Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ebook Phytochemical Profiling of Commercially Important South African Plants 1St Edition Alvaro Viljoen Online PDF All Chapter
Ebook Phytochemical Profiling of Commercially Important South African Plants 1St Edition Alvaro Viljoen Online PDF All Chapter
Ebook Phytochemical Profiling of Commercially Important South African Plants 1St Edition Alvaro Viljoen Online PDF All Chapter
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-phytochemical-and-
pharmacological-aspects-of-ethnomedicinal-plants-1st-edition/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/edible-plants-in-health-and-
diseases-volume-ii-phytochemical-and-pharmacological-properties-
mubashir-hussain-masoodi/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/inclusive-organizational-
transformation-an-african-perspective-on-human-niches-and-
diversity-of-thought-1st-edition-dr-rica-viljoen/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/fundamentals-of-south-african-
income-tax-2022-10th-edition-riley-carpenter/
Silke South African Income Tax 2023 Madeleine Stiglingh
https://ebookmeta.com/product/silke-south-african-income-
tax-2023-madeleine-stiglingh/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/reflections-of-south-african-
student-leaders-1994-to-2017-thierry-m-luescher/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/race-talk-in-the-south-african-
media-1st-edition-gawie-botma/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/children-in-south-african-families-
lives-and-times-1st-edition-monde-makiwane/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/text-and-authority-in-the-south-
african-nazaretha-church-cabrita/
Phytochemical Profiling of
Commercially Important
South African Plants
Phytochemical Profiling of
Commercially Important
South African Plants
Alvaro Viljoen
Weiyang Chen
Nduvho Mulaudzi
Guy Kamatou
Maxleene Sandasi
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they
have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-823779-3
Acknowledgements xiii
Quality control of herbal medicinal products and the
South African perspective xv
v
vi Contents
Chemical profiling 31
HPTLC fingerprint analysis 31
Ultra-performance liquid chromatography analysis 32
References 36
Phytochemistry 216
Chemical profiling 218
HPTLC fingerprint analysis 218
Ultra-performance liquid chromatography analysis 220
Gas chromatography analysis 223
References 226
Index 257
Acknowledgements
xiii
This page intentionally left blank
Quality control of herbal medicinal
products and the South African
perspective
Phytomedicines are enriched plant extracts constituting a multitude of complex and benefi-
cially active ingredients that may work in synergy. Despite consumer perception that herbal
medicinal products (HMP) are inherently safe because they are derived from a natural
(botanical) source, they may also pose risks, as do synthetic xenobiotics. In many countries,
HMP are not strictly regulated, mainly because their historical use awards them some de-
gree of consumer confidence for safety and efficacy. Unsurprisingly, adverse effects have
been linked to the consumption of certain HMP, which may manifest through herb-induced
hepatitis, cardiovascular and hematologic disorders, neuro- and nephrotoxicity, carcinoge-
nicity and allergic reactions1. In light of the potential risks associated with non-standardised
HMP usage, the trading of phytomedicines as food supplements, often circumventing regu-
lations regarding quality, safety and efficacy (QSE), has become a global concern for health
personnel and regulatory authorities. As a consequence, the World Health Organisation
(WHO) drafted internationally recognised guidelines for the quality assessment of herbal
products2, where governments of different countries are encouraged to promote the use
of herbal medicines that have been scientifically validated for QSE.
Southern Africa is considered one of the richest centres of plant diversity in the world.
Its flora encompasses an estimated 24,300 plant taxa, of which approximately 4000 spe-
cies are used for medicinal purposes3,4. It is estimated that 80% of the African population
use indigenous medicines as a component of health care, compared to 60% of the global
population5,6. Furthermore, the use of HMP from Asian and European countries has been
increasing globally. This potentially translates to a high trade value of phytomedicines and
tremendous opportunities for the development of herbal products, however, the lack of
standardised quality control procedures has become a major hurdle in the global commer-
cialisation of HMP.
South Africa boasts a tremendous biodiversity, complemented by indigenous knowledge
on local plant use. Although approximately 1000 of the medicinal plant species in South
Africa are harvested from the wild and are actively traded at informal markets, only a frac-
tion of these enters the formal market. This is partly due to the lack of basic research, which
prevents the optimised commercialisation of HMP. Furthermore, the absence of standards
xv
xvi Quality control of herbal medicinal products and the South African perspective
and insufficient knowledge of the raw material, in relation to chemical variation and proper
biomarker identification, contributes to the void of South African-derived commercial prod-
ucts on international markets. Commercialisation of indigenous plants in the absence of
validated quality control protocols may result in disastrous consequences, thus the South
African government and regulatory agencies have taken great strides to ensure that the
use of HMP is regulated to some extent. In 2013, the South African Minister of Health
published amendments to the General Regulations made in terms of the Medicines and
Related Substances Control Act, 1965 (Act 101 of 1965) and established a Complementary
Medicines category. The new regulations require the registration and availability of com-
plementary medicines that take into account quality, safety and efficacy of their produc-
tion and sale as per guidelines of the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority
(SAHPRA). As of November 2013, all HMP, packaged as pharmaceutical dosage forms (tab-
lets, capsules etc.) or marketed as natural health products (NHP), are subject to regula-
tion. Over the past fifteen years, the Department of Health has demonstrated tremendous
commitment to, and recognition of, traditional medicine, by developing the National Drug
Policy, which includes a commitment to explore the potential role and benefits of African
Traditional Medicines in health care in South Africa. In the foreword to the National Drug
Policy of South Africa, it is stated that the main goal of the policy is to fully develop the po-
tential that drugs have to improve the national health status, within the available resources
of the country.
In response to this national call, a dedicated effort was made to establish quality con-
trol procedures for indigenous medicinal plants by the Phytomedicine Research Group in
the Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences at Tshwane University of Technology in South
Africa. Unlike allopathic medicines, establishing the quality of HMPs poses an enormous
challenge, due to the complexity of these biological systems. Various factors have been
described that make quality control a daunting task, among which is the inherent com-
positional differences within the botanical source. Compositional variations occur due to
factors, such as plant parts harvested, age of the plant, climate, soil type, geographical
location, and harvesting and storage methods7. Ecological factors, including herbivory, par-
asitism and microbial infections, also contribute to the variation in the metabolite compo-
sition. These variations may result in significant batch-to-batch differences in the active
constituents, which has already raised safety and efficacy concerns, hence standardisation
is strongly recommended. The provision of authentic raw material is of the utmost impor-
tance for quality, therefore, species identification should be carefully performed by experts
integrating morphological, anatomical, analytical and molecular tools8. The substitution of
the original botanical source with cheap, easy to manage alternatives, as well as misidentifi-
cation of raw materials due to hybridisation that introduces phenotypic variations, and the
use of the same common or vernacular name to describe two or more plant species, com-
promise the quality of HMP. Furthermore, adulteration and the contamination of HMP with
synthetic compounds, pesticides or heavy metals, negatively impact the quality of HMP.
Quality control of herbal medicinal products and the South African perspective xvii
Taking all these factors into consideration, protocols that ensure a more holistic approach
to the quality assessment of HMP are necessary. Documents such as monographs and
pharmacopoeias that have historically provided a reference or analytical procedures for
quality assessment of pharmaceutical products with much success, provide a framework
that can be adopted to the HMP industry. Correct identification of the botanical source
is the most important and initial step in quality control of HMP, to ensure supply of the
correct raw material or active constituents. The WHO recommends chemical analysis and
morphological characterisation as the best approach for plant identification, authentica-
tion, and detection of raw material contaminants8. Other quality control aspects include
analysis of the raw materials and quantitative determination of active or marker constit-
uents. Chemical markers play a crucial role in evaluating the quality of herbal medicines,
and their determination requires analytical methods that are accurate, precise, robust,
reproducible, and properly validated. More recently, the trend has been to use more than
one marker compound for evaluating the quality and authenticity of herbal medicines9. It is
therefore important to identify and determine several of the phytoconstituents in botanical
raw materials to ensure chemical consistency of the HMP.
presently available, HPTLC is popular because it is fast, cost-effective, relatively simple, and
enables high resolution of bands, therefore it is ideally suited for routine quality control13.
The semi-automated HPTLC CAMAG system used to obtain the profiles shown in this book,
consisted of an automated TLC Sampler 4 (ATS4) attached to a nitrogen line, an automated
developing chamber (ADC2), visualiser and documentation device (visualiser 2), a deriva-
tiser, as well as a TLC plate heater III. VisionCATS 2.5 software was used for data acquisition.
phase is generally an inert gas, such as helium. The mobile phase carries a mixture of vol-
atile constituents, which move along the length of the stationary phase (column), stored in
the GC oven. The interaction depends on the boiling points of the analytes, column size,
phase properties of the stationary phase and oven temperature. As the mixture separates
when heated, the compounds entering the MS are fragmented and ionised by bombard-
ment with electrons. This is achieved by passing a high energy beam of electrons through
the sample molecules to produce many ionised fragments of different mass-to-charge ra-
tios (m/z)16,17, which are separated in the mass analyser. Alternatively, the effluent from the
column passes to a second detector, such as a flame ionisation detector (FID), which de-
tects ions generated from pyrolised carbon atoms. A mass spectrum is a plot of the signal
intensity or abundance of each detected fragment ion as a function of its mass-to-charge
ratio. The mass spectrum of a compound is unique, thus it is considered a “fingerprint”
of the molecule that enables correct identification. A total ion chromatogram (TIC) is also
generated for each mixture, where the X-axis indicates the retention time of each sample
constituent and the Y-axis is the signal intensity. The GC system used for the analyses de-
scribed in this book was equipped with an HP-Innowax polyethylene glycol column of length
60 m, a 250 μm with an internal diameter, and a stationary phase film thickness of 0.25 μm.
Helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate, and spectra were obtained by
electron impact ionisation at 70 eV, scanning from m/z 35 to 550. ChemStation® software
was used for data acquisition and processing, while compound identification was done
using authentic standards and libraries that include NIST®, Mass Finder® and Flavor®18.
This book aims to provide fundamental and basic chromatographic data that can be used
for the quality assessment and standardisation of South African indigenous medicinal
plants. These quality control procedures for raw materials can be applied to existing and
future commercial HMP, in order to promote the QSE of their use, and so doing, contribute
to transforming South Africa’s botanical assets into well-researched HMP.
References
1. Tovar, R.T., Petzel, R.M., 2009. Dis. Mon., 55:592–641.
2. World Health Organisation (WHO), 2000. General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and
Evaluation of Traditional Medicine.
3. Mulholland, D.A., Drewes, S.E., 2004. Phytochemistry, 65:769–782.
4. Mulholland, D.A., 2005. J. Ethnopharmacol., 100:124–126.
5. Helwig D., 2005. African traditional medicines. Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia.
6. World Health Organization (WHO), 2008. Traditional Medicines.
7. Figueiredo, A.C., Barroso, J.G., Pedro, L.G., Scheffer, J.J.C., 2008. Flavour Fragr. J., 23:213–226.
8. Shinde, V.M., Dhalwal, K., Potdar, M., Mahadik, K.R., 2009. Int. J. Phytomedicine, 1:4–8.
9. Bagetta, G., Cosentino, M., Corasaniti, M.T., Sakurada, S., 2012. Herbal Medicines: Development and
Validation of Plant-Derived Medicines for Human Health. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
10. Bernard-Savary, P., Poole, C.F., 2015. J. Chromatogr. A, 14:184–202.
xx Quality control of herbal medicinal products and the South African perspective
11. Poole C.F., 2013. Thin-layer chromatography. Principles. In: Worsfold, P., Townshend, A., Poole, C., Miro,
M. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Analytical Sciences, Third Ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
12. Cheng, S.C., Huang, M.Z., Shiea, J., 2011. J. Chromatogr. A, 1218:2700–2711.
13. Bayona, L.M., Verpoorte, R., Klinkhamer, P.G.L., 2019. Thin-layer chromatography. Metabolomics. In:
Worsfold, P., Townshend, A., Poole, C., Miro, M. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Analytical Sciences, Third Ed.
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
14. Drasar, P., Moravcova, J., 2004. J. Chromatogr. B Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci., 812:3–21.
15. Arpino, P., 1992. Mass Spectrom. Rev., 11:3–40.
16. Scott, R.P.W., 2003. Principles and Practice of Chromatography. Library for Science, Sussex.
17. Sneddon, J., Masuram, S., Richert, J.C., 2007. Anal. Lett., 40:1003–1012
18. Kamatou, G.P.P., Viljoen, A.M., Özek, T., Baser, K.H.C., 2010. S. Afr. J. Bot., 76:652–654.
1
Adansonia digitata
Abstract
Adansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae), commonly known as ‘baobab’, is a large tree used in Africa for
its medicinal and nutritional value. In many African countries, different plant parts are used to treat
malaria, diarrhoea, fever, inflammation, kidney and bladder diseases. Baobab is a rich source of
vitamin C, yielding levels of ascorbic acid rivalling many commercial fruits. Various in vitro and in vivo
biological activities of various parts of the plant have been investigated, and results showed promising
anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiviral properties. Here, we propose a quality control protocol for
A. digitata based on chromatographic profiling of the non-volatile fraction from the fruit pulp and seed
oil constituents. Using a semi-automated high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) system,
ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and photodiode array detec-
tion (UPLC-MS-PDA), and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and a flame ionisation
detection (GC-MS-FID), the chemical profiles of six specimens of A. digitata were established. The fruit
pulp was obtained commercially and extracted with methanol. The seed oils (commercial samples) were
obtained by the cold pressing method and the fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) obtained by esterification.
The non-volatile fractions were analysed using HPTLC and UPLC-MS-PDA, while the FAMEs were profiled
using HPTLC and GC-MS-FID. Various compounds, including procyanidin dimer I, epicatechin, procyan-
idin dimer II, kaempferol glycoside I and kaempferol glycoside II, were identified in the fruit pulp using
UPLC-MS-PDA, while HPTLC confirmed the presence of ascorbic acid, catechin and epicatechin in the fruit
pulp. Analysis of the seed oil by GC-MS revealed the presence of four major FAMEs, namely palmitic acid,
stearic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid methyl esters.
Botanical names: Adansonia digitata L., Adansonia situla (Lour.) Spreng, Adansonia baobab
Gaertn., Adansonia integrifoila Raf., Adansonia scutula Steud., Adansonia somalensis Chiov.,
Adansonia sphaerocarpa A.Chev., Adansonia sulcate A.Chev., Baobab digitata (L.) Kuntze,
Ophelus sitularius Lour1,2.
Family: Malvaceae1,2.
Common name(s): Baobab, cream of tartar tree, monkey-bread tree, tartaric acid tree,
lemonade tree, ‘kremetartboom’, ‘kremetatboom’, ‘krimetatboom’, ‘isimuku’, ‘umshimulu’,
‘isimuhu’, ‘ximuwu’, ‘mowana’, ‘muvhuyu’1,3.
Botanical description and distribution: A large tree that grows up to 20 m in height, with
a trunk circumference of more than 20 m. The bark is smooth, yellowish grey in colour
and randomly folded. The tree has thick branches that bear hand-like, glossy-green leaves
with 5–7 leaflets. The flowers are large, white in colour with a sweet scent. The large, egg-
shaped fruit is covered with yellowish-brown hairs giving it a velvety feel. The seeds are
kidney-shaped, black and covered with a dry, whitish-cream powder. The tree is distributed
in many African countries including Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, South Africa, Mali,
Benin, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania4–6.
Phytochemistry
Essential oil: Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, 8-dimethyl-2-(1-methylethenyl), tetracosan,
heptacosane, tetratetracontane, octadecane, cyclopentane, 1-octadecanesulphonyl chlo-
ride, heptadecane, eicosane and tetracosan.
Seed oil: Palmitic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, stearic and arachidic acids, β-sitosterol, campes-
terol, stigmasterol, isofucosterol and tocopherol (Fig. 1).
Chapter 1 • Adansonia digitata 3
Fruit: Citric, tartaric, malic, succinic and ascorbic acids, isopropyl myristate, nonanal,
(−)-epicatechin, epicatechin-(4β → 8)-epicatechin, epicatechin-(4β → 6)-epicatechin and
epicatechin-(2β → O → 7, 4β → 8)-epicatechin (Fig. 1).
Root: 3,7-dihydroxy-flavan-4-one-5-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl (1 → 4)-β-d-glucapyroside, 3,3′,4′-
trihydroxy flavan-4-one-7-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside and quercetin-7-O-β-d-xylopyranoside28,37–41.
H H
H H
H H H H
HO HO
Stigmasterol Campesterol
OH OH
HO O HO O
OH OH
OH OH
OH O OH
Quercetin (-)-Epicatechin
OH
OH
HO O
OH
OH OH
OH
HO O
HO OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
HO O HO
OH
OH OH
OH
Epicatechin-(4β→8)-epicatechin (Procyanidin B2) Epicatechin-(4β→6)-epicatechin (Procyanidin B5)
Chemical profiling
HPTLC fingerprint analysis
FIG. 3 Methanol extracts viewed under 254 nm radiation after development and under white light after derivatisation
6 Phytochemical Profiling of Commercially Important South African Plants
2 BPI
289.0625
1 4
577.1257
593.1213
3
577.1238 5
593.1213
0 5 10 15
PDA
2
278.9
1
278.9
3 4 5
278.9
313.9
313.9
0 5 10 15
FIG. 4 UPLC-MS (base peak intensity (BPI)) and UPLC-PDA chromatograms of Adansonia digitata extract
8 Phytochemical Profiling of Commercially Important South African Plants
FIG. 5, CONT’D
Table 4 List of major fatty acid methyl esters of Adansonia digitata oil determined using
GC-MS
74 74
100 100
80 80 87
87
60 60
Intensity
Intensity
40 40
43
43 55 143
55 143
20 227 20 255
199 298
270
97 129 239 97 129
111 267
115
m/z
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 m/z 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
100 74
100 67
81
80 87
80
95
Intensity
60 55
Intensity
60
41
40 40
109
43
55 143
20 20
255
199 298
97 129 263 294
111 267
m/z m/z
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
FIG. 7 MS spectra of major fatty acid methyl esters identified using GC-MS
References
1. Red List of South African Plants (redlist.sanbi.org).
2. The Plant List (theplantlist.org).
3. PlantzAfrica (pza.sanbi.org).
4. Watt, J., Breyer-Brandwijk, M., 1962. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern
Africa. Second Ed. Livingstone, London, United Kingdom.
5. Lamien-Meda, A., Lamien, C.E., Compaoré, M.M.Y., Meda, R.N.T., Kiendrebeogo, M., Zeba, B., Millogo, J.F.,
Nacoulma, O.G., 2008. Molecules, 13:581–594.
6. Van Wyk, B.-E., Van Oudtshoorn, B., Gericke, N., 1997. Medicinal Plants of South Africa. Briza Publications,
Pretoria, South Africa.
7. Van Wyk, B.-E., Gericke, N., 2000. People's Plants: A Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa. Briza
Publications, Pretoria, South Africa.
8. Kamatou, G.P.P., Vermaak, I., Viljoen, A.M., 2011. S. Afr. J. Bot., 77:908–919.
9. Wickens, G.E., 1982. The baobab, Africa's upside-down tree. Kew Bull., 37:171–202.
10. Sidibe, M., Williams, J.T., 2002. Baobab – Adansonia digitata. Fruits for the Future 4. International Centre
for Underutilised Crops, Southampton, United Kingdom.
11. Wickens, G.E., Lowe, P., 2008. The Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia. Springer,
United Kingdom.
Chapter 1 • Adansonia digitata 13
12. Semenya, S.S., Maroyi, A., 2018. J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual., 91:287–295.
13. Segun, P.A., Ogbole, O.O., Ajaiyeoba, E.O., 2018. J. Herb. Med., 14:68–75.
14. Zimba, N., Wren, S., Stucki, A., 2005. Int. J. Aromather., 15:177–182.
15. Nkafamiya, I., Osemeahon, S., Dahiru, D., Umaru, H., 2007. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 6:756–759.
16. Chindo, I.Y., Gushit, J.S., Olotu, P.N., Mugana, J., Takbal, D.N., 2010. J. Am. Sci., 6:990–994.
17. Kubmarawa, D., Ajoku, G.A., Enwerem, N.M., Okorie, D.A., 2007. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 6:1690–1696.
18. Masola, S.N., Mosha, R.D., Wambura, P.N., 2009. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 8:5076–5083.
19. Tshikalange, T.E., Modishane, D.C., Tabit, F.T., 2017. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants, 23:68–76.
20. Atawodi, S.E., 2005. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 4:177–182.
21. Braca, A., Sinisgalli, C., De Leo, M., Muscatello, B., Cioni, P.L., Milella, L., Ostuni, A., Giani, S., Sanogo, R.,
2018. Molecules, 23 (12):3104.
22. Vimalanathan, S., Hudson, J.B., 2009. J. Med. Plants Res., 3:576–582.
23. Mulaudzi, R.B., Ndhlala, A.R., Kulkarni, M.G., Finnie, J.F., Staden, J.V., 2013. J. Ethnopharmacol.,
146:173–179.
24. Zahid, A., Despres, J., Benard, M., Nguema-Ona, E., Leprince, J., Vaudry, D., Rihouey, C., Vicré-Gibouin, M.,
Driouich, A., Follet-Gueye, M.-L., 2017. J. Cell. Physiol., 232:2558–2568.
25. Musila, M.F., Dossaji, S.F., Nguta, J.M., Lukhoba, C.W., Munyao, J.M., 2013. J. Ethnopharmacol.,
146:557–561.
26. Ramadan, A., Harraz, F.M., El-Mougy, S.A., 1994. Fitoter., LXV:418–422.
27. Owoyele, B.V., Bakare, A.O., 2018. Biomed. Pharmacother., 97:209–212.
28. Andrianaivo-Rafehivola, A.A., Blond, J.P., Cao, J., Gaydou, E.E., Bezard, J., 1993. J. Nutr. Biochem., 4:92–96.
29. Sharma, A., Rangari, V., 2016. Trop. J. Pharm. Res., 15:1923–1927.
30. Garvey, R., Clegg, M., Coe, S., 2017. Nutr. Health, 23:83–86.
31. Chika, C., Ifeyinwa, N., Azubuike, U., David, O., 2019. Asian Pac. J. Reprod., 8:75–82.
32. Tal-Dia, A., Toure, K., Sarr, O., Sarr, M., Cisse, M.F., Garnier, P., Wone, I., 1997. Dakar Méd., 42:68–73.
33. Karumi, Y., Augustine, A.I., Umar, I.A., 2008. J. Biol. Sci., 8:225–228.
34. Komane, B.M., Vermaak, I., Kamatou, G.P.P., Summers, B., Viljoen, A.M., 2017. Braz. J. Pharmacogn.,
27:1–8.
35. FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2009. Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000273.
36. Kayode, T.O., Odukoya, A.M., Adagunodo, T.A., Adeniji, A.A., 2018. Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci.,
173:012026.
37. Osman, M.A., 2004. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 59:29–33.
38. Cisse, M., Sakho, M., Dornier, M., Mar Diop, C., Reynes, M., Sock, O., 2009. Fruits, 64:19–34.
39. Shahat, A.A., 2006. Pharm. Biol., 44: 445–450.
40. Soloviev, P., Niang, T.D., Gaye, A., Totte, A., 2004. Fruits, 59:109–119.
41. Chauhan, J.S., Cahturvedi, R., Kumar, S., 1984. Planta Med., 50:113.
2
Agathosma betulina
Abstract
Agathosma betulina (P.J.Bergius) Pillans (Rutaceae), commonly known as ‘buchu’, is an evergreen, aromatic
shrub that is naturally distributed in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The plant has an extensive
history of traditional use by indigenous South African cultures, where leaf infusions and tinctures are used
medicinally for the treatment of stomach ailments, skin disorders, respiratory complaints and urinary tract
infections. The essential oil of ‘buchu’ contains minor sulphur-containing compounds that contribute to its
unique organoleptic properties, making it desirable for imparting blackcurrant notes used in the flavour
and fragrance industries. Agathosma betulina has been extensively studied both in vitro and in vivo for po-
tential antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties, among others. Herein, we document
a quality control protocol for A. betulina based on the chromatographic profiling of the non-volatile and
volatile fractions. Using a semi-automated high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) system,
ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and photodiode array detection
(UPLC-MS-PDA), and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and flame ionisation detection
(GC-MS-FID), the chemical profiles of six specimens of A. betulina were obtained. The aerial parts were har-
vested and divided into two portions; then methanol extraction of the first portion was performed to obtain
the non-volatile fraction, and hydrodistillation of the second portion to yield the essential oil (volatile frac-
tion). The non-volatile fractions were analysed using HPTLC and UPLC-MS-PDA, while the essential oils were
profiled on HPTLC and GC-MS-FID. The crude methanol extracts, viewed under 366 nm radiation following
derivatisation, revealed the presence of hesperidin, rutin and diosmin in all the samples, using HPTLC. The
presence of these marker compounds in A. betulina was confirmed by UPLC-MS-PDA, where peaks for rutin,
diosmin and hesperidin were identified on the chromatograms. The HPTLC plate of the essential oils viewed
under 254 nm and white reflectance light following derivatisation, revealed the presence of diosphenol,
which is the distinctive constituent in A. betulina essential oil. A typical A. betulina essential oil fingerprint
characterised by high levels of diosphenol, pseudo-diosphenol, limonene, 1,8-cineole, menthone, isomen-
thone and trans-8-mercapto-p-menthan-3-one was obtained using GC-MS-FID.
Botanical names: Agathosma betulina (P.J.Bergius) Pillans, Barosma betulina Bartl. &
H.L.Wendl., Bucco betulina Roem. & Schult., Diosma betulina Thunb., Diosma crenata Lodd.,
Hartogia betulina P.J.Bergius1.
Family: Rutaceae.
Common name(s): Buchu, round-leaf buchu, oval-leaf buchu, short-leaf buchu, ‘ibuchu’,
‘boegoe’ or ‘rondblaarboegoe’, ‘bergboegoe’1.
Botanical description and distribution: Evergreen, resprouting, fragrant shrub that
grows up to 2 m in height. The pale green and glossy leaves are small, round and broad,
with finely toothed margins and a strong rounded apex that curves backwards. The leaves
are dotted with numerous pellucid glands. The open, star-shaped flowers are solitary, five
petalled and their colour varies from white, pink to pale purple2. The plant grows in dry
conditions in the mountainous areas of the Western Cape Province of South Africa.
Phytochemistry
Marker compounds identified in the essential oil: Diosphenol, isomenthone, limonene,
1,8-cineole, menthone, pulegone, pseudo-diosphenol, trans-8-mercapto-p-menthan-3-
one, 8-acetylthio-p-menthan-3-one, 8-methylthio-p-menthan-3-one, cis-8-mercapto-p-
menthan-3-one (Fig. 1)19,23–28.
Non-volatile marker compounds: Rutin, diosmin and hesperidin (Fig. 1)29,30.
Chapter 2 • Agathosma betulina 17
Hesperidin Rutin
Diosmin
Chemical profiling
HPTLC fingerprint analysis
Volatiles Non-volatiles
Plant parts Aerial parts Aerial parts
Sample type Essential oil Extract
6 different samples 6 different samples
Extraction Hydrodistillation Methanol extraction
Clevenger apparatus, 3 h 1 g of plant material extracted
with 10 mL of methanol,
sonicated for 10 min and
filtered
Instrumentation CAMAG HPTLC apparatus consisting of an automatic TLC sampler
(ATS 4), automatic developing chamber (ADC 2), documentation
device (TLC visualiser 2), TLC automated derivatiser and TLC plate
heater
HPTLC plates Silica gel glass plates 60 F254 (Merck)
Standards 1 mg of diosphenol diluted in 1 mL Hesperidin, rutin and diosmin
of methanol (1 mg each) diluted in 1 mL of
methanol
Sample 25 μL essential oil diluted in 1 mL 100 mg/mL extract
application of toluene 2 μL methanol extract and
2 μL of the diluted oil and standard standards spotted as 10 mm
spotted as 10 mm bands bands
Plate Plates developed in a 20 × 10 × 4 cm glass twin-trough chamber to
development a migration distance of 70 mm. Tank saturation: 20 min at 15 °C and
33% RH, with 25 mL of mobile phase
Mobile phase Dichloromethane (100%) Ethyl acetate:water:formic acid
(12:1:1 v/v/v)
Derivatisation Anisaldehyde reagent (85 mL Natural product reagent
methanol + 10 mL acetic acid (NP) (1 g 2-aminoethyl
+ 5 mL sulphuric acid + 0.5 mL diphenylborinate + 100 mL
anisaldehyde) methanol) and polyethylene
The plate is sprayed with 3 mL of glycol (PEG) (5 g polyethylene
anisaldehyde reagent, followed glycol + 100 mL 96% ethanol)
by heating the plate for 3 min at The plate is heated for 3 min at
100 °C and then visualised 100 °C and sprayed with 3 mL
of NP + PEG (1:1 v/v)
Continued
Chapter 2 • Agathosma betulina 19
Volatiles Non-volatiles
Visualisation The plate is viewed under white The plate is viewed under
reflectance and 254 nm radiation 366 nm radiation
Description of Essential oil samples (tracks 1–3, Crude extracts (tracks 1–3,
plate 5–7) and diosphenol standard at Rf 7–9) and hesperidin (Rf = 0.17),
0.48 (track 4) (Fig. 2) rutin (Rf = 0.12) and diosmin
(Rf = 0.13) standards (tracks
4–6) (Fig. 3)
FIG. 2 Essential oils viewed under 254 nm radiation after development and white light after derivatisation
20 Phytochemical Profiling of Commercially Important South African Plants
Table 2 List of selected marker compounds for Agathosma betulina determined by HPTLC
BPI
611.1978
1
609.1814
611.1635
2
0 2 4 6 8
1 PDA
3
254.9
283.9
2
345.9
0 2 4 6 8
FIG. 4 UPLC-MS (base peak intensity (BPI)) and UPLC-PDA chromatograms of Agathosma betulina extract
Retention Maximum
time (min) [M+H]+ wavelength (PDA) Compound name
3.76 611.1635 254.9, 352.9 Rutin
4.84 609.1814 251.9, 345.9 Diosmin
4.94 611.1974 226.9, 283.9 Hesperidin
Chapter 2 • Agathosma betulina 23
Limonene 1,8-Cineole
100 68 93 100 93
80 80
43 81
60 60 108
Intensity
Intensity
79 154
71
139
40 40
121
107 136 55
39 77
20 53 20
59 121
125
115
m/z m/z
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Menthone/Isomenthone Diosphenol
112 126
100 100
80 80
60 60
Intensity
69 Intensity
139 168
40 40
41 55 108
97 154 153
41
20 83 20 55 69 80 97
93
m/z m/z
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Pseudo-diosphenol trans-8-Mercapto-p-menthan-3-one
125 100 69
100
112
80 168 80
60 60
Intensity
Intensity
41
75
40 40 81
153
55 153
43 55 97 186
20 69 83 97 107 20 93
112 59 123
91 135
47 101 143 171
m/z m/z
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
References
1. Red List of South African Plants (redlist.sanbi.org).
2. Spreeth, A.D., 1976. J. S. Afr. Bot., 42:109–119.
3. Pappe, C.W.L., 1868. Florae Capensis Medicae Prodromus. Third Ed. with corrections and numerous
additions. W. Britain, Cape Town, South Africa.
4. Simpson, D., 1998. Scot. Med. J., 43:189–191.
5. Swerdlow, J.L., 2000. Nature’s Medicine: Plants that Heal. National Geographic Society, Washington D.C.,
United States of America.
Chapter 2 • Agathosma betulina 27
6. Van Wyk, B.-E., Van Oudtshoorn, B., Gericke, N., 1997. Medicinal Plants of South Africa. Briza Publications,
Pretoria, South Africa.
7. Van Wyk, B.-E., Wink, M., 2004. Medicinal Plants of the World. Briza Publications, Pretoria, South Africa.
8. Watt, J., Breyer-Brandwijk, M., 1962. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern
Africa. Second Ed. Livingstone, London, United Kingdom.
9. Famewo, E.B., Clarke, A.M., Wiid, I., Ngwane, A., Van Helden, P., Afolayan, A.J., 2017. Afr. Health Sc.,
17:780–789.
10. Geetha, R.V., Roy, A., Lakshmi, T., 2012. I. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 14:94–97.
11. Hübsch, Z., Van Zyl, R.L., Cock, I.E., Van Vuuren, S.F., 2014. S. Afr. J. Bot., 93:185–197.
12. Latté, K.P., 2010. Phytother., 31:164–170.
13. Lis-Balchin, M., Hart, S., Simpson, E., 2001. J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 53:579–582.
14. Moolla, A., 2005. A Phytochemical and Pharmacological Investigation of Indigenous Agathosma Species.
MSc Dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
15. Moolla, A., Van Vuuren, S.F., Van Zyl, R.L., Viljoen, A.M., 2007. S. Afr. J. Bot., 73:588–592.
16. Sandasi, M., 2008. The Effect of Plant Extracts on Microbial Biofilm Formation and Development. MTech
Dissertation, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
17. Steenkamp, V., Gouws, M.C., Gulumian, M., Elgorashi, E.E., Van Staden, J., 2006. J. Ethnopharmacol.,
103:71–75.
18. Vermaak, I., Viljoen, A.M., Hamman, J.H., Van Vuuren, S.F., 2009. S. Afr. J. Bot., 75:594–599.
19. Viljoen, A.M., Moolla, A., Van Vuuren, S.F., Van Zyl, R.L., Başer, K.H.C., Demirci, B., Özek, T., 2006. J. Essent.
Oil Res., 18:2–16.
20. Viljoen, A.M., Vermaak, I., Hamman, J., Huang, M., Van Vuuren, S., Du Plessis, J., 2007. S. Afr. J. Bot.,
73:319–320.
21. Chiguvare, H., Oyedeji, O.O., Matewu, R., Aremu, O., Oyemitan, I.A., Oyedeji, A.O., Nkeh-Chungag, B.N.,
Songca, S.P., Mohan, S., Oluwafemi, O.S., 2016. Molecules, 21:774.
22. Lambert, M.I., Burgess, T., Noakes, T.D., 2002. The Efficacy of Buchu (Agathosma betulina) in Treating
Symptoms of Pain and Swelling from Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage. Available at https://www.
buchulife.com/sites/default/files/Research.
23. Fluck, A.A.J., Mitchell, W.M., Perry, H.M., 1961. J. Sci. Food Agric., 12:290–292.
24. Lamparsky, D., Schudel, P., 1971. Tetrahedron Lett., 36:3323–3326.
25. Kaiser, R., Lamparsky, D., Schudel, P., 1975. J. Agric. Food Chem., 23:943–950.
26. Collins, N.F., Graven, E.H., Van Beek, T.A., Lelyveld, G.P., 1996. J. Essent. Oil. Res., 8:229–235.
27. Posthumus, M.A., Van Beek, T.A., Collins, N.F., Graven, E.H., 1996. J. Essent. Oil Res., 8:223–228.
28. Van Wyk, B.-E., 2011. S. Afr. J. Bot., 77:812–829.
29. British Herbal Medicine Association, 1996. Buchu. In: British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. Biddles Ltd, King’s
Lynn. pp. 46–47.
30. British Pharmaceutical Codex, 1963. Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, Lund Humphries, London,
United Kingdom.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
— Ja köyhille antaa aina ilmaiseksi milloin mitäkin.
20.
— Nyt annetaan Aapolle maata mistä halutaan, eikä ole nyt sinulla
tilaisuutta valittamaan.
*****
Pulskapa oli piika siinä, mietti Hentu. Voi pakana kun oli punakka
ja muhkealanteinen. Tuommoinen melkein oli Leenakin ollut tyttönä
ollessaan, mutta nyt oli jo alkanut hieman rapistua, vaikk'ei vielä
vanhuus haitannut. Ei se enää kaikistellen jaksanut mieltä puoleensa
vetää.
21.
Aatami oli aikonutkin käskeä Ottoa pois mökistä, mutta se oli vielä
jäänyt tekemättä. Otto ei jaksanut tehdä riittävästi työtä talossa ja oli
saanut jäädä omiin hoteisiinsa. Jotenkuten sattui Otto pääsemään
valtion työhön, ja niin mentiin salomökissä viikosta viikkoon
eteenpäin.
Nyt oli Aatami päättänyt käskeä Ottoa muuttamaan pois mökistä.
Talossa ei ollut enää verotyöläisiä, ja se muutos tuntui yhtäkkiä
ikävältä. Miehiä tarvittiin talon töissä, ja nyt olisi tarjolla taas yksi
perheellinen mies, kun saisi hänelle vain asunnon.
22.
— Hyvää jouluiltaa!
Tyttö nauroi.
Painostava mieli hävisi pirtistä. Äiti kiirehti kahvia, tyttö esteli, hän
muka vain hieman lämmittelee ja sitten lähtee kotiin, pistäytyi vain
katsomaan, oliko kuusi laitettu.
Äidin ja Aapon olisi pitänyt tietää, ettei tyttö olisi lähtenyt niin vain,
ennenkuin olisi lepytellyt pojan, jonka oli luullut itselleen
vihoittelevan.
*****
— Toki minä suostun, kun vain jäät. Mutta sukkasi ja kenkäsi minä
riisun, kun ovat varmaankin kastuneet. Saanko?
— Älä nyt!
23.
Mutta se oli maattoman tuomio. Kun asui toisen maalla, oli niinkuin
lehti tuulessa.
Siihen jäi navettakin, pieni ja matala. Lehmä oli pitänyt antaa pois,
kun ei siellä kämpällä suvaittu, eikä ollut pitopaikkojakaan.
Eläkelehmäpä se vain oli, kun oma oli tullut syödyksi sota-aikana.