District Administration

District is a Geographical territory unit having a special purpose on

administration .It is a special unit of Administration .Even in
Manusmriti, District is mentioned comprising of 1000 villages .In
Mauryan period the administration was ran through provinces &
district ,districts were headed by Rajukas,Guptas-Districts -> Were
Headed by -Vishwapati.
Mughal-. Provinces -. Subedar, District -> Faujdaar
When EIC got Divani, It appointed revenue collectors for
Districts .IN 1872 Hastings termed them as Collectors.
During British Era 2 Types of Systems emerged of district
administration
Cornwallis System: Prevalent in Eastern Part of India, based on western
Nation of Separation of Power,
Magistrates-
 Judiciary ,Administrative
Executive District Head was exercising executive Power minus
judicial powers.

Munro System: Influential by Mughal Approach, i.e. high centralization

of powers. All powers with district head (including judicial
power) .Munro System prevailed in entire country as it benefitted
British more.
 District Administration & Administration at the District
 Admin at the District consists larger category of units .When we
refer administration at district, it cover larger categories of
administrative units, it covers variety of administrative units that
are in district co-operate at level of district .
 E.g. A district level there are no of central govt as well as state
Govt officers as well as international offices (World Bank,UNESCO)
.Foreign Govt ,Offices ,NGO Offices ,Pvt Sector Offices ,District
/Zila Parishad ,Offices ,Collector office .
 Most Important unit of all this administrative units is District
Administration
District Administration (District 731(2019), District 640(2011)
Most dynamic & Complex set of administration system
structurally.
Structure of District Administration across the country is not
similar.
District Admin varies within the state structurally
Structure of District Administration
PTO
Only representative structure, will not replicate only single administer
there is variation across country.

Revenue Part of District - District Officer /Collector /Magistrate

Headed by SDM Sub Division Revenue Division

SDO/DC/Deputy (For Purpose of Revenue) (Southern States)
Collectors
State -> Revenue Division -> Districts -> Sub Division
(Sub Division Headed by Tehsildars)-> Tehsils (Revenue Official)->
Mahalism South Taluka

Parganas (Circle) (West) Firka (South)

Headed By KanunGO (Revenue Inspector) -. Lekhpal /Chaukidaar ->
Village (Smallest Revenue Unit)

District is headed by District Officer /Collector/DM/Deputy

Commissioner -
On A/c of Revenue the entire district is divided into many sub-
divisions, which are headed by sub-DM .Sub District Officers /DC
Sub Division are divided into various Tehsils headed by Tehsildars.
Every Tehsil is further divided into Parganas headed by an officer
referred as Kanungo” .Revenue Inspector /Circle Revenue
Inspector ,Parganas/in term of revenue and district into villages
headed by Lekhpal /Chaukidaar .

Law & Order (Headed By SP)

State-> Zones -> Ranges-> District

Sub -Divisions (Headed by SDPO [Rank of DSP])

Police Circles (Headed By Circle Inspector)
Police Station (Headed by SHO [Rank of Inspector]
Police Chowkis (Headed by Constables)
Under Law & Order the entire district is considered from a policing
point of view .A district is divided in to no of sub-divisions police area,
headed by SDPO (Sub-Divisional Police Officer) .Co-Officer of The Rank
of DSP, SDM not only have revenue responsibility .SDPO is divided into
police circles and a single police circle is divided into police stations
/Thanas, headed by SHO,Police Station is sub divided into Police
Chowkis / Police Beats headed by Constables .

Development Administration
District (DO) -> Blocks (Headed By Block Dev Officer [BPO]-> Villages

District is considered to be one administrative unit for the purpose of

development administrator, it’s divided into blocks, headed by Block
Development Officer (BDO), and Blocks are further divided into villages.
Panchayati Raj Institutions are meant for development purpose.

Evolution of District Administration

It can be divided into 4 Stages:

1) During East India Company (Predatory Mercantile Era (1765-1857)
2) British India Era (Rent Seeking Era)
i) Ist Phase -(1857-1902)
(Era of Bureaucratic Triumphalism)
ii) 1902-1947
(Era of Political Turbulence)
3) Era of Welfare State (1947-1991)
4) Era of Neo-Liberalism & Participation
During East India Company
District Adm during EIC started with the purpose of revenue
administration collection, but because nature of this activity certain
other divisions came up such as helping Land records, Judicial
Functions, Policing (Cohesive action) .It did not have any development
functions, most of the cohesive functions were taken up by the district
Administration.

British India Era

2)
I) During British era, District Ad - Acquired its modern
structure .District Ad was systemized, the bureaucracy was
institutionalized through no of laws & order but these functions
increased many fold.
District Ad did not have many developmental activities (Roads,
Colleges, Schools, and Officials etc)
British did not have development responsibility but still
development activities were taken out.
 Line Item Budgeting was followed
 A bulk of Money was given for expenditure.
 Since they were following line item budgeting system it enabled
Administration to take developmental activities of their choice.
 Developmental activities were result of peer pressure & per
competition
 Being supervisors they had spare time, has also (District
Officers) .Contributed towards these activities welfare orientation
of officers (rare).
III) Era of Political Turbulence - This was the period when freedom
struggle intensified there was no of initiatives in govt & governance
[GoI act 1909, 1912, and 1935]
Some sort of political character started emerging in administration
Bureaucracy on one hand had to deal with political restlessness of
country and on the other hand had to also accommodate political
leadership.
This is the period of world war‘s & district administration has to play a
significant role:
1) Propagate about British interest in war, that they are fighting a
just war they need to be supported.
2) Role of Rationing and maintaining the supply for soldiers.
3) It has also has to play a role of recruited for the war.

District Administration majorly carried out regulatory functions

not developmental functions.

Post Independence Era

Post -Independence was a paradigmatic shift from a colony India
became an independent State .So thereby priority of administration
changed from Law and Order & control it changed to Peace and
Welfare -So there was worries about the need of new administrative
system or the existing one will carry on.

The district Ad for long has symbolized British Council administration

responsible for regulatory function, not for development
functions .Many questioned legitimacy of district ad calling for
significant rehaul.

As, Ad rehaul will require huge finances, knowledge and at same time.
 Post Independence , district administration was continued &
assigned with the responsibilities of development
Ability to withstand disruption, District Ad with time has got
institutionalized; it was believed that bureaucratic system was by
product of its governance i.e. its run the way asked to, but now
under Welfare System.
It has to perform welfare functions with efficiency for these
reasons .District Ad was still associated with developmental
functions.
District Administration was responsible for revenue, law& order,
developmental magisterial, miscellaneous functions post
independence.
For development purpose blocks were made under district .This
was the only change otherwise.
The same pre -independence era British Administration was
continued to carry out-post independence responsibility.

24/09/2019

Role of District Administration in Post -Independence Period

District Ad had be one overburdened with large no of responsibilities .O

Malay stated, that having overburdened with work the District Officer
thinks he has a ;life of a dog ,though he knows the he has a job of man

Dist Admn do has virtually become epicenter of action .District officer

was referred through various phrases , “ Key Stone in Ad of District “
steering wheel of the ship( district) “ Maaibaap” Little Napoleon.
Responsibility of District Administration increased post-independence
developmental function was added to the responsibility of district
officer .It’s responsibility also increased because there was dynamism in
regulatory & developmental function.

Role of District Officer as Collector

District Officer is concerned as Chief Revenue /Finance official of
the district.
District Officer is responsible for collection of revenue within
jurisdiction of state govt.
District Officer is assisted by No of other district sub- district
officers

E.g.- Land Revenues ,Stamp Duty, Revenue Duties , Agriculture Revenue

.He is assisted by Tehsildars Sub- Registrars Etc.
A tax collection of Indirect Taxes, District Officer is assisted by ACIT for
exercise (Superintendent Excise).
District Officer is responsible for collecting water tax, animal tax, Fees
of Licenses, NoC, Permits etc, Entertainment Tax.

District Officer plays role in earning of central govt revenue in certain

cases.
E.g.: Role of District Ad to conduct Raids searches& recovers (debts /
loss).
District Officer is responsible for keeping of the land records.

District Officer is the Head of District Treasury.

Role of District Officer as A Magistrate:- Prior to independence ,District
officer was not only executive as well as Judicial Magistrate.

DO was restricted to .Post Independence period judicial powers were

separated from executive to 1st class Executive Magistrate .Though
immediately after the independence this process started but still few
judicial functions were as used to carried out by DO .

Till 1973 when there was complete separation of executive as well as

judicial function. So DO only remained as executive Magistrate.

In the District DO is responsible for Maintenance of Law & Order &

these responsibilities he is assisted by District Police headed by SP.

A lot of financial power of police is withy DO.

DO is expected to Regularly visit & inspect police statics ,ask reports on
law & Order, ask for explanations , hear grievances from citizens ,
countersign.
The transfers of an assignment of Special House Officers and can also
initiated judicial enquiries.
Till Very Recently DO used the initiative of ACR of SP

Almost every state this practice has been discontinued.

In terms of prosecution of criminals the DO is responsible for recruiting
Public Prosecutor expediting cases & ensuring the conviction.

DO is responsible for serving of Court Directives & Warrants.

DO is responsible for smooth functioning of jails regularly , inspects
prisons ,seeks report , takes up necessary steps , reqmt and enjoy
significant financial power .DO exercise control over the purse .

DO is only an executive Magistrate, being that DO exercises its power

under preventive punitive section of CrPc). Under the punitive sections
of IPC
Sec 108-110 CRPC - Relating to Prevention of unruly behavior.
Sec 129-132 CRPC - Prevention of Unlawful Activities
Sec 133-143 CRPC - Prevention of Public Nuisance
Sec 144 CRPC - Prevention of Apprehended & Urgent Danger
Sec 145 CRPC - Prevention of Dispute pertaining to immoral
properties that threaten public peace.

Regulatory Functions of District Officer (DO) - Do as a regulator.

Responsible for Protection of vulnerable sections of society & minority.
Special Responsibilities have been given to DO under various statutes.
Civil Disabilities Act

Empowers Do to protect the Members of the SC

Other Statutes Relating to women and child safety

To prevent hoarding & maintain supply of essential services and
goods.
 Essential Services Maintenances Act

Responsible for regulating rates or distribution of Land under land

ceiling Act.
 Role of That of being a co-coordinator, at district level DO is
principal coordinator .DO co-coordinator b/w State & central
Institution ,with Pvt Org, NGO ,Int Org .
DO coordinate by the virtue of his status rather them by virtue of
this local authority.
No of miscellaneous function are performed by DO
DO during 3rd Elections in his district is the election officer, the
entire election is conducted under leadership DO.
Keeping of the Electoral Roll Updated.
District Administration (DO) also plays an important role while
census has been conducted.
DO is also responsible for Life stock Census.
No of different type of statistics are maintained and carried, like
rain density, forest cover, flora & fauna census or.
DO is also the Chief Protocol Officer in the district .When
dignitaries visiting or passing through district.
Do plays an important role with regard to disaster mgmt, Disaster
mitigation DO is Chairman of District Disaster MgMT .Authority
that means disaster preparations or post-disaster relief.

Ceremonial Functions: DO is the ex-officio Chairperson in various

trusts in the districts.
 DO as a Development Officer
 Refer to the discussion following (Panchayati Raj Institutions )

Role, Responsibilities & Status of DO (Post- Independence)

Responsibility of DO has increased manifold , the statute &
authority has decreased , therefore there is an increasing gap b/w
function, responsibilities and authority
Multiple Reasons have contributed towards this decline:
This position was occupied by only the members of IAS; by in early
1990s starting with Orissa, this position is also occupied by state
civil services as large no of districts were.
For a long period of today / even today officers of IAS occupy
these positions at a early age (i.e.at seniority of 4-5 yrs).
During British Era senior member of ICS used to occupy this
position. Post Independence this position by comparatively junior
member .Constituted during this period as there were shortages
of IAS Members so State Members were allowed.

District Admin Is the Headquarters of Field Ad as all programs

policies are implemented at district level .District is exposed to all
types of pulls and push .District is the epicenter of political and
other types of admin.
Post Independence due to certain exigencies IAS faced decline
because of following reasons:
1) Being Junior & young officers were not able to bear the
pressure of office this resulted into decline.
2) District also became the place b/w generalist and specialist. DO
was generalist is experienced and young & district heads
specialist are more experienced & at the verge of their
retirement.
Result into problem of co-ordination .Toughest challenge
came from District SP.

3) Post-Independence period DO no more remained the

undisputed NO 1 in the district.
MP, MLA, Chairman, Zila Parishad, SP.
4) Do is head of imp field agencies , which has access to the
realities of the field ,so he has better understanding
situation ,thereby can advice for better planning .Earlier DO is
considered as “EAR AND EYE “ of state Govt being head of very
imp field agency i.e. district administration.

But this remained true during ICS era.

This lost it’s relevance in the era of IAS the ICS was horse riding
and camping officers.
While IAS became office bounding officers .So field
Understanding is lost. As a result DO’s Views in various policies
& programme are undermined.

5) The Security of tenure has eluded the DO .Studies indicate that

in cases tenure has been less than 6 to 8 months .If the tenure
is less than the local understand of him will be very limited.
6) Overall scenario of increased corruption have also effected the
District Administration & DO were considered as part of Steel
Frame the IAS, was considered to be incorruptible ,it is noticed
to be part of corrupt practice .that has effected administration.
This also effected it’s status.
7) In the Post -Independence, The DO became highly burdened &
being highly over burdened .DO attended routine functions
that means becoming vulnerable to Gresham’s Law of
administration .When there is too much of decisions are to be
taken the general tendency is to attend routine kind of job and
ignore non-routine
8) In post -Independence period District Ad continued to be
operated without dates , law ,rules, techniques and tools
 Suggestions/Recommendations

1) Tenure Security must be provided to DO’s for at least 2 yrs.

2) As per recommendation of 2nd ARC .An officer of Joint Secretary
Rank should be appointed as DO in the special districts (imp) .
3) There should be separation of developmental & non-
developmental responsibilities and development responsibilities
should be handed by Development Officers under PRIs.
4) The DO is required to carry out mandatory field riots
5) Advanced Tools & Techniques must be introduced with emphasis
of e-governance & M-Governance.
Superficial reforms have been taken in districts leaving aside
substantial reforms
 Introduction of Computers
 Digitalization of Land Records
 Association of NGOs and Pvt org
 Outsourcing in No Of Areas

Managing of Public Utilities like Health Facilities, schools, providing of

ration, the corporatization approach is used the PPP models are
developed adopted.
Simplification of Certain Laws, rules and regulations.
Introduction of single window approach
Carrying out programs with people participation is being alone

25/09/2019

Recommendations of 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission

 1) The DC job profile should consist of a well defined set of exclusive
activities, both statutory and non-statutory [DO responsibility is to
enormous & too uncertain].
[DC at District Level is considered as Residual Legatee .At state
level Residual Legate -CS (Admin) Any way that does not belong
to only automatically become his responsibilities.

2) There should be fixed tenure of at least 2 yrs.

3) DO should be vested with regulatory power only(Developmental
Power should be divested )
4) The DO should act as Chief Officer of District Council which
consists of representatives of Rural & Urban Bodies.
5) An IAS officer should be posted a s DM or DC only after his service
of 10-12 yrs .Bigger Districts to be run by Officer of Rank Of joint
Sec.
6) Emphasis on Modernization of Office of DC
7) Introduction of Advanced Tools such as MIS & Other E-
Governance tools for effective monitoring & evaluation of
Programs, project which are directly under the charge of DC.
8) Strengthening of Public Grievance Redressal, digital Cells, Civil
Society, and Media cell.

The Role of DO post 1991

There has been continuously as well as disruption in the functions
of DO ,Revenue Function, Magisterial function, co-coordinating
function along with many miscellaneous functions of DO have
been continued.
There has been change in role of DO in a/c of 4 important
developments:
i) Neo -Liberalism - It was responsible for introduction of new
Managearilism it introduced new market standards & practices
values in the Public Sector.
These initiatives were also evident at district level .E.g Bengal
Govt brought in law to impose fee on water, public parks (At
District Level User Fee).

Orissa Govt previously used to provide Veterinary Science free

of cost but fees now imposed on veterinary services [User Fee].

At district level or large no of work is contracted out. Such as

photocopy, canteen, vehicle reqmt, waste disposal etc. These
contracts are outsourced.
In PPP there are No of instances where district ad have
contracted with Pvt Sector .Whether profit & non-profit
(Collaboration ) based on this no of activities taken up such as
Hospital, Drainage

E.g.: Rajnandgaon [Chhattisgarh] the DO corporatized the

health administration.
A Badaury was set up that compromised both Govt & non-govt
executives.
These multi-stakeholder body is a collaboration will manage
the health facilities of the district .Day to day running of
hospitals, imposition of fees as, Use of fees.
This turned out to be a successful initiative as a result than
Planning Commission recommended it as Model Initiative.
 In Arunachal Pradesh, a single District was adopted by a single
NGO for Health administration. Pradhan Karuna Trust of
Karnataka, Ram Krishna Mission was some who came forward.
ii) Democratic Decentralization

iii) Administrative Reforms : After 1991 the Focus was on

economic reform i.e. there was significant restructuring of
financial administration .From Mid 90s onwards there was also
focus on the reforms did effect District Administration ,reforms
of Downsizing [Right Sizing, Decentralization emphasis on
collaboration & networking ) .
In district administration the schemes like VRS & Golden
Handshake were brought into use at district level .But it
backfired, skilled Members left.
 As rightsizing require proper study & planning but this was not
done there was poor planning.
As a result actually employable people did leave non-
employable became again more in No.
No of other initiatives were taken .RTI act was enacted.
Citizen Charter was brought in to bring transparency

Impact of these was mostly felt at district level.

Strengthening of grievance addresal, training and capacity building all

these initiatives were taken at district level .Apart from this is overall
approach towards modernization through e- governance was also very
much .E.G Few Ex of E-Gov in district administration , visible at district
level.

Post 1991 there are now a no of focus of accountability Civil Ser5vice

became vibrant, proliferation of public media. Coming up of various
commissions -. NHRC, Women Commission and also its enactment of
same3 of the accountability act like RTI act, Many State Govt enacted
Public Services Act and also coming up of PRI Institutions introduction
of Social Audit

Developmental Role of District Officer

In post-independence, the developmental responsibilities was also

assigned to the District Admin but the also a separate unit was created
to The direct responsibility of development i.e. Block Headed by BDO .
DO was assisted by various extension officers in the beginning
development functions were assigned to District Administration but as
supervisory function

Very soon, because of slow progress of various programs , policies

there was restructuring of development Admin .This restructuring
included introduction of PRIs following Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee .The PRI s were developmental institutions those are
required to carry out developmental activities.
Though PRIs was introduced, throughout the country with an explicit
aim of making these institutions developmental there by redefining the
role of block as well as the district admin

Developmental functions were completely bureaucratization there was

no democratization in developmental activities at a district
level .Following intro PRI there was democratization.
A it is being democratic 7 bureaucratic during this period .There was
impact on the Role of District Administration & thereby on DO but the
impact on developmental role of DO was not uniform throughout the
country .Because the relationship b/w PRIs & District Administration
was difft in difft state through Developmental role did take a change.

Broadly 3 Models will be identified:

1) In states like Maharashtra[DO] ,Gujarat [CEO] W.Bengal [DO] is
kept out of Zila PARISHAD .Impact was that DO was completely
removed from developmental functions and developmental
functions were taken up by PRI,s [Ass by CEO]
2) In states like UP ,Bihar, Punjab, Assam, Rajasthan, In these DO
remained a non-voting member of Zila Parishad though in some
of the states remain chairman of committee .
 3) Tamil Nadu, The DO was the chairman of District Developmental
Council & Zila Parishad.
During this period the Dev Activities were democratized and
bureaucratized .No of Developmental program they bypassed PRIs
INFACT introduced by certain bureaucratic org & effectively
under authority of District admin OR UNDER Coordination
authority of District Admin
Eg: Not Implemented through PRIs but by District Admin-
2ND half of 1960s the intensive area of agriculture programe
[Resulted intro green reveolution.

Hilly Area Developmental Program

Tribal Area Developmental Program
Drought Area Developmental Program
Desert Area Developmental Program

Target Base Programs

-Small Farmers Development Programme

Landless Farmers Development Programme

These were implemented through special agencies which were created

for implementation of these specific programs. There was a Desert Area
Development Agency.
These were implemented with the help of district administration, so DO
played on important role in developmental activities.

Even though PRIs were responsible for developmental activities

but some of key powers of PRIs were vested in Dos i.e.
 Regular reporting to States goes through district administration.
Reservation of PRIs [Power to be exercised by DO on behalf of
State Govt]
During 70s the district ad had direct responsibility of Dev was
expected to carry out with NGOs and voluntary orgs.
Towards Late 70s there was change in developmental approach
towards integrated approach .Coming Up of integrated approach
coming up of Integrated Rural Development Program [IRDP] .In
order to implement this integrated approach in order to
implement this integrated approach to rural developmental &
urban development institutions like DRDA & DUDA i.e. District
Rural Development Agency, District Urban Development Agency

These agencies were created to plan for integrated approach

/implementation 7 implementing development developmental
programs, especially anti- poverty programs .The DO was the
Chairperson of this body.

During 80s there was increasing emphasis in favor of

decentralization & participation.

During 90s, 73rd Amendment Act came up and thereby PRIs and
Urban Municipalities were setup.

73rd Amend Act provided for constitutional 3 Tier uniform system

of PRIs throughout the country [State having population less than
20 lakh can go for 2 Tier ] irrespective of this amended provided
for uniform system of PRIs THROUGHOUT THE Country the Model
that are adopted by various states with regard to the relationship
b/w PRI & Do varied .
 This Amendment act consisted enabling clause [It can be adopted
by States Govt ]& in this enabling clause it actually provided that
in this act certain provisions are optional.

Developmental Functions should be removed from DO:-

i) To Unburden as development requires
a) Dynamic Leadership
b) A leadership which is able to spare time.
c) Take Challenged plans
d) Plan Carrying Initiative
e) Infuse Energy Into The Team

DO is so Overburdened it can do none of these things so, by simply

nominally associated with task he will demoralize the team, it will also
maske team members to behave very routinely.

He should be limited to regulatory functions

Developmental Functions: Must be taken Up by PRIs with the assistance

of CEO, DDO having seniority equals to District Magistrate But,

-Do should not be completely removes he should be associated with

the developmental activities because his office is going to be immensely
important for-coordination for advice for liasoning.

Panchayati Raj Institutions

PRI came up in 1959 in India; Panchayats are though indigenous though
nature of these Panchayats has been indifferent.
Prior independence there was 2 views regarding Panchayats:
i) Ambedkar [Opposing Views]
ii) Gandhian [ Supposing Views) The Idea of Oceanic Circle]

On the basis of principle of subsidiary i.e. when something can be

performed at level then it should be formed there, but, if it cannot be
performed. There than only it should be performed there, but if it
cannot be performed there than only it should be taken by higher level.
Post Independence: The idea of PRIs was introduced through DPSP .The
experiment of independence started without PRIs.
When it was realized that expected growth & development is not taking
place through centralized system and skill bureaucracy / a committee
named Balwant Rai Committee was setup , it came up with report that
for the development to take place
Democratic decentralization, is a must reqmt i.e. validating that
Gandhiji stated much earlier .It got support from than PM Nehru, under
his leadership it was introduced starting with Rajasthan than
throughout the country .It was 3 tier PRI at District Level at Black Level,
at the village level .PRI were statutory in nature i.e. state govt’s came
out with statues, laws and based on that these institutes were created.
They were developmental not political because at that point in time
these institutions were put in place explicitly to carry out
developmental functions .The motive was not nature the political
leadership at grassroots.
It was with constitutional more political
1st Generation of PRIs has 3 stages:-
 i) The Period of Ascendency [Till of 1964-65]- During Nehru Era ,
there was huge opposition from political .
ii) Stagnation[ Till1969]
iii) Decline [After 1969]

During 1970s when Janata Party came into power another committee
was setup , Ashok Mehta Committee , it also gave similar
recommendation but it also gave similar recommendation but instead
of 3 tier .It suggested 2 tier at :
District Level
Village Level

Govt did not picked recommendation but same states did such as J&K,
WB, and Karnataka
These PRIs were no longer developmental but political .In 1980s the
Need of PRIs was promoted .In Rajiv Gandhi Govt 64th and 65th
Amendment was proposed to make PRIs Constitutional [Didn’t get
passed in Rajya Sabha]
Finally it became reality through 73rd and 74th amendment act
[development act were given]
2ND Gen PRIs were constitutional were developmental were political
[These had 3 levels]