
The Operator is right. The great ship seems alive to-night, along
all her shapely eight hundred feet of marvellous, honest, beautiful
steel. Her enormous bows take the seas as on a horn, and hurl them
roaring into screaming drifts of foam. She is singing a song, fore and
aft, and the thunder of her grey steel flanks is stupendous, as she
spurns the mutilated seas and the gale and the bleak intolerable
miles into her wake.
The second and third hours pass, and part of the fourth, in an
intermittent thunder of speed. And the speed has been further
increased; for now the Leviathan is laying the miles astern, twenty-
nine in each hour; her sides drunken with black water and spume—a
dripping, league-conquering, fifty-thousand-ton shape of steel and
steam and brains, going like some stupendous Angel of Help across
the black Desolation of the night.
Incredibly far away, down on the black horizons of the night, there
shows a faint red glow. There is shouting along the bridge.
‘There she is!’ goes the word fore and aft. ‘There she is!’
Meanwhile the wireless messages pulse across the darkness: The
fire is burning with terrible fury. The fore-part of the Vanderfield’s iron
skin is actually glowing red-hot in places. Despair is seizing
everyone. Will the coming Cornucopia never, never come?
The young Operators talk, using informal words:
‘Look out to the South of you, for our searchlight,’ replies the man
in the wireless-room of the Cornucopia. ‘The Old Man’s going to play
it against the clouds, to let you see we’re coming. Tell ’em all to look
out for it. It’ll cheer them up. We’re walking along through the
smother like an express. Man! Man! we’re doing our “trials” speed,
twenty-five and a half knots, against this. Do you realise it—against
this! Look along to the South. Now!’
There is a hissing on the fore-bridge, quite unheard in the roar of

the storm; and then there shoots out across the miles of night and
broken seas the white fan-blaze of the searchlight. It beats like an
enormous baton against the black canopy of the monstrous storm-
clouds, beating to the huge, thundering melody of the roar and
onward hurl of the fifty-thousand-ton rescuer, tossing the billows to
right and left, as she strides through the miles.
And what a sight it is, in the glare of the great light, as it descends
and shows the huge seas! A great cliff of black water rears up, and
leaps forward at the ship’s bows. There is a thunderous impact, and
the ship has smitten the great sea in twain, and tossed it boiling and
roaring on to her iron flanks; and is treading it into the welter of foam
that surrounds her on every side—a raging testimony, of foam and
shattered seas, to the might of her mile-devouring stride.
Another, and another, and another black, moving cliff rises up out
of the water-valleys, which she strides across; and each is broken
and tossed mutilated from her shapely, mighty, unafraid shoulders.
A message is coming, very weak and faint, through the receiver:

‘We’ve picked up your searchlight, old man. It’s comforted us
mightily; but we can’t last much longer. The dynamo’s stopped. I’m
running on my batteries....’ It dwindles off into silence, broken by
fragments of a message, too weakly projected to be decipherable.
‘Look at her!’ the officers shout to one another on the bridge; for
the yell of the wind and the ship-thunder is too great for ordinary
speech to be heard. They are staring through their glasses. Under a
black canopy of bellied storm-clouds, shot with a dull red glowing,
there is tossed up on the backs of far-away seas, a far-off ship,
seeming incredibly minute, because of the distance; and from her
fore-part spouts a swaying tower of flame.
‘We’ll never do it in time!’ says the young Sixth Officer into the ear
of the Fifth.
The burning ship is now less than three miles away, and the black
backs of the great seas are splashed with huge, ever shifting
reflections.
Through the glasses it is possible now to see the details of the
tremendous hold the fire has got on the ship; and, away aft, the
huddled masses of the six hundred odd remaining passengers.
As they watch, one of the funnels disappears with an unheard
crash, and a great spout of flame and sparks shoot up.
‘It’ll go through her bottom!’ shouts the Second Officer; but they
know this does not happen, for she still floats.
Suddenly comes the thrilling cry of ‘Out derricks!’ and there is a

racing of feet and shouted orders. Then the great derricks swing out
from the ship’s side, a boat’s length above the boat-deck. They are
hinged, and supported down almost to the draught line of the ship.
They reach out forty feet clear of the ship’s side.
The Leviathan is bursting through the final miles of wild seas; and
then the telegraph bell rings, and she slows down, not more than ten
or twelve hundred yards to wind’ard of the burning hull, which rises
and falls, a stupendous spectacle on the waste of black seas.
The fifty-thousand-ton racer has performed her noble work, and
now the work lies with the boats and the men.
The searchlight flashes down on to the near water, and the boats
shoot out in the ‘travellers,’ then are dropped clear of the mighty
flanks of the Mother Ship.
The Leviathan lies to windward of them, to break the force of the
seas, and oil bags are put out.
The people in the burning ship greet the ship with mad cheers.
The women are hove bodily into the seas, on the ends of lines. They
float in their cork jackets. Men take children in their arms, and jump,
similarly equipped. And all are easily picked up by the boats, in the
blaze of the rescuer’s searchlights that brood on leagues of ocean,
strangely subdued by the floods of oil which the big ship is pumping
on to the seas. Everywhere lies the strange sheen of oil, here in a
sudden valley of brine, unseen, or there on the shoulder of some
monstrous wave, suddenly eased of its deadliness; or again, the
same fluorescence swirls over some half-league of eddy-flattened
ocean, resting between efforts—tossing minor oil-soothed ridges into
the tremendous lights.
Then the Leviathan steams to leeward of the burning ship, and
picks up her boats. She takes the rescued passengers aboard, and
returns to windward; then drops the boats again, and repeats the
previous operations, until every man, woman, and child is saved.
As the last boat swings up at the end of the great derricks aboard
the Cornucopia there is a final volcano of flame from the burning
ship, lighting up the black belly of the sky into billowing clouds of
redness. There falls the eternal blackness of the night.... The
Vanderfield has gone.
The Leviathan swings round through the night, with her six
hundred saved; and begins to sing again in her deep heart, laying
the miles and the storm astern once more, in a deep low thunder.
THE WAR IN PERSPECTIVE.
by dr. w. h. fitchett.
The present war is the biggest event in secular history—so big
indeed that its scale evades the imagination. Its cause cannot be
condensed into a formula or its story told in a volume. But every war,
sooner or later, finds literary expression; and the present gigantic
struggle needs, and will create, a new literature of its own, beside
which all the rest of secular literature will seem petty. A hundred
years hence professional soldiers will be spelling out its strategy;
toiling historians will be collating and recording its events;
philosophers will be analysing its causes, moralists in spectacles will
be assessing its spiritual elements. What a literature—strategic,
scientific, political, financial, geographical, legal, medical, personal—
it will be!
And when all such questions are dealt with there will yet remain
that aspect of the war which has nothing to do with strategy, or
politics, or finance. It deals with the purely human interests and
emotions of the struggle; its picturesqueness; its dramatic incidents;
the strophe and antistrophe of moral forces it reveals; its literary
aspects, in a word; things in it which would have arrested the
imagination of Shakespeare, and supplied the text for mightier
dramas than ‘Macbeth’ or ‘Hamlet’; incidents that Scott would have
woven into romance; follies which might have given Swift the text for
keener satire than even his ‘Tale of a Tub’; heroisms that a greater
Byron may set to more resounding music than even those famous
lines which tell of Waterloo. And, it may be added, it is possible
already to see in this amazing war some aspects which will do more
than merely challenge the literary imagination, the sense of the
wonderful.
To begin with what is nearest: the new scale of the war, the
strange temper, the terrific weapons with which it is being fought, will
certainly prove, for centuries to come, an irresistible challenge to the
literary imagination. When the first shot in this war was fired, the
whole familiar and accepted arithmetic of battle went suddenly to
wreck. It was a war, not of armies, but of nations. As a result we
have to think of the contending forces in terms of millions.
Australia, for example, supplies a proof of the enormously
expanded scale of this war. The standing army of Imperial Rome
consisted of 260,000 men. Australia is a community of only five
million people; war to it is a totally new experience. Yet it has raised,
equipped, and sent to a battlefield 12,000 miles distant an army
equal in number to the standing army of the Caesars, at the time the
Caesars were the masters of the civilised world. Great Britain affords
another example of the amazingly expanded realm of the war. She
hates standing armies, hates them so much that she will only pass
the Mutiny Act, which makes an army of any sort possible, for a year
at a time. The British formula is a big fleet and a little army. When
this war broke out the regular forces of Great Britain consisted of
only 186,000 men. When the war was not yet two years old, the
British fleet had taken a scale without precedent in history; in
addition Great Britain had raised an army which approached
5,000,000 and in which every man was a volunteer. If the average
Liberal member of Parliament had been told, say, three years ago,
that Great Britain, in addition to having a fleet in scale so
tremendous, would have a land force of 5,000,000, he probably
would have assaulted his interlocutor. But Great Britain, having
raised by voluntary effort those 5,000,000, has actually passed a
Conscription Bill for the remainder of its population.
The battles of to-day take such a scale, last so long, and are
fought under such strange conditions, that we have to invent new
names for them. They are neither ‘sieges’ nor ‘battles,’ but a
combination of both; and so we call them siege-battles. That ‘first
and last of fights, king-making Waterloo,’ when set against the
arithmetic of the present war, dwindles into a skirmish. The little
shallow valley outside Brussels, where Napoleon and Wellington
measured swords with each other, and one of the greatest soldiers in
history ended his career, is in area three miles by two, and lies open

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Physics of Data Science and Machine

Learning 1st Edition Rauf

The Statistical Physics of Data Assimilation and

Data Science, Analytics and Machine Learning with R 1st

Machine Learning and Data Science: Fundamentals and

Machine Learning for Data Science Handbook: Data Mining

Training Data for Machine Learning: Human Supervision

Machine Learning and Big Data Analytics (Proceedings of

Machine Learning Interviews: Kickstart Your Machine

Applications of Machine Learning and Deep Learning on

and by CRC Press

© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-76858-4 (hbk)

My beautiful wife, Najiba, and our four wonderful children,

Preface: Motivation and Rationale, xiii

Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction 1

Chapter 2 ◾ An Overview of Classical Mechanics 11

2.2.2 Degrees of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates 19

Chapter 3 ◾ An Overview of Quantum Mechanics 37

Chapter 4 ◾ Probabilistic Physics 65

Chapter 5 ◾ Design of Experiments and Analyses 89

Chapter 6 ◾ Basics of Machine Learning 125

6.4 BAYESIAN DECISION THEORY 139

Chapter 7 ◾ Prediction, Optimization, and New

Physicists first realized as early as the seventeenth century that material

statistical mechanics that form the basis of statistical design of experiments

Dr. Ijaz A. Rauf is a physicist, data scientist, and a

Dr. Rauf’s own research focuses on predictive analytics and machine

1.1 A PHYSICIST’S VIEW OF THE NATURAL

when quantum mechanics was advanced by Heisenberg and Schrodinger

1.2 DATA – TYPES OF DATA

FIGURE 1.1 Various classifications of data.

where it could be measured on an infinitely divisible scale provided we

1.2.1 Data to Information

TABLE 1.1 Data from a Semiconductor Chip Manufacturing Line

Accuracy, relevance, completeness, and availability are the key features

1.2.2 Information to Knowledge

1.2.3 Critical Differences between Information and Knowledge

1.3 DATA MINING FOR KNOWLEDGE

1.4 MACHINE LEARNING AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

developed for many decades in different scientific communities, such as

video games to more complex applications such as autonomous vehicles

1.5 SCOPE: WHAT THIS TEXT COVERS

described before introducing the central limit theorem that is followed by

1.5.1 What This Text Does Not Cover

T he physical science that studies the displacement of bodies under

Kinematics is primarily concerned with motion mechanics, but

2.1.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

2.1.2 Angular Momentum, Work, and Energy

The law of conservation of angular momentum dictates that if the torque

The most common examples of constant angular momentum are planets

particle from position 1 to position 2 is given by the force’s scalar product

where K2 and K1 are the particle’s kinetic energies at positions 1 and 2,

From Equations 2.5 and 2.6, we get K1 + U1 = K2 + U2, which describes

2.1.3 Multiple Interactions and Center of Mass

a0 = a01 + a02 +…+ a0 n (2.7)

2.4.1.2 Charged Particle in an Electrical Field