Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education An Exploratory Study 1St Edition K Mohammed Basheer Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

Quality Enhancement in Madrasa
Education An Exploratory Study 1st

Edition K. Mohammed Basheer
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/quality-enhancement-in-madrasa-education-an-explor
atory-study-1st-edition-k-mohammed-basheer/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Motivations barriers and readliness factors for Quality

4 0 implementation an exploratory study 1st Edition
Michael Sony Et Al
https://ebookmeta.com/product/motivations-barriers-and-
readliness-factors-for-quality-4-0-implementation-an-exploratory-
study-1st-edition-michael-sony-et-al/
Quality Control Procedure for Statutory Financial Audit

An Empirical Study 1st Edition Siddhartha Sankar Saha
Mitrendu Narayan Roy
https://ebookmeta.com/product/quality-control-procedure-for-
statutory-financial-audit-an-empirical-study-1st-edition-
siddhartha-sankar-saha-mitrendu-narayan-roy/
The Highest Education A Study of Graduate Education in

Britain 1st Edition Ernest Rudd
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-highest-education-a-study-of-
graduate-education-in-britain-1st-edition-ernest-rudd/
Faculty Development in Developing Countries Improving

Teaching Quality in Higher Education 1st Edition
Cristine Smith (Editor)
https://ebookmeta.com/product/faculty-development-in-developing-
countries-improving-teaching-quality-in-higher-education-1st-
edition-cristine-smith-editor/
Education and Equality in Japan William K. Cummings
https://ebookmeta.com/product/education-and-equality-in-japan-
william-k-cummings/
Unnormalizing Education Addressing Homophobia in Higher

Education and K 12 Schools 1st Edition Joseph R. Jones
https://ebookmeta.com/product/unnormalizing-education-addressing-
homophobia-in-higher-education-and-k-12-schools-1st-edition-
joseph-r-jones/
Quality of Higher Education Organizational and

Educational Perspectives 1st Edition Yihuan Zou
https://ebookmeta.com/product/quality-of-higher-education-
organizational-and-educational-perspectives-1st-edition-yihuan-
zou/
Dialogues on Human Enhancement Nicholas Agar
https://ebookmeta.com/product/dialogues-on-human-enhancement-
nicholas-agar/
Cultural Perspectives on Indigenous Students Reading

Performance A Participatory and Exploratory Case Study
at a Regional School in Australia 1st Edition Gui Ying
Annie Yang-Heim
https://ebookmeta.com/product/cultural-perspectives-on-
indigenous-students-reading-performance-a-participatory-and-
exploratory-case-study-at-a-regional-school-in-australia-1st-
Quality Enhancement
in Madrasa Education
Quality Enhancement
in Madrasa Education:
An Exploratory Study
By
K. Mohammed Basheer
Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education: An Exploratory Study
By K. Mohammed Basheer
This book first published 2016
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2016 by K. Mohammed Basheer
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-4438-9793-0

ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-9793-8
To my beloved mom, Maimoonath Kunhimoideen Moulavi,
And for all those who encouraged me to fly towards my dreams …
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables .............................................................................................. ix
List of Figures............................................................................................. xi
List of Acronyms ....................................................................................... xii
Prologue.................................................................................................... xiv
Syed Haider Ali Shihab Thangal, Panakkad
Foreword ................................................................................................... xv
Prof. Mohammad Akhtar Siddiqui
Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xvii
Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education: An Introduction
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Rationale for Madrasa education .................................................... 1
1.3 Overview and brief history of Madrasa education .......................... 3
1.4 Present scenario of Madrasa education ........................................... 7
1.5 Constitutional provisions for education of minorities ..................... 9
1.6 Madrasa education in Kerala ......................................................... 14
1.7 Initiatives for quality improvement in the Madrasa education
system in Kerala ............................................................................. 20
1.8 Rationale for the present study ...................................................... 25
Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 26

Contextualizing the Madrasa
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 26
2.2 Madrasa education around the globe ............................................. 27
2.3 Indian Madrasas ........................................................................... 32
2.4 Kerala Madrasa education ............................................................ 45
2.5 Quality education ......................................................................... 48
2.6 Overview ....................................................................................... 50
viii Table of Contents
Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 54

Design of the Study
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 54
3.2 Rationale for the study .................................................................. 54
3.3 Objectives of the study .................................................................. 55
3.4 Operational definitions .................................................................. 56
3.5 Population of the study .................................................................. 56
3.6 Sample for the study ...................................................................... 56
3.7 Details of the tools used ................................................................ 58
3.8 Development and finalization of tools ........................................... 59
3.9 Procedure followed to develop the tools ........................................ 61
3.10 Procedure for data collection ....................................................... 75
3.11 Procedure for analysis of data ...................................................... 78
Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 83

Statistical Analysis and Interpretation
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 83
4.2 Stakeholders’ views ....................................................................... 84
4.3 Critical examination of the existing system .................................. 157
4.4 Promotion of education ............................................................... 162
4.5 Problems of the system .............................................................. 164
4.6 Modalities for quality improvement ............................................ 165
Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 169

Summary, Findings and Educational Implications
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 169
5.2 Summary of the study ................................................................. 169
5.3 Major findings of the study ......................................................... 172
5.4 Educational implications ............................................................. 184
5.5 Discussion ................................................................................... 191
5.6 Conclusion .................................................................................. 192
Bibliography ............................................................................................ 193
Glossary ................................................................................................... 199
Index ........................................................................................................ 202

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Break-down of the intended sample for the study

Table 3.2 Items developed and retained for different tools, by
dimension
Table 3.3 Items developed and retained for Tool No. 1:
Questionnaire for students
Questionnaire for teachers
Questionnaire for heads of Madrasas
Questionnaire for parents
Questionnaire for MMCs
Observation schedule for curriculum transaction
Questionnaire for Madrasa boards
Table 3.10 Items developed and retained for Tool No. 8: Interview
schedule for educationists
Table 3.11 Procedure for data collection
Table 3.12 Criteria developed by the researcher for data analysis 8
Table 4.1 Students’ views towards various dimensions of quality
in Madrasa education
Table 4.2 Students’ views towards quality in curriculum designing
and planning
Table 4.3 Students’ views towards quality in curriculum
transaction
Table 4.4 Students’ views towards quality in evaluation and
assessment
Table 4.5 Students’ views towards quality in institutional
management
Table 4.6 Students’ views towards quality of infrastructure
Table 4.7 Teachers’ views towards various dimensions of quality
in Madrasa education
x List of Tables
Table 4.8 Teachers’ views towards quality in curriculum designing

and planning
Table 4.9 Teachers’ views towards quality in curriculum
transaction
Table 4.10 Teachers’ views towards quality in evaluation and
assessment
Table 4.11 Teachers’ views towards quality in institutional
management
Table 4.12 Heads’ views towards various dimensions of quality in
Madrasa education
Table 4.13 Heads’ views towards quality in curriculum designing
and planning
Table 4.14 Heads’ views towards quality in curriculum transaction
Table 4.15 Heads’ views towards quality in evaluation and
assessment
Table 4.16 Heads’ views towards quality in institutional
management
Table 4.17 Heads’ views towards quality in infrastructure
Table 4.18 Parents’ views towards various dimensions of quality in
Madrasa education
Table 4.19 Parents’ views towards quality in curriculum designing
and planning
Table 4.20 Parents’ views towards quality in curriculum transaction
Table 4.21 Parents’ views towards quality in evaluation and
assessment
Table 4.22 Parents’ views towards quality in institutional
management
Table 4.23 Parents’ views towards quality in infrastructure
Table 4.24 MMCs’ views towards various dimensions of quality in
Madrasa education
Table 4.25 MMCs’ views towards quality in curriculum designing
and planning
Table 4.26 MMCs’ views towards quality in institutional
management
Table 4.27 Boards’ views towards quality in curriculum designing
and planning
Table 4.28 Boards’ views towards quality in supervision and
evaluation
Table 4.29 Boards’ views towards quality in management
Table 4.30 Observation-based data on curriculum transaction
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Histogram representing students’ overall views towards

quality in Madrasa education
Figure 4.2 Histogram representing teachers’ overall views towards
Figure 4.3 Histogram representing heads’ overall views towards
Figure 4.4 Histogram representing parents’ overall views towards
Figure 4.5 Histogram representing MMCs’ overall views towards
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ADB Asian Development Bank

AIU Association of Indian Universities
BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and
Statistics
BMEB Bangladesh Madrasa Education Board
CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education
CCE Continuous and comprehensive evaluation
CEPET Centre for Public Education and Training
CIER Council for Islamic Education and Research
DEO District Education Officer
DHIU Darul Huda Islamic University
DIET District Institute for Educational Training
DKIMVB Dakshina Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board
EFA Education for All
FCRA Foreign Contribution Regulation Act
GER Gross enrolment ratio
ICT Information and communication technology
IDMI Scheme for Infrastructure Development in Minority
Institutes
IGNOU Indira Gandhi National Open University
JNV Jawahar Navodya Vidyalya
KNM Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen Vidhyabhyasa Board
MCD Minority concentrated districts
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
MMC Madrasa Management Committee
MOM Modernization of Madrasa Scheme
MTC Muallim Training Centre
MTI Majlissu Ta-aleemul Islami
NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
NCF National Curriculum Framework
NCMEI National Commission for Minority Educational
Institutions
NCRLM National Commission for Religious and Linguistic
Minorities
NGO Non-governmental organization
Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education: An Exploratory Study xiii
NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling

NKC National Knowledge Commission
NMC National Minorities Commission
NMCME National Monitoring Committee for Minorities
Education
NMDFC National Minorities Development and Finance
Corporation
NPE National Policy on Education
NUEPA National University of Educational Planning and
Administration (formerly NIEPA – National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration)
OBE Open Basic Education
ODL Open and distance learning
RMSA Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
RUSA Rashtriya Uchathar Shiksha Abhiyan
SCERT State Council of Educational Research and Training
SIEMAT State Institute of Educational Management and
Technology
SKIEB Samasthana Kerala Islamic Education Board
SKIMVB Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board
SKJM Samastha Kerala Jam‫ޏ‬iyyat al-Mu‫ޏ‬allimƯn
SKJMCC Samastha Kerala Jam‫ޏ‬iyyat al-Mu‫ޏ‬allimƯn Central
Council
SKJU Samastha Kerala Jam‫ޏ‬iyyat al-‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫ގ‬
SKSVB Samastha Kerala Sunni Vidhyabhyasa Board
SPQEM Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrasas
SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
THADREEB Teachers’ Hour to Assure Da’wa and Range
Empowerment to Ensure Boosting
TLM Teaching and learning materials
TQM Total quality management
UEE Universalisation of Elementary Education
UGC University Grants Commission
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
USE Universalization of Secondary Education
PROLOGUE
SYED HAIDER ALI SHIHAB THANGAL,

PANAKKAD
CHANCELLOR, DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
& PRESIDENT, INDIAN UNION MUSLIM LEAGUE,
KERALA, S. INDIA
The Madrasa system of Kerala has rarely attracted scholarly attention

in the existing studies. Its unique characteristics, differing from many
other Madrasa models in the Muslim world, deserve extensive exploration,
but unfortunately not many scholars have studied it thoroughly.
Dr. Basheer’s Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education makes an
attempt to demonstrate some remarkable aspects of how the system
presented a unique way to combine traditional and modern approaches to
Islamic education. He fills many gaps in the literature by explaining
various nuances that led to its successful trajectory through several
decades. With critical engagement, he also suggests the ways in which the
system can improve itself in future.
The book presents many insights for both the scholarly and the
managerial communities of Kerala’s Madrasas, and it will be one of the
most significant stepping stones for any future studies in the field.
FOREWORD
PROF. MOHAMMAD AKHTAR SIDDIQUI

FORMER CHAIRMAN, NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR TEACHER
EDUCATION, MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT,
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, NEW DELHI
Madrasa education in India has a long and rich past. The history of its
inception in this country coincides with the arrival of Muslims on Indian
soil and the gradual establishment of their rule across different regions.
The development of this traditional system of education in the country has
been closely conditioned by the socio-political and economic conditions
that were obtained at any point in history. However, as a common thread
running through all periods and dynasties of Muslim rule here, Madrasas
enjoyed highly decentralized organization and management. During those
periods, and later too, they never operated under a monolithic national
system of education. Their development, structure, organization and
content varied from one region to another, one period to another and even,
in many cases, one institution to another, which underscores a strong
feature of the high degree of autonomy that these educational institutions
have always enjoyed. Independently formulated curricula and many
books, particularly on religious sciences, would be common in many of
these institutions. This suggests that the state did not always have a
collective and complete responsibility for all the institutions of learning,
except the prominent ones. How much direct or indirect support these
institutions would receive from the state depended on the educational
interests of the individual rulers as much as on the reputation enjoyed by
the institutions and the learned scholars teaching in the institutions. As a
matter of common practice, it was the landed aristocracy of an area, in
cases of bigger institutions of higher learning, and the local community, in
cases of smaller ones, which extended their support to these institutions on
a voluntary basis. Throughout Muslim rule, Madrasas not only catered to
the socio-cultural development needs of the community but were also able
to meet all kinds of needs of the people in the civic, administrative,
business and scientific studies spheres.
For more than seven centuries after the establishment of the Madrasa
system in the country, knowledge imparted in these institutions was not
xvi Foreword
bifurcated and was not distinctively classified into religious and secular
knowledge, which was perhaps a healthy trend and was in tune with the
original concept of knowledge inculcated in Islam. With the onset of
colonial rule in the country, the Madrasa education system received
massive waves of shocks, not only due to the substitution of political
power but also due to the destruction of a particular way of life and a
particular culture. The changing way of life as inculcated through the
Western education system implanted by the colonial rulers rendered the
Madrasas, which were until then a basic source of empowerment of the
community in social, economic, cultural and emotional domains, almost
redundant. Voluntary efforts of committed religious leaders of the
community could only salvage the system, though in its narrowed-down
form. Such voluntary attempts to support and sustain the Madrasa system
continued even after India gained independence. In the process, various
models of organizing Madrasa education were evolved.
However, the model developed in the southern parts of the country was
unique and distinct in the sense that it tried to strike a chord between
religious and modern education needs of the community, and offered them
the opportunity to address both of these types of need without any
compromise. In this region, Kerala presents one of the best examples of
this mixed and complementary model of Madrasa education being
enforced through a network of thousands of such institutions which are
systematically organized and run under the aegis of a few nodal voluntary
organizations and boards. After independence, Madrasas in most parts of
the country underwent two contrary processes: their numbers increased
and their standards declined. But in this part of the country, with
expansion, standards do not seem to have been so much affected as is the
case elsewhere.
Dr. Basheer has attempted to systematically analyze the contribution of
Madrasas in promoting quality education in the state through his exploratory
research as reported in the present volume. Quality enhancement in
education has been always an ongoing process. In this book Basheer
makes several research-based suggestions to further strengthen Madrasas
and enhance their contribution in imparting quality education at different
levels. I believe that, besides providing an authentic guide to Madrasa
managements in the state, this work will prove to be of immense value to
all those engaged in organizing Madrasas elsewhere and will provide them
with a reliable basis from which to undertake a quality soul-search and
valuable cues to refurbish their institutions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present book is based on a study conducted in the district of

Malappuram, Kerala State, in South India, which was primarily submitted
as a doctoral dissertation to the Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi.
All praises and thanks to Allah Almighty, for surely nothing could
have happened in my life without the endless blessings. It gives me
immense pleasure to finally complete my work successfully. The
preparation of the study has been a tedious and difficult task. The work
would not have taken the present shape without the cooperation and
guidance of so many people, who helped in various phases of the study.
I take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to my
guide, Prof. Mohammad Akhtar Siddiqui, Professor, IASE, Jamia Millia
Islamia, who has always given me immense support and guidance and has
indulged me through the study period. I am grateful to him for his
constant, vigorous and determined guidance, critical observations and
comments offered throughout the study. Without his encouragement and
keen interest in my work, this study would not have made headway.
During the course of the present study I received insightful suggestions
and encouragement from Prof. Aejaz Masih, Prof. Janaki Rajan, Prof.
Sohrab Ali (former Heads of Department, TT & NFE), Prof. Ahrar Husain
(Dean, Faculty of Education), Prof. Shoeb Abdulla, (Head of Department,
TT & NFE) and other teachers of the Department, Faculty of Education,
Jamia Millia Islamia. I am extremely grateful to all of them. Their fruitful
suggestions and guidance will always be a source of inspiration for me.
I express my sincere thanks and feel grateful to all the experts who
extended their support not only in finalization of the tools used for the
study, but also through their valuable suggestions with regard to several
aspects of the study. Remembering with sincere reverence and courtesy,
Prof. Barbara D. Metcalf (University of California), Prof. Hashim Kamali
(IAIS Malaysia), Emeritus Prof. Osman Bakar (University of Brunei
Darussalam), Dr. Mareike Jule Winkelmann Germany, Prof. Farish A.
Noor (University of Singapore), Dr. Muhammadunni Alias Musthafa
(Department of Education, Central University of Kerala), Dr. K. Abdul
Gafoor (Head, Department of Education, University of Calicut), Dr.
Bahaudheen Mohammed Nadwi (Vice Chancellor, DH University), Dr. N.
xviii Acknowledgements
A. M. Abdul Quadir (Professor Emeritus, University of Calicut), Prof. S.

M. I. A. Zaidi (Head, NUEPA, New Delhi), Prof. Kumar Suresh (NUEPA,
New Delhi), Prof. N. Hasnain (Dept. of Psychology, JMI), Prof. Najma
Akthar (NUEPA, New Delhi), Prof. U. N. Rao (Andhra University), Dr.
Ahmad Arshad Ikram (DES, Jamia Millia Islamia), Dr. J. D. Sharma
(NCERT, New Delhi) et al. for their valuable comments and suggestions
that helped me a lot.
I sincerely acknowledge commendable help and timely assistance from
the officials of various Madrasa boards, office bearers of management
committees, heads, teachers, parents and students of the Madrasas where
the study was conducted. I thank all those educationists who participated
generously in the study. I particularly thank the librarians and other staff
members of the Library of the Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, Dr. Zakir Hussain Library, Jamia Millia Islamia, NCERT,
NUEPA, ICSSR, AIU, JNU, CIE, University of Delhi, Moulana Azad
Library, AMU Aligarh and CHMK Library, University of Calicut, for not
only granting me permission to utilize their library facilities but also
providing their full cooperation and help.
Further, I thank Director and all the faculty and staff members of
Aligarh Muslim University Centre, Malappuram, Kerala for their continuous
encouragement and motivation to publish this work.I am especially grateful
to my friends, Syed Ashraf Bahassan (Grace Association), Dr. M. Sameer
Babu, Dr. M. Noushad Ali, Dr. T. Shafeek, Sajid Hudawi, Adv. C. K.
Faizal, C. K. Noufal Wafi et al., for their constant encouragement and
inspiration.
I express my deep sense of respect to my beloved mother Maimoonath
and to my late father Kunhimoideen Moulavi, who remained a constant
source of inspiration in my life. I shall fail in my duties if I do not thank
my beloved and caring wife Najmu and my pretty daughters Jumana,
Amana, Rumana, Hadhiya and Aysha Afreen; my supportive brothers Dr.
Mahmood Kooria (Leiden University, The Netherlands), Mohammed Ali,
Muhammed Haneef, Muhammed Shafi, Muhammed Rafeek (CUSAT,
Cochin), Muhammed Sadik and Muhammed Ashraf; and my sisters
Jameela Abdurahiman and Raihanath Sharafudheen FayঌƯ for their prayers
and encouragement.
I would like to thank the Cambridge Scholars Publishing team, Victoria
Carruthers (Author Liaison), Amanda Millar (Typesetting Manager),
Courtney Blades (Designer) and Luke Finley (Proof Reader) for their
constant attention and constructive suggestions during the publishing
process.
Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education: An Exploratory Study xix
Finally, I express my gratitude to all those who have directly or

indirectly helped and inspired me to pursue this work in all its true spirit
and seriousness. I thank all of them.
K. Mohammed Basheer
22/08/2016
Note on Transliteration
In transliterating Arabic words, I have followed the system of the

International Journal of Middle East studies (IJMES).
CHAPTER ONE
QUALITY ENHANCEMENT
IN MADRASA EDUCATION
AN INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens; the
quality of its citizens depends more than any other features upon the
quality of education. As the world has transformed from the industrial
revolution to the knowledge revolution, the cognitive explosion is the
benchmark of the modern era. Knowledge-makers are the key players of
the time. The purpose of education must be to empower knowledge-
makers. Youth, in the form of intellectual capital, is becoming the richest
intangible asset, and the human development index has become the
indicator of a nation’s progress. India has a majority of young people in its
population. If the potentials of youth are utilized, the destiny of the nation
will surely change. Mainstreaming of marginalized sections has a pivotal
role to play in the prosperity of the nation. Education is a liberating and
secularizing force. In this context, this study has tried to analyse the
quality enhancement process in the Madrasa education system, one of the
largest non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the country.
1.2 Rationale for Madrasa education

India is the museum of all the world religions, a country where all the
major religions are present. It is a land of diversity; a mosaic of many
castes, communities, languages, religions and cultures. In exercise of its
freedom, it has chosen to be a socialist, secular, democratic republic. The
essence of secularism is the recognition and preservation of different
groups of people with diverse languages and beliefs, and their
integratation into a whole and united India. The Constitution reflects the
2 Chapter One
pluralistic essence of Indian society and the right of each segment to self-
development, but as an integral part of a nation in the making. Unity in
diversity or plurality is the key concept which leads India to set an ideal of
peaceful co-existence of diverse groups. Significantly, all the religions
have contributed in forming the culture, heritage and traditions of the
nation.
The pace of a convoy of vehicles depends upon the speed of the
slowest vehicle within it. The strength of a chain depends upon the
strength of the weakest ring in the chain. In this way, the strength of the
nation mainly depends upon the strength of the weaker sections of society.
The essence of development lies in the inclusion of these weaker sections.
These sections include most of the minority communities, people
belonging to less-developed castes and regions, etc. The University Grants
Commission, the highest governance body in higher education, in its
document on the 12th Plan, talks about inclusion in detail. In addition to
that, the National Knowledge Commission and Planning Commission of
India put well-deserved stress, in their policy documents, on inclusion of
weaker sections of society in the development process. The Prime
Minister’s High Level Committee, known as the Sachar Committee, and
the Justice Misra Commission on Linguistic Minorities also talk about the
empowerment of minorities, especially Muslims.
The contribution of Muslims, like that of any other community, to the
culture and history of the nation is undeniable.
Next to Indonesia, India is home to the largest number of Muslims in any
single country in the world. But the significance of the Muslim community
in the Indian context is not merely a matter of statistics. The contributions
that Muslims have made to the art and architecture, history and culture,
politics and polemics of India are so integral that it inspired Mahatma
Gandhi, the Father of the Nation to declare that Hindus and Muslim are
like his two eyes. To see the wider picture, we need to see how they live in
tandem. We cannot afford to be a one-eyed nation! The educational
empowerment of a sizeable community, like the Muslims, heirs to one of
the most intellectually vibrant cultures in history, is an issue of crucial
significance, hence, for the country as a whole. Thanks to a confluence of
geopolitical and cultural sensitivities, Madrasa education is today a major
international and national concern. (National Commission For Minority
Educational Institutions Report 2005, p. 3)
The Madrasa education system introduced by the Muslims has

emerged as one of the largest non-formal education systems prevailing in
the country. Even though Madrasa education is very much a formal system
of education in many states, government documents consider it a non-
Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education 3
formal system of education. Now, it is one of the largest networks of

NGOs (non-governmental organizations) in the country. Madrasa
education in India, which originated several centuries ago in a different
political and social context, continues to address, though in part, the
educational needs of a large section of the Muslim population.
1.3 Overview and brief history of Madrasa education

Islam places utmost importance on the study and transmission of
knowledge. It is the heart of Islamic civilization. Muslims around the
world have founded a variety of teaching and learning centres, both at the
primary and the higher levels, to educate everybody in the community
about the basic tenets of the religion and to produce religious scholars
respectively. It is worth mentioning that the word knowledge – ҵIlm in
Arabic language – is the second most repeated word in the Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn. The
word “Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn” originated from the word “Qara-a”, meaning “to read”. In
numerous verses, the Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn attaches great importance to the pursuit of
knowledge. The very first revelation of the book is about the importance
and source of knowledge. In this revelation, Prophet Muhammad was
given a command to read and write. In a number of sayings, Prophet
Muhammad emphasizes the need to seek knowledge from cradle to grave
and to regard it as a sacred duty. The Prophet’s sayings cover such modern
ideas as compulsory education of both sexes, adult and continuing
education, and exchanges in the field of education and learning (Ahmed
1990). According to Islam, education is the most powerful tool to bring
about positive social change and to put an end to ignorance and
superstitions. The arrival of Islam created a revolution in the world and
laid the foundation of a glorious civilization and culture.
The avowed aim of Madrasa education is to inculcate the belief and
practice of Islam among its followers and guide them to follow the Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn
and the traditions of the Prophet. The foundation of Madrasa education,
therefore, basically stands on the two pillars of QurҴƗn and Sunna
(tradition of Prophet Mohammad). Even though the structural form of
Madrasa that we see today did not exist in the period of Prophet
Muhammad, a strong system of learning and teaching was there. The
learning and teaching process was stressed from the very moment the first
revelation came upon Prophet Muhammad.
The origin of the Madrasa goes back to the time at which the Prophet
of Islam established the first such Madrasa in his mosque, Masjid al
Nabawi in Madina, with dedicated learners called As‫ۊ‬Ɨb al- ‫܈‬uffah. There
he would teach them the tenets of Islam and explain to them the contents
4 Chapter One
of the revelation which he had received. Starting from Masjid al Nabawi

of Madina Al Munawwara, the Madrasa steadily developed through
Nizamia; Zaituna, Tunisia (732); Baithul Hikma, Iraq (830), founded by
Caliph al-Mamun; Al Qaraviyin, Morrocco (859); Al Azhar, Cairo (972),
founded by Caliph al-Muizz; Madrasa Nizamia, Baghdad (1067), founded
by Nizam ul-Mulk Hassan Bin al-Tusi; Grenada and Qurtaba (Cardova);
and Jami 'ul-Andulus of Andulus, Spain, before spreading all over the
world (Anzar 2003). The establishment of Madrasas as organized
institutions took place much later. The first formal Madrasa was
established in Neshapur in Khurasan and the second was Madrasa Nizamia
in Baghdad, both founded in the 11th century by Nizam-Ul-Mulk Tusi
(1018–1092 AD), who is considered to be the father of the Islamic public
education system (Haqqani 2002). The first two institutions which
achieved everlasting fame were Madrasa Nizamia and Madrasa
Mustansariyyah in Baghdad. There are about 100,000 small and big
Madrasas in India, 40,000 in Pakistan, 37,000 in Bangladesh and 36,532 in
Indonesia (Ahmed 2002). Afghanistan, Malaysia and Nigeria also have a
large number of Madrasas of varying levels and sizes.
1.3.1 Indian scenario

The Madrasa education system in India is very old and unique. It was
started with the advent of Muslim rule during the medieval period, when
Madrasas were the most prominent centres of learning. During every
Muslim regime in India, a separate group of scholars was appointed to
look after Islamic educational institutions. The rulers generously spent
large amounts of money on these institutions and built big Madrasas to
educate the people. These Madrasas were engaged in promoting education
among Muslim families living in those areas. They were provided with
free education, scholarship, food and lodging without any distinction
between the “haves and the have-nots”. Madrasas have generally provided
traditional education in India. They have helped in promoting literacy and
education among Muslims. Over the centuries, they have produced
distinguished academics and administrators such as Sher Shah Suri, Abul
Fazal, Faizi, Todar Mal and Fathullah Shirazi, among a host of others.
Raja Ram Mohun Roy, the Hindu reformer and founder of the Brahma
Samaj, was educated in a Madrasa (Khan 2003).
The history of Madrasa education in India begins with the reign of first
Turkish Sultan, Qutubuddin Aibek. He established hundreds of mosques,
which were centres of both religious ritual and learning. Ilthumish was the
next King who showed concern for education, establishing Nasiriya
College at Delhi and Al Firoza Madrasa in Multan. The Khilji rulers also
established Madrasas along similar lines. The Tuglaqs, who followed the
Khiljis, merit special mention for their efforts towards the development of
Islamic education. Sultan Sikandar Lodhi transferred his capital from
Delhi to Agra, which soon became an important centre of learning. In the
course of time, Agra grew into a great educational centre with several
Maktabs and Madrasas. Giyasuddin Awwal, who ruled Bengal between
1212 and 1227 AD, is said to have been one of the distinguished rulers; he
established Madrasas and provided the students with scholarships. In
Gujarat, Sultan Ahmad Shah (1411 to 1441), the founder of Ahmadabad
city, established many Maktabs and Madrasas. The southern part of India
too did not lag behind in education. As a matter of fact, it was a step ahead
of the north in some fields of education.
The Mughal rulers Sultan Zaheeruddin Babar (1483–1531), Naseeruddin
Humayun (1508–1556) and Akbar (1542–1605) took a comparatively
greater interest in the education of their subjects. About Babar’s
educational contribution, it is reported that he not only exhorted people to
learn, but also established various colleges and Madrasas. Sher Shah Suri
(1486–1545) did the same. Among the institutions set up by him, Sher
Shah Madrasa in Narnol district, Patiala, became very famous for
scholarship. There was a big Madrasa, to which Akbar had invited a
scholar from Sheeraz – Mir Fathullah Shirazi – to educate the students.
Under imperial patronage, ‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫ ގ‬such as Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582),
Hakim Abdul Fatah Gilani (1556–1605), Abul Fazal (1551–1602), Faizi
(1545–1595), Saiyid Nurullah Shushtari (1549–1610) and others laid the
foundation of a new education policy and revised the syllabi of the
Madrasas. Numerous Madrasas were established in Fatehpur Sikri near
Agra, which was inhabited by Akbar. Akbar was far ahead of his age with
regard to changes in the mode of study, curriculum and methods of
teaching. He introduced morality, arithmetic, accounts, agriculture,
geometry, astronomy, geography, economics, the art of governance,
physics, logic, natural philosophy, divinity and history in Madrasas. The
Hindus studied Nyaya, Vendanta and Patanjali in these institutions.
Everyone studied according to their own requirements and circumstances.
Mughal rulers, mainly Jehangir, Shah Jehan and Aurangazeb Aalamgeer,
played a very significant role in establishing mosques and Arabic
Madrasas. In 1678, Aurangazeb Aalamgeer (1618–1707) rebuilt many
Maktabs and Madrasas in Gujarat and appointed experienced teachers to
educate students. During the Mughal period, Delhi was thronged with
Arabic Madrasas and great scholars. The most famous among them were
Madrasa Rahimiyah, the Madrasa of Bazr Khanam, and Madrasa
6 Chapter One
Ghaziuddin at Ajmeri Gate. This period witnessed a wide expansion of

Maktabs and Madrasas and would be remembered for another curriculum
reform which was introduced in the Madrasa system of education and
which for centuries has remained almost unchanged and static. The man
responsible for the reshaping of this curriculum was Mulla Nizamudin of
Sihali. Aurangzeb granted Mulla Nizamuddin an old mansion owned by a
French trader, the Firangi Mahal, in Lucknow, where he set up a Madrasa
which soon emerged as the leading centre of Islamic studies in north India.
Mulla Nizamuddin prepared a fresh curriculum for Firangi Mahal
Madrasa, which came to be known after him as the Dars-i-NiܲƗmƯ or the
‘Nizami Curriculum’. The focus of the Dars-i-NiܲƗmƯ was on what was
called the ‘rational sciences’ (manqǌlƗt) or subjects, such as law,
philosophy and grammar, that would befit prospective bureaucrats. Three
centuries later, the Dars-i-NiܲƗmƯ continues to be the syllabus of most
Madrasas in South Asia today, although an increasing number of books on
the ‘revealed sciences’ (maҵqǌlƗt), such as theology and the traditions of
the Prophet (‫ۉ‬adƯth), have been added.
During British rule, the entire system of education was changed. The
closing down of most of the Maktabs and Madrasas was the result of
British antipathy towards such institutions. This gave a serious jolt to the
traditional educational set-up, as institutions were deprived of their
endowments in the form of free land and were left to depend on their own
resources. The establishment of modern schools also contributed to the
decline of many of the Maktabs and Madrasas. The establishment of
Madrasa-i-Aliya, Calcutta, was the first step by the British rulers to
provide for the traditional education of Muslims. In 1781, Warren
Hastings established the Calcutta Madrasa College for Muhammedans for
the study of “Mohammedan law and such other sciences as was taught in
Mohammedan schools”. The Aligarh movement headed by Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan, started later, was another attempt to improve the educational
institutions of Muslims. The last two decades of the 19th century and the
first half of the 20th century witnessed various commissions appointed by
the British rulers to study the state of education in the country, and it is to
be noted that some of these also studied the reasons for the poor average
level of educational attainment of Muslims in India. The Madrasa System
came under serious scrutiny in these studies.
After the Revolt of 1857, Muslims became conscious of preserving
their culture. Among the famous Madrasas established after the 1857
Revolt were Madrasa Darul Uloom of Deoband (1866), Madrasa
Mazhahirul Uloom of Saharanpur (1866), Nadwatul ‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫ ގ‬of Lucknow
(1894) and several Madrasas in Delhi. Nadwatul ‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫ ގ‬introduced
rational sciences and working knowledge of English in its courses of

study, while emphasizing Arabic literature and Islamic history. The
replacement of Persian by English in 1837 as the language of the courts
was another blow to the Madrasa system.
The Mutiny of 1857 and the subsequent transfer of authority of
governance of India from the East India Company to the British Crown
had a very profound impact on Muslim education in India. Muslims had to
face many formidable challenges in addition to the general animosity of
the British rulers. They had to counter the proselytizing activities of the
Christian missionaries. The ‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫ ގ‬and the masses rose to the occasion
and started a series of Madrasas in the country. A large number of
Madrasas were set up in the latter half of the 19th century (Khan 2003).
Most important and famous among them were:
1. Darul Uloom, Deoband, 1866.

2. Mazahirul Uloom, Saharanpur, 1866.
3. Madrasa Baqyatu Salehat, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 1883.
4. Jamia Mazharul Uloom, Benares, 1893.
5. Darul Uloom Nadwathul ‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫ގ‬, Lucknow, 1894.
6. Madrasa Ameenia, Delhi, 1897.
7. Darul Uloom Khalilia Nizamia, Tonk, 1899.
8. Jamia Arabia Hayatul Uloom, Mubarakpur, 1899.
9. Madrasa ul-Islah, Sarai Mir, Azamgarh, 1909.
10. Jamia Darus Salam, Umnabad, 1924.
Partition of the country had a significant impact on the Madrasa

education system of the country in terms of both quality and quantity. In
the wake of Indian independence, most of the politically articulate and
well-to-do Muslims migrated to Pakistan, whereas the weaker Muslim
masses remained in India. Madrasas contributed to the national cause
tremendously. The founders and graduates of Madrasas played leading
roles in the country’s freedom struggle, as well as in nation building.
Moulana Ubaidullah Sindhi and Moulana Barakatullah Khan Bhopali were
among the first to ask for complete freedom for India.
1.4 Present scenario of Madrasa education

At present, there are several thousand Islamic schools spread all over
India. Institutions known as Madrasas may be divided into four categories:
1. Maktab (for primary education)

8 Chapter One
2. Madrasa (for secondary/senior secondary level of study)

3. Darul Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn (for memorization of the Holy Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn)
4. Jamia (for higher studies)
Each Muslim sect has its own chain of such institutions throughout the
country. For many poor families, the Madrasa is the only source of
education for their children, since they charge no fees and provide free
boarding and lodging to their students. Maktabs provide basic religious
education, while Madrasas provide religious education up to the
secondary/senior secondary levels. Jamias are institutions of higher
learning, providing instructions up to post-graduation and specialization
levels. Every Madrasa follows its own pattern in the matter of study
structure. There is no uniformity with regard to subjects, books or
emphasis. Furthermore, there is no uniformity in the number of years it
takes to prepare students for various degrees. The number of Madrasas in
India is estimated to be 30,000 to 40,000 (Akhtar 2010), but as there have
been no studies which have surveyed all the Madrasas in the country and
collected the information, the exact number of Madrasas is shrouded in
mystery. Another reason for controversy regarding the number of
Madrasas is that there is no standard definition of what constitutes a
Madrasa in India. They defy any particular pattern in terms of the
education, infrastructure, number of intakes and funding, but in common
all are called Madrasa. There are a large number of Madrasas in northern
and western parts of the country. According to Home Ministry sources,
there are 721 Madrasas catering to over 120,000 children in Assam; 1,825
Madrasas catering to over 120,000 children in Gujarat; 961 Madrasas
catering to 84,864 children in Karnataka; 9,975 Madrasas catering to
738,000 children in Kerala; 6,000 Madrasas catering to over 400,000
children in Madhya Pradesh; and some 1,780 Madrasas catering to over
25,000 children in Rajasthan. In Uttar Pradesh, the number of Maktabs is
greater than 15,000 and the number of Madrasas is above 10,000. There
are over 3,500 Madrasas in Bihar, including 1,111 under government
control, where the Bihar government pays the salary of the teaching and
non-teaching staff. There are 507 Madrasas affiliated to the West Bengal
Madrasa Board, in which about 200,000 boys and girls study. Besides,
there are many unregistered seminaries. States to be included after survey
are Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Punjab, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Lakshadweep, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Chhattisgharh,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Goa, Pondicherry
and North Eastern States (excluding Assam) (MHRD 1991).
1.5 Constitutional provisions for education of minorities

The Indian Constitution has made various provisions for the education
and harmonious development of minorities.
Chapter III of the Indian Constitution (Fundamental Rights): Articles

14 to 31 ensures equality and non-discrimination before the law, in
matters of public employment, freedom of movement, expression, and
faith and so on. Put together, both chapters should have already, after
nearly six decades of independent and democratic functioning, ensured the
eradication of illiteracy, basic and good quality education, and education
which is free of race, caste, community-driven and gender bias.
Chapter IV (The Directive Principles of State Policy): One of the major
issues in India concerning education relates to access to free primary and
secondary education for all Indian children and young people regardless of
caste, community and gender, and parity in quality of their education as
mandated in the Constitution under the following Articles.
Article 14: Ensures equality before the law and equal protection by the
law.
Article 15: Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste,
sex and place of birth.
Article 21: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty
except through the procedure established by law.
Article 21 A: The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age 6 to 14 years.
Article 25: Ensures freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess,
practise and propagate religion.
Article 26: Ensures the right to manage religious institutions and religious
affairs, subject to public order, morality and health.
Article 29: Protects minorities’ right to conserve their language, script or
culture.
Article 30: Provides for the protection of the interests of minorities by
giving them a right to establish and administer educational institutions of
their choice. The State is directed not to discriminate against minority
institutions in granting aid.
Article 45: The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and
education for all children until they reach the age of six years.
Article 46: The State shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interest of the weaker sections.
Article 51 A (k) (Fundamental Duty): A parent or guardian to provide
opportunities for education to his child between the ages of 6 and 14 years.
10 Chapter One
Article 350 A: Directs the State to provide facilities for instruction in the
mother tongue at the primary stage of education.
However, despite the constitutional provisions for equality in
educational opportunity, Muslims in India have not been able to obtain
much benefit from these provisions, unlike the Dalits or other
marginalized groups of the country, as the latter were favoured with
measures of protective discrimination.
Although discussions about affirmative action policies for Muslims
have taken place on many occasions in Indian history, Muslims have not
received preferential treatment or reservations. Thus, a comparison of
educational improvements for Muslims and Dalits/Adivasis respectively
would help us distinguish between secular improvements in education for
all marginalized groups and improvements for groups that are subject to
affirmative action.
Various efforts have been made by the government to strengthen the
Madrasa education system. The High Power Panel on Minorities (1980)
and the Group on Minorities Education (1990) set up by the Department of
Education advocated relevant changes in the curriculum. The National
Policy on Education (1986), the Program of Action (1992) and the Prime
Minister’s 15 Point Program for Welfare of Minorities suggested
modernization of traditional Madrasas, and the “Scheme of Modernization
of Madrasas” was launched as a centrally sponsored scheme in 1994
suggesting the introduction of English, science, mathematics and Hindi as
additional subjects on a voluntary basis.
In 2004, the Standing Committee of the National Monitoring
Committee for Minorities was constituted. Its primary aim was to know
the difficulties that were being faced by minorities in the field of
education, and whether or not the schemes run/introduced by the central
government for the educational elevation of minorities were being
properly dealt with by provincial/local governments. In one of its
recommendations, the committee suggested a way of introducing modern
education in Madrasas without disturbing their regular affairs. Madrasa
education has been formally linked with the National Institute of Open
Schooling (NIOS). NIOS is an autonomous organization operating through
an open and distance learning (ODL) mode of education. The Government
of India has vested in NIOS the authority to examine and certify students
from the elementary level to the secondary and the senior secondary level.
It provides educational opportunities to various categories, especially to
those who belong to deprived sections of society. With more than
2,500,000 students on the roll, delivering courses of study through the
ODL mode with the help of more than 6,000 study centres in almost all
states of India and in some foreign countries, NIOS has emerged as the
largest open schooling system in India. It offers the Open Basic Education
(OBE) program and the secondary and the senior secondary Education
programs. Examinations are held twice in a year. NIOS has also made
provision for on-demand examinations. It develops its study materials for
self-learning mode. NIOS, in selected states, now conducts examinations
in modern subjects that are offered to Madrasa students, and awards
certificates. NIOS also offers vocational education courses and examines
and certifies students. Among other things, NIOS has undertaken the
“HUNAR” project, under which some vocational courses were offered to
Muslim minority girls in Delhi and Bihar.
The Sachar Committee Report (2006) mentioned in detail the social,
economic and educational status of the Muslim community of India. The
report found that Muslim parents are not averse to modern or mainstream
education and to sending their children to affordable regular schools. They
do not want to send their children only to Madrasas if other schools are
accessible and affordable. A section of Muslims prefers education through
English as the language of instruction, while some others prefer Urdu. The
report also reflects parents’ feelings about educating girls. Even if girls are
enrolled, they are withdrawn at an early age to be married off. This leads
to a higher drop-out rate among Muslim girls. Indicators show that the
problem may lie in the non-availability of schools within easy reach for
girls at lower levels of education, an absence of female teachers, and the
non-availability of scholarships as girls move up the education ladder.
1.5.1 The Scheme of Modernization of Madrasas

The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) launched a
modernization scheme for Madrasas in 1993–1994, after holding a series
of meetings with representatives of the Madrasas to discuss the desirability
of their modernization and clarifying that it would not entail either
compulsion or interference by the government. The main features of the
scheme are as follows:
1. The objective of the scheme is to encourage traditional institutions

like Maktabs and Madrasas to introduce teaching of science, maths,
social studies, Hindi and English in order provide opportunities for
students to acquire education comparable to that provided by
national system of education.
2. The process of modernization is entirely voluntary.
12 Chapter One
3. In the first phase, primary classes of middle- and secondary-level

Madrasas were to be covered. In the second phase (during the 9th
Plan), the coverage of the scheme was extended to institutions
providing education equivalent to the secondary stage.
4. The scheme covered the following items in the first phase:
a. 100 per cent assistance for appointment of qualified teachers
b. Assistance for book banks and strengthening of libraries
c. Provision of science and mathematics kits and essential
equipment
5. Only registered voluntary organizations, which have been in
existence for three years, were considered for assistance.
6. The performance of the scheme was to be reviewed after three years
of its operation.
The major feedback from the programme was as follows.
1. Although the Scheme of Modernisation of Madrasas was

introduced without proper groundwork and detailed guidelines
were sought, uniformity in standards was not assured, and the
performance under the scheme was on the whole fairly satisfactory.
Since the take-off stage has now been reached, provision of the
10th Five Year Plan should be radically augmented.
2. One teacher is far too insufficient for teaching four or five modern
subjects to students for whom the subjects and modern method of
teaching have been virtually unknown. Two teachers should be
sanctioned for each Madrasa under the Scheme.
3. The timetable of Madrasas which choose to include modern
subjects has to be reviewed centrally in consultation not only with
the representatives of Madrasas but also with experts in the
educational methodology.
4. Most of the teachers appointed to teach modern subjects in
Madrasas are raw and untrained. It is essential that a training
programme, specifically drawn up by NCERT in consultation with
SCERTs and representatives of Madrasas, should be mounted as
early as possible.
5. Modern subjects are being taught up to Class 8 only. It is important
that the scope of the scheme is extended to Classes 9, 10, 11 and 12
also.
6. The scheme should provide a liberal book grant (Hamdard, 2003).
1.5.2 Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrasas

(SPQEM)
During the 11th Plan, after taking into consideration the
recommendations of the National Monitoring Committee for Minorities
Education (NMCME) on the Scheme of Modernization of Madrasas, the
Ministry of Human Resource Development relaunched the scheme with
some modifications to its frames and approach. The revised scheme was
retitled the “Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrasas”
(SPQEM).
Objectives of the scheme:

(i) The objective of the scheme is to encourage traditional institutions
like Madrasas and Maktabs by giving them financial assistance to
introduce science, mathematics, social studies, Hindi and English in
their curriculum so that academic proficiency for Classes 1–12 is
attainable for children studying in these institutions. However, the
process of modernization of traditional Madrasas and Maktabs will
be voluntary.
(ii) The scheme will provide opportunities for students of these
institutions to acquire education comparable to that provided by the
national education system, especially for the secondary and the
senior secondary levels. This will enable children studying in these
institutions to progress to higher levels of learning and also open up
better job opportunities for them. Maktabs/Madrasas/Dar-ul-
Ulooms can opt to become accredited study centres with NIOS for
the primary and the middle levels of education, and/or for the
secondary and the senior secondary levels as well. Assistance will
be given to Maktabs, Madrasas and Dar-ul-Ulooms for activities
which contribute to these objectives.
(iii) The scheme will also seek to provide opportunities for vocational
training for children studying in Madrasas opting for assistance
above 14 years of age, to enhance their opportunities in entering the
job market and to encourage entrepreneurship.
(iv) The scheme will also strengthen state Madrasa boards opting for
assistance, by enabling them to monitor the Madrasa modernization
programme and enhance awareness about education among the
Muslim community.
(v) The scheme will address in-service training of teachers, appointed
under the scheme, for teaching modern subjects of mathematics,
social studies, Hindi and English, to improve their pedagogic skills.
14 Chapter One
The SQPEM is a demand-driven scheme. The scheme was planned to

cover a total of 4,500–6,000 Madrasas, and provide an honorarium to
about 13,500–18,000 teachers in Madrasas all over the country during the
11th Plan period. This will include Madrasas for which recurring grants
will be given in continuation, and new Madrasas. It is expected that a total
of about 700,000 students of Madrasas will pursue a modern education in
addition to their traditional education. In the 12th Plan, Rs. 5 billion has
been allotted for effective implementation of SPQEM (MHRD 2010).
1.6 Madrasa education in Kerala

Historically, Kerala is the land which is believed to have been blessed
with the initial advent of Islam in the whole of India, as Muslims believe a
disciple of the Prophet landed in Kerala and converted a local ruler to
Islam through the hands of Prophet Muhammad. Islam entered India in
earlier times, some maintain even during the Prophet’s lifetime, through
Kerala, and a century later through Sindh in north India (Engineer 2009).
Starting with this tradition, Kerala Muslims have kept diverse
characteristics of social, cultural and economic dynamics largely
acculturated with the local traditions and practices. With extensive
acculturating trajectories, they constructed their own modes and forms of
socialization mostly connected to educational systems. The system of
Islamic education must have started at the same time as the first few
Masjids were established in Kerala. This system evolved over a thousand-
year period and, even though for a century there has been great emphasis
on modern education, the Islamic education system survived, and with the
addition of some new trends it continues to thrive.
Kerala’s Muslims are unique among their co-religionists in India in
having fashioned a system of education that enables their children to
attend both religious and regular schools at the same time. Muslims
account for around one fourth of Kerala’s population, and the state’s
Muslims, known as Mappilas, are among the most literate of the various
Muslim communities in the country. Kerala boasts the highest literacy rate
in India, and the Kerala Muslims are the most well-educated Muslim
community in the country.
The system of Islamic education in Kerala presents a considerable
contrast to its counterparts elsewhere in India, which have been overtaken
by a large and expanding network of reformed Madrasas that have
incorporated secular subjects and teaching methods to varying degrees.
One of the major factors responsible for the high literacy rate among
Kerala’s Muslims is the vast network of educational institutions that
community leaders have established across the state. Religious education

provision for Muslims of Malabar can be divided into six distinct patterns,
described in Sections 1.6.1–1.6.6.
1.6.1 Othupalli or Maktab

Othupalli is a Malabari term generally used to refer to a single-teacher
schools set up adjacent to mosques. The Othupallis are not quite the same
as their counterparts in north India or other Muslim countries. They are
institutional forms of religious elementary education which can be judged
as a symbol of the high moral and educational consciousness of Kerala
Muslims since the advent of Islam in the region. Most of the Othupallis
were established adjacent to mosques as a sort of primary school for
religious and Arabic education for young Muslim boys and girls. The
ImƗm (who leads the five-times daily prayer) of the mosque also acts as
the teacher of the Othupalli and gives basic Islamic education to the
children of the area. The Mullakka, Mulla or Muaddin are the assistants
who helped the ImƗm to run the Othupalli effectively. Both boys and girls
are admitted to learn primary surahs and duas from the Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn and to
learn to read and write Arabic. They also learn how to pray, and other
basic Islamic teachings are practised (Naseer 2011).
The method of teaching in these schools is oral; the Mullakka recites
the Sǌrat and the students are asked to repeat the same until memorized.
Aside from this, the curriculum is limited to the recitation of the Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn,
zikr, hamd and ‫܇‬alƗt. Most of the Othupallis were converted to primary
schools when the British Government in India tried to transform them by
providing salary and contingency to the Mulla. However, they now serve
as a centre of Islamic education for students attending schools where they
learn modern subjects. Classes under Othupallis are held either before or
after regular school hours to accommodate school-going children.
1.6.2 Palli Dars

This is the mosque-centric residential learning system. It is an
educational establishment which started with the advent of Islam and
continues to exist even today. Dars, literally meaning “class”, is the
educational system attached to mosques. In the centuries following the
advent of Islam, the number of Darses went on increasing in mosques in
every part of Kerala, and they still exist in large numbers. In order to
impart religious education, Muslims of Kerala evolved a simple
programme in which students were fed by the villagers from their homes.
16 Chapter One
The villagers divided students and teachers among themselves. The

scheme is unique in how it utilizes the resources available in the
community for the propagation of knowledge. Most of the mosques in
Kerala have a second floor (or more than two upper floors). The purpose
of the second floor is not only to accommodate the overflow of
worshippers on special prayer days, but it also serves as a place where a
group of students can be lodged. The first floor of the mosque doubles as a
classroom during non-prayer times. The other interesting feature of the
Dars system is that the education and accommodation are free for the
students. These students are also considered guests of the locality where
the Masjid is situated; each house of the area is assigned a student and
they are responsible for his food. In return for food, the student teaches the
young children of the house. This way, the best use of limited resources is
ensured and, in the process, young generations get served with religious
education. In the curriculum of many darses, computer literacy, library
reading and co-curricular activities like art/literary training are included.
The Dars system, being independent and small scale, served the
community well until recently. Muslim leaders were quick to realize that
this system needs to be improved with the changing times (Pasha 2005).
On the one hand, they improved the standard of teaching in Othupallis and
Darses while improving the conditions of teachers serving in these
centuries-old community institutions. On the other hand, big Madrasas
were established that have specialized teachers and a well-developed
curriculum.
1.6.3 Madrasa
This operates parallel to the general school system from the primary
classes to the senior secondary classes, working in the mornings before
school time (from the 1st standard to the 12th standard).
1.6.4 Boarding Madrasa

A boarding Madrasa is a residential Madrasa which offers Madrasa and
school education within the same campus, charging a fee for education,
boarding and food.
1.6.5 Arabic college

In Arabic colleges, students study both Islamic and secular subjects to
degree and post-graduate levels in residential campuses. Arabic colleges
are the new mode of education parallel to the sophisticated modern

educational system largely developed in the second half of the 19th
century. Absorbing features of Western models of college education, they
introduced religious education with innovative models of teaching,
infrastructures and management. Arabic colleges were much popularized
in the 20th century among Kerala Muslims, and they still remain popular
among religious knowledge-seekers.
1.6.6 Islamic university

This is an institution affiliated to international bodies and offering
advanced education, including research-level courses. Two Islamic
universities are functioning in Kerala with international accreditations.
Darul Huda, a relatively new institution with a fresh vision, established in
1986, has set up a number of feeder institutions. It admits the brightest
students after completion of their primary schooling and takes them
through 12 years of gruelling Islamic and modern education to nurture a
new generation of scholars who can work in this new age and a new
world. While learning the finer points of religion they also master subjects
such as social studies, history and English. Al Jamia Islamia at
Shanthapuram in Malappuram provides journalism, Islamic finance,
political science, philosophy, comparative religion, etc. in its varied
curriculum.
1.6.7 Constitution of Madrasa boards

As a part of the “educating” and “civilizing” attempts of the British
Government in Malabar towards the Mappila Muslims (the Muslims
largely in northern Kerala, that is, Malabar), interestingly, the Ottupallis
were attached to the newly established schools to attract Muslim students.
This caused a close interconnection of “formal secular school education”
and “non-formal religious Ottupalli education” under the same umbrella,
consequently leading to the disappearance of Ottupallis attached to the
mosques.
Just after the independence of India, the Madras government decided
to stop religious education in government institutions, leading to the
unavoidable ending of religious Ottupalli education in government schools
established by the British Government. This directed contemporary
Muslim scholars to shift modes of religious education to other institutions.
Consequently, they formulated a “Madrasa Movement” which became
popular in post-colonial India. Madrasas of Kerala operate very
18 Chapter One
systematically, with a large network and broad curriculum, and

accommodate the formal educational options of their students by
structuring their timings either before or after the usual school times.
In 1871, the famous Koyappathodi family of Vazhakkad set up the first
Madrasa in the region, Tanmiyathul Uloom Madrasa. In 1911, A. M.
Koyakunhi started Madanul Uloom Madrasa in Cannanore (Huda 2010).
Eminent scholar Chalilakath Kunchammed Haji (1866–1919) started
Darul Uloom Madrasa Vazhakkadu in 1912, and is rightly called the father
of modern Madrasa education in Kerala. Syed Abdurahiman Bafakhy
Thangal initiated systematic Madrasa education for the public through the
All-Kerala Islamic Education Board, the first ever Madrasa education
board.
There is no Madrasa board at the government level in Kerala. All
boards are private. Different boards are based on the different schools of
thought within Islam. The Samastha (SKIMVB), Dakshina (DKIMVB),
Sunni (SKSVB) and Samasthana (SKIEB) boards are rooted in the
Ahlussunna school of thought with the DKIMVB, SKSVB and SKIEB, for
one reason or another, developing out of the Samastha Board. The Kerala
Nadvathul Mujahideen Vidhyabhyasa Board (KNM) and the Council for
Islamic Education and Research (CIER) are based in the Ahl-i-‫ۉ‬adƯth
school, while Majlis represents Jama’at-i Islami. The Madrasa boards in
Kerala are as follows.
1. Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB)

2. Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen Vidhyabhyasa Board (KNM)
3. Majlis al-Ta‫ޏ‬alƯm al-IslƗmƯ Kerala (Majlis)
4. Dakshina Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board (DKIMVB)
5. Samastha Kerala Sunni Vidhyabhyasa Board (SKSVB)
6. Samasthana Kerala Islamic Education Board (Samasthana/SKIEB)
7. The Council for Islamic Education and Research (CIER)
The lion’s share (80 per cent) of the Madrasas is affiliated with
SKIMVB.
1.6.8 Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidhyabhyasa Board

To improve the condition of the Othupalli and Dars systems of
education, one organization, Samastha Kerala Jam‫ޏ‬iyyat al-‫ޏ‬UlamƗ‫( ގ‬SKJU),
started a Madrasa board called Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa
Board (All-Kerala Muslim Educational Board) in 1951. The Board started
functioning with K. P. A. Mohiyadheen Kutty Moulavi, a noted scholar of
the period, as its first President. At present (December 2013), there are a
total of 9,636 Madrasas registered under the Board, within which there are
9,636 lower primary, 5,810 upper primary, 2,560 secondary and 570
senior secondary Madrasas. A total of 1,216,390 students (including
585,554 boys and 630,836 girls) and 85,690 teachers are engaged in the
education process. There are 141 officials employed under the Board in
various activities, including 96 academic inspectors, 28 office staff, 6
teacher trainers, 6 QƗriҴ (reciters) and 5 organizers. Besides these
Madrasas, the Board runs one engineering college, one well-equipped
residential boarding Madrasa near its headquarters, one womens’ college,
one Muallim (teachers’) training centre and 180 schools. The Board has
spread its educational activities in sTamil Nadu, Puducherry, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, as well as
United Arab Emirates, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and
Malaysia. The salary of teachers and all expenses of the Madrasa are met
by residents of the villages where the Madrasas are situated. The Board
takes care of the teachers’ pension when they retire, and also deposits
money in their welfare funds. The Board itself is funded by examination
fees. Public examinations are conducted at 5th, 7th, 10th, and 12th Grade
levels. The Madrasa is co-educational (Samastha 2009).
1.6.9 Kerala Nadvathul MujahideenVidhyabhyasa Board

(KNM)
The KNM Board started functioning in 1956 with Janab Mohammed
Amani Moulavi as the Chairman. The Board is associated with the Salafi
school of the Ahl-i-‫ۉ‬adƯth movement. The activities of the Board inspired
the establishment of major educational institutions in Kerala, including
Arabic colleges, arts and science colleges, technical institutes and schools.
1.6.10 Majlis al-Ta‫ޏ‬alƯm al-IslƗmƯ Kerala (Majlis)

The Majlis Education Trust was established by Jama’at-i Islami,
Kerala, in 1980 to monitor Madrasas and to renovate their curricula. A
number of Madrasas, secondary schools and colleges have been set up by
the Trust across the state. The Trust now undertakes activities such as
preparing the syllabus and annual plan, publishing textbooks, holding
inspections, organizing orientation programmes and examinations,
conducting distance education programmes, cultural festivals and teacher
welfare programmes. At present, there are a total of 246 Madrasas
registered with the Board, and 22,024 students (including 9,924 boys and
20 Chapter One
12,100 girls) and 1,484 teachers (610 males, 874 females) are engaged in
the education process. There are five officials, including two academic
inspectors, employed by the Board.
1.7 Initiatives for quality improvement in the Madrasa

education system in Kerala
The major stages of institutional development in the Madrasa
education system of Kerala can be listed as Othupalli, Palli Dars,
Madrasa, boarding Madrasas, Arabic colleges and colleges of Islamic
higher education, and Islamic university, as discussed in Section 1.6. The
major initiatives for quality improvement in the Madrasa education system
of Kerala are as follows.
1.7.1 Introduction of teacher training

A special institute was set up in 2002 under SKJMCC (Samastha
Kerala Jam‫ޏ‬iyyat al-Mu‫ޏ‬allimƯn Central Council), under the Samastha
Board, to provide training for Madrasa teachers. The Muallim Training
Centre (MTC) offers a one-year course for aspiring teachers. Anyone who
has completed Matriculation and Madrasa 7th Grade is eligible to apply
for admission. Those who qualify are called for personal interview. The
Course is completely free, including tuition fees, food and boarding. In
addition to core religious subjects, the curriculum of the MTC includes
pedagogy, educational psychology, personality development, general
history, English language, practical experience on Madrasa administration
and documents, preparation of teaching and learning materials, and special
training in conducting co-curricular activities such as literary association,
study tour, student parliament, morning assembly, etc. Ten batches of
student teachers have completed their courses of study. The pass-outs are
serving in various Madrasas with comparably good salary.
1.7.2 Different courses and programmes

Different courses and programmes meant for improving teacher
competence include various pre-service training programmes and in-
service programmes such as “THADREEB”. (See section 1.7.3.3)
1.7.2.1 Pre-service training
The majority of teachers in Madrasas are pass-outs of the Arabic

colleges with degree titles such as BƗqawƯ, Fay‫ڲ‬Ư, DƗrimƯ, AnwarƯ,
Ra‫ۊ‬mƗnƯ, AshrafƯ, YamƗnƯ, etc. Special training of 40 days’ duration is
provided with the aim of orienting them in the Madrasa system, after 8–10
years of their course of study. They have already acquired competency in
content knowledge through their study. The training is aimed at making
them familiar with the Madrasa environment and teaching/learning
processes.
1.7.2.2 Training course for graduates of the Arabic colleges
This training course is designed especially for the final-year students of

the Arabic colleges. The curriculum includes 40 days’ training in all of the
fields listed in Section 1.7.1, in addition to core religious subjects.
Attendance is compulsory. A special test is conducted after the completion
of the course. Those who pass the test are provided with a certificate of
training.
1.7.2.3 Da‫ޏ‬wa Centre
One of the major challenges which the Madrasa education system faces
is the scarcity of efficient teachers. To make available to Madrasas a
sufficient number of teachers, Darul Huda Islamic University designed
and started a new course of two years’ duration, called the Islamic D’awa
Course, in 1994. Its curriculum is highly commendable. In addition to
major secular disciplines such as English, social studies, general sciences,
history, teaching methodology and educational psychology, Islamic
subjects such as Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn, ‫ۉ‬adƯth, fiqh and Arabic language are included in
the curriculum. Due to the non-availability of sufficient candidates, the
University later dropped the courser. However, it continues to provide
special training for selected teachers and ImƗms on themes of pedagogic
and public interest through the Centre for Public Education and Training
(CEPET).
1.7.3 On-the-job training

On-the-job training includes various in-service programmes, such as
qualifying examinations in Lower, Higher and Hizb training and the
innovative “THADREEB” programme.
22 Chapter One
1.7.3.1 Training for in-service teachers
This is the training programme for those in-service teachers who have
no previous training. Anyone who has received teacher training and Hizb
(Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn recitation) training is eligible for various welfare schemes run by
the Teachers’ Association, Samastha Kerala Jam‫ޏ‬iyyat al-Mu‫ޏ‬allimƯn
(SKJM). The curriculum of training includes teaching methodology, child
psychology, practical experience on Madrasa administration and
documents, preparation of training and learning materials, and special
training in conducting co-curricular activities. If there is a minimum
number of 30 non-trained teachers in a range (a cluster of 25–30
Madrasas), they can apply to the Board, in a prescribed format with the
prescribed fee, for training to be provided. Then the tutors of the Board
will conduct the training for 40 days from 11 am to 4 pm. After the course,
there will be an examination and certification for successful teachers.
1.7.3.2 Qualifying examinations – Lower, Higher and Hizb training
These are the different qualifying examinations for teachers of

different levels. These examinations are conducted annually by the
Samastha Education Board. The Lower Examination is considered the
basic qualification to teach primary classes. i.e. up to 7th Grade. The
Higher Exam is meant as the basic qualification to teach secondary and
higher secondary classes. i.e up to 12th Grade. Hizb training is meant for
the proper recitation of the Holy Qur‫ގ‬Ɨn according to the rules of Tajweed.
Only after receiving this training will teachers be able to teach in higher
classes of the Madrasa. These qualifications are also considered by the
Board to be the eligibility criteria for various welfare schemes for teachers.
1.7.3.3 Continuous professional development of teachers:

“THADREEB” – innovative programme for teacher empowerment
In Arabic the word TadrƯb means training. The word is also utilized as
an acronym for “Teachers’ Hour to Assure D’awa and Range
Empowerment to Ensure Boosting”, which means the empowerment of a
regular cluster-level meeting of teachers. The THADREEB project was
undertaken by SKJM during the academic years of 2011–2013 and was
later extended up to 2023. The major aims of the projects are: 1) to make
teachers aware of new instructional strategies and give ample training in
teaching; 2) to create the learning atmosphere which will promote
character building and the cultural behavior of the child; 3) to empower
the system of Madrasa education to enable the new generation in being

attracted to Madrasas; 4) to make the parent community aware of religious
thinking and current issues; 5) to make use of modern pedagogic practices
for the empowerment of Madrasa education. Through these aims,
THADREEB focuses on the empowerment of teachers through a bi-
monthly cluster-level get-together called a Range Meeting. The expected
outcomes will be as follows: 1) the teachers will be aware of innovative
teaching methods and new developments in psychological studies related
to teaching; 2) to make the Range Meetings attractive and effective
through the introduction and demonstration of novel instructional
strategies; 3) the potential of teachers will be nurtured; the interest of a
new generation towards Madrasa education will be enhanced; 4) the
capabilities and limitations of children will be familiar to the teacher; the
environment for character building of the learner will be enhanced; 5)
some model Madrasas from all over the state, according to their levels of
performance, will be selected, graded and awarded.
1.7.4 Curriculum and textbooks

Each Madrasa board designs its own course curriculum and prepares,
prints and distributes the textbooks and other learning materials. Samastha
Board has a curriculum and textbooks from the primary to the higher
secondary level. The language of the textbooks varies from board to board.
The Samastha Board uses Arabic-Malayalam as the language of its texts in
the primary classes and Arabic for the secondary and higher secondary
classes. Other boards use Malayalam as the language of their textbooks.
The Samastha Board has its own text materials in the Urdu, Tamil and
Kannada languages for Madrasas which are working out of the state.
1.7.5 Recognition of Madrasas

Each board has its own mechanism for recognition of Madrasas. The
Madrasa Management Committee has to apply for recognition in the
prescribed format to the board concerned. The board official conducts an
inspection visit to the Madrasa, based on information received in advance,
checks the status of infrastructure and teaching facilities, and reports the
same to the board. The board grants recognition to the Madrasa if it
satisfies the basic requirements.
24 Chapter One
1.7.6 Supply of Madrasa records

For recognized Madrasas, the board provides all the required official
documents, such as the admission register, students’ attendance register,
transfer certificate book, visit diary, teachers’ register, etc., free of cost.
1.7.7 Madrasa inspection visit and supervision

Each Board has inspectors who are constantly on the move, who
continuously check the quality of education being organized in boards
affiliated to Madrasas, monitor their activities and report to the board.
1.7.8 Evaluation system

Public examination: Public examinations are conducted at 5th, 7th,
10th and 12th Grade levels by the board, which awards certificates to
those who pass. Samastha Board holds centralized camps at the Board’s
headquarters for evaluation of the answer scripts.
Annual general examinations: In all other classes, annual general
examinations are conducted with a general question paper at the Madrasa
level.
Term-end examinations: First-term and mid-term examinations are
also conducted at the Madrasa level. The question papers are provided by
the board concerned.
1.7.9 Art and literary festival

Bi-annually, art and literary festivals are conducted for the students at
the state level after cluster/Tehsil/district-level competitions. The
Samastha Board conducts a festival for teachers along with the students’
festival.
1.7.10 Madrasa Management Associations

There is a Madrasa Management Association at various levels, including
district and state levels, to ensure the smooth functioning of Madrasas.
These Associations are consortia of various Madrasa Management
Committees (MMCs). They conduct various training programmes for
MMCs in institutional planning and administration.
1.7.11 Governmental initiatives

The Government of Kerala has monitored the Scheme of Modernization
of Madrasas and SPQEM programme very effectively. As part of the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), special training programmes were
conducted for Madrasa teachers throughout the state.
1.8 Rationale for the present study

The Madrasa system that operates in Kerala is a highly effective
machinery for imparting basic religious education to the growing
generation, up to plus two levels (ages 16–17), which is run in a smooth
manner with well-defined aims and objectives supported by a well-
planned curriculum, syllabi and other tools required for an educational
system. It is designed in such a way that a student can pursue his religious
studies together with a modern education in schools. Hence, in Kerala
almost every Muslim child essentially passes through the Madrasa
education system by the time it reaches the age of adolescence. However,
the engagement with Madrasas does not hinder in any way their
achievements and progress in the field of modern education. It rather
contributes to their all-round development, and especially helps in their
moral and spiritual development.
Although the Madrasa system of Kerala has seen many developments
over the decades, academia has not paid much attention to the scientific
study of its workings, strengths and contributions. Most of the research
work accomplished so far deals with generalities and peculiarities of
Kerala Islam, in comparison with and contrast to the other Muslim and
Islamic experiences, without much focus on the educational initiatives of
the Kerala Muslims. In many writings, it is acknowledged that the Kerala
model of education is unique in nature, and it is a role model for all other
states. For example, Roland Miller, in his work Recent Trends in the
Studies of Mappila Muslims of Kerala, characterizes the Madrasa system
of Kerala as the “wonder” and “strength” of the Mappila Muslim
community. Yet, no scientific study has so far been conducted to find out
the true basis of strength and progress of the Madrasa education system in
Kerala and its continued development over the centuries. Any such study
would go a long way in further strengthening and reinforcing the Madrasa
education system and its effective coordination with the modern education
system in the state, as well as helping to reform the Madrasa education
system in other parts of the country. It is with these considerations in view
and to address these needs that the present study was taken up.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
form his character. From Vimines, whose pointed steeple commands
the hill, one comes down through the vineyards and orchards to the
waterfall at Coux by a zig-zag path from which are to be seen
several very fine views. Opposite lies a chaos of mountains, boldly
scaled by rows of pines; on the left, the Nivolet with rocky peaks
bathed in a bluish light; on the right, the openings of the valley of the
Echelles and La Chartreuse. Marcel stopped short when he saw,
between two golden-leaved beeches which framed a picture of
savage loveliness, the long waterfall, slender and white, which fell a
hundred feet and shone again in a silvery dust in the sunshine. He
smiled happily.
“It is beautiful in its lonely surroundings,” he said. “Don’t let us go
down any further. We have still to go to the Montcharvin woods and
the ravine of Forezan.”
These were some of the old possessions of Le Maupas, which
had been given up when the crash came. Because they were nearer
home and, from time immemorial, familiar sights to him, he loved
them best. And now though they were sold, they had not lost their
charm for him. The beauty of the earth is not to be bought and sold.
It belongs to the discoverer who can understand it and enjoy it.
Le Forezan is a deep valley whose steep sides are covered with
a ragged growth of brushwood. Here and there the sides are less
abrupt, and it is possible to climb down to the stream which runs at
the bottom. There, under a far-stretching arch of greenery, are
peace, silence, and forgetfulness.
Marcel, who was walking ahead, turned back and saw that his
sister was caught in the creepers which crossed the path. Before
coming to help her he cried:
“How pretty you look in those bushes!”
“Come and help me instead of talking nonsense,” said Paule. But
he did not hurry. The girl’s natural grace harmonised wonderfully with
this fresh virgin landscape. He could not help admiring the
suppleness of the movements she made to disentangle herself, and
the bright flush of health that the exercise brought to her cheeks.
When he came up to her, she was quite free from the snare which
had held her. “Too late!” she cried.
“Bravo, Paule! You wouldn’t be afraid in Cochin-China or the
Tonkin forests. You will see them some day. You belong to the same
race as your brothers.”
“What, I?” she said, the fire in her eyes dying out. “I shall live and
die at Le Maupas.”
They came back from the valley through the ash wood. These
trees with their light trunks reared their heads proudly on high,
wearing as a crown the mass of branches from which the autumn
wind was tearing the leaves. Half stripped, they showed their
shapeliness in all their youthful health and strength, and thousands
of uplifted arms waved peacefully. Like naked hamadryads they
betrayed the secret of their forms. The scanty leaves which still
adorned them, were ruddy gold, almost as rich as the fallen ones
which thickly carpeted the soil below. Evening came on and all the
wood was bathed in a violet mist, which gave to it the mysterious
aspect of a sacred grove.
Turned to the west on one side, on the other looking over
meadows and vineyards, the farm of Montcharvin reflected in its
windows the glow of the setting sun. This spacious house was built
amid the ruins of an old castle, of which one dismantled tower and a
Romanesque portico were all that remained. This portico,
unprovided with a door and now quite useless, looked on to a
roofless shed where old plough-shares were kept, and beyond, by
reason of an abrupt descent, to a distant landscape which was
framed in its arch. This arrangement called to mind the pictures of
the old Italian masters, who, in order, doubtless, to sum up the
multiform beauty of the world, used to supplement their human
figures with a scene from nature, glimpsed between the columns of a
palace or under the arches of a cloister.
Marcel and Paule skirted the old building and, following a screen
of trees at the edge of a field which hid the deep valley of Forezan,
they stopped in front of a fallen trunk, a natural bench which had
been left there for years. Of one accord they sat down.
They saw the shades of evening falling over the land. They saw
the path which they had followed and the dead leaves of the woods
turning pink and violet. Two bullocks drawing a cart full of milk-cans
passed in front of them, and, as they crossed a band of sunshine, a
light haze could be plainly seen rising from their nostrils at every
breath and mounting upwards. Peace filled the countryside, which
was preparing for its winter rest with all the sadness of its shorn
meadows and despoiled woods.
Marcel took his sister’s hand. Suddenly at his touch she burst into
tears. They had too many sensations in their hearts at this moment
of leave-taking. He was thinking of Alice and her weakness, Paule
was thinking of him. For a moment he waited till the tears he had
caused her to shed were dried.
“Listen,” he said at last. “You must watch over mother. I shall be
away for a long time perhaps.”
Uneasily she felt a foreboding of some new misfortune, but
immediately she mastered herself.
“You will come home next year from Algiers, won’t you?”
He looked at her tenderly. “I don’t know, Paule dear, I am taking
part in an expedition which is preparing to cross the Sahara.”
“Oh,” she cried, “I was sure of it. You ask too much of our
courage, Marcel. Mother is old and very worn. She feels our troubles
as much as we do ourselves. We must make it easy for her.”
Looking at the peaceful fields, he thought how sweet it would be
to stay near his mother and sister. But it was only a passing regret,
and he went on:
“Are you not there, you, our sister of charity? I have to go far
away. I must forget. Don’t talk about it now. The Moureau expedition
is not yet ready. It won’t set out for a year, or more perhaps. I am
telling you, because I have no secrets from you. Mother will know
about it soon enough.”
“Will this expedition take long?” she asked simply.
“No one can say exactly. Probably eighteen months.”
She tried to master her sorrow, but overwhelmed she burst into
tears.
“You don’t know how much Mother and I love you. Oh, if only we
could have given our hearts to her who didn’t dare to assert her will,
she at least might have been able to do what we cannot, to keep you
here.”
He took her in his arms and pressed her to his heart. Sure of this
love, whose strength gave him courage, he waited till her despair
had passed. But he did not mention Alice. That name should never
cross his lips again. He only made a contemptuous allusion to his
love.
“Don’t let us speak of that, dear. Such a marriage would only
have hampered me. A woman has no right to cramp her husband’s
career. What is a love worth that is not strong enough to bear
separation and sorrow and to make a sacrifice? You will stay with
Mother. My destiny was to be a globe-trotter—worse luck!”
He felt his sister’s form grow stiff in his arms.
“I was not thinking of myself,” she said, and in this phrase lay a
whole world of inward rebellion, which he divined and understood.
She had known sorrow too young, at an age when life was
opening with all its charm, and since her father’s death she had
experienced much base ingratitude and much insulting patronage to
both her mother and herself. From these experiences, she had
gained the strength of a stoic, but a bitter pride as well. She had
already lost all hope for the future. She tried to forget herself, as she
believed herself to be forgotten. The love for her mother and brother
satisfied her passion for devotion. Uplifted by her dignity and her
contempt for society, she did not seek to analyse the vague feelings
which were surging in her ardent heart.
Marcel knew she had the same nature as he, little inclined to talk
about self or to worry about her own affairs. He only tried to distract
her and spoke with deep affection.
“Paule, don’t despair. One of these days you will be happy. You
deserve it so much!”
But she turned the conversation:
“Your trip to Paris was about the expedition, wasn’t it? You never
told me about it,” said Paule.
“I did not keep you in the dark long, Paule, not long. I had to fight
against all kinds of intrigues and competition. At last I got
permission, both for Jean Berlier and myself, to join the expedition.”
“Oh, so M. Berlier is going too?”
“Yes, and he will come back a captain and with the Legion of
Honour. It will certainly develop him. The desert widens one’s heart
and brain, as the sea does. You don’t think of love-making any more!
But why have you left off calling him Jean?”
She made no reply. He looked at her, and then getting up said:
“Let us go back. It is growing dark. We must not leave Mother
alone any longer.”
Madame Guibert was seated at the door, waiting for them. With
her old hands she was knitting some woollen stockings for a farmer’s
little girl. She had put on her spectacles to see her needles. She
often lifted her eyes towards the avenue. This side of the house was
covered with the five-leaved ivy whose scarlet color was deepened
by the rays of the dying sun.
As soon as she saw Marcel and Paule she smiled at them. But as
they were coming up the staircase she quickly took off her
spectacles to wipe her eyes.
“At last!” she cried.
Her son kissed her.
“We stayed too long in the Montcharvin woods. But here we are,
Mother. Are you not afraid of the cold? It is getting late to be out of
doors.”
And as they went into the house, the young man turned to look at
the neighboring meadows, the chestnut avenue, and the open gate.
Knowing how things stood with his family, he was aware that they
would have to think of selling Le Maupas, unless his brother Étienne
made a fortune in Tonkin. Here he had spent his childhood, and
formed his soul. From this country—now all pink and violet—his
memories came back to him at his call. They came to him from all
sides, like a flight of birds clearly defined in the setting sun. Marcel
shut the door. In the drawing-room he went and sat beside his
mother on a low seat, leaned on her shoulder, and took her hand.
“I am so comfortable here,” he said in a caressing voice which
was a contrast to his determined face.
For the first time he noticed the hand that he was holding in his
own, a poor, worn, rough hand with fingers swollen and ringless,
which betrayed a life of toil and old age. Madame Guibert followed
her son’s eyes—and understood.
“I was obliged to leave off wearing my wedding ring, it hurt me. I
wore your father’s for a long time, but the gold grew so thin that one
day it broke in two like glass.” And she added, as if talking to herself:
“It did not matter. Only our feelings matter. And even death
cannot alter them.”
Marcel looked at the portrait of his mother that he knew so well. It
represented a woman, pretty and slender, looking like a shy young
girl, whose tiny, tapering fingers held a flower, in the quaint old-
fashioned way. Then he bent down and put his lips to the withered
hand.
In memory he saw again the old lady, worn out and humiliated,
coming home from La Chênaie after the refusal, and he thought of
the rough way he had received her. Then with the rather haughty
grace which lent so much value to his words of love, he said:
“My dear Mother, I have sometimes spoken rudely to you.”
She drew her hand gently away and stroked his cheek, smiling a
sad yet bright smile, which told the whole story of a soul purified by
suffering.
“Be quiet,” she murmured, brokenly. “I forbid you to blame
yourself. Every day I thank God for the children He has given me.”
They were silent. Minutes passed, swiftly, irrevocably.
The approaching separation drew nearer, and they enjoyed to the
full the happiness of their last moments together.
Nothing brings two lives closer than having suffered in common.
When would they ever be together again as they were now in the
golden charm of autumn, facing the fading trees, whose dying
beauty could be seen through the window? Of these three souls, two
had the presentiment that these hours would never come back.
Madame Guibert sought in vain her usual bravery in farewell
moments. Marcel was thinking of the solitudes of Africa which
sometimes keep those who visit them; but, ashamed of his
weakness, he banished with cheery words of hope these dark
forebodings which cast shadows over the little country drawing-
room.
And now Farmer Trélaz came to tell them that the carriage was at
the door. The luggage was stowed away in it—a lunch basket not
being forgotten for the long journey to Marseilles.
It was quite dark before the ancient vehicle started.
At Chambéry Paule noticed Madame Dulaurens and her
daughter under an arcade. She saw Alice grow deadly pale; but
turning to her brother, she was surprised to see him quite unmoved.
He seemed indifferent. She felt intuitively, however, that he, too, had
seen her.
At the station the three had a long wait. They had the little
waiting-room to themselves. Madame Guibert never tired of looking
at the son who was about to leave her. Suddenly she said:
“You are more like your father than any of the others.”
“I have not his faith in life,” said Marcel. “I never saw him
discouraged. Whenever he failed in anything, he used to lift his head
and laugh and say, ‘As long as there’s life there’s hope.’”
“Since his death,” said the old lady, “I have lost all my courage.”
“He lives again in you, Mother. He still lives for us.”
“Through you too. And he is waiting for me.”
Marcel kissed her.
“No, Mother, you know we need you,” he said.
They were no longer alone, and a short time after, at the porter’s
call they went out on the platform. There they saw in the darkness
the two headlights of the express flash as it sped on towards them.
The moment of farewell had come. Never had Madame Guibert
shown so much emotion. Again and again she cried, “My son, my
dear son,” while she embraced him. He smiled to reassure her.
Her last words were a prayer:
“May God bless you and keep you!”
All bent and bowed to the earth which was drawing her towards
it, she went back on Paule’s arm to Trélaz’s carriage.
“Don’t be unhappy, Mother dear,” said Paule, comforting her. “It is
only for a year. You used to be so much braver.”
All the time she herself was in torture because of the secret that
had been entrusted to her.
On the way home they were silent. During the evening at Le
Maupas Madame Guibert suddenly burst into tears.
“I am so afraid I shall never see him again,” she murmured, when
she could give voice to her grief.
“But he is running no risks,” Paule assured her, surprised and
alarmed at this strange presentiment of a danger of which she alone
was aware.
“I don’t know. I am as sad as I was the year your father died.”
With a great effort she managed to control herself so as not to
frighten her daughter. Then, taking the hand of her last child with that
gracious gentleness which remained to her from her youth, she said
to Paule, thinking of the many separations in the past, some for a
long time and others for ever:
“Dear little girl, you are the last flower of my deserted garden.”
PART II
CHAPTER I
THIRTEEN AT TABLE
“We might perhaps go in to dinner,” M. Dulaurens timidly
ventured to suggest.
Upon the look which his wife threw at him he left the immediate
neighborhood of the fireplace, where some enormous oak-logs were
burning, and modestly seated himself at the side. Turning to her
guests, Madame Dulaurens smiled and showed them a calendar
with the date February 25th inscribed thereon in huge letters.
Mademoiselle de Songeon, old and dried-up, drew nearer and
seemed to take a special interest in the flight of time. In reality her
only thought was to get possession of the corner near the fire. She
had just come back from Rome. In winter she paid attention only to
the southern shrines; and to accomplish this last pilgrimage she had
had to seize hastily the cattle of a farmer whose rent was in arrears.
While warming her large feet she considered the calendar.
“But it says the twenty-fifth of February, 1898!” she exclaimed
after reading it, “and we are now at the twenty-fifth of February,
1901. You are exactly three years behind the time!”
All the ladies except Alice got up to confirm this. The calendar
was passed from hand to hand. Madame Orlandi, who was holding
Pistache to her heart—an old, fat, bald Pistache, whose heavy
eyelids fell over bleary eyes—cried out astonished and proud of her
own penetration.
“Oh, I know! You have kept it at the date of your daughter’s
wedding. To-day is the third anniversary. How clever and delicate
your motherly love is! You are so sympathetic, dear Madame
Dulaurens. I too love to keep souvenirs.”
“I’ll wager you don’t remember the date of my wedding, Mamma,”
said Isabelle, now Madame Landeau.
“Oh, you dreadful Isabelle! You’re always ready with a jest,” said
her mother.
And, with diplomacy which lacked subtlety, the Italian countess
bent over her pug and covered him with caresses.
Seeing all her guests busy, Madame Dulaurens threw a hasty
glance at the clock and saw that it was a quarter to eight. Dinner was
ordered for seven, and in the provinces punctuality is strictly
observed.
“My dear little countess, did you see anything of Clément this
afternoon?” she asked her daughter, who sat silent and absent-
minded.
“No, Mamma,” answered Alice, in a low voice.
Four or five months after Marcel Guibert’s departure, the
despairing Alice, crushed and submissive, had married, at her clever
mother’s bidding, Count Armand de Marthenay, then Lieutenant of
the 4th Dragoons at Chambéry. For the third time they were
celebrating her “happiness.” Her maidenly languor and supple
slenderness had changed to depression and leanness. Her limpid
eyes and the drooping corners of her mouth told of profound and
habitual sorrow. Without losing their refinement her features had
altered. Through a greater prominence of the cheek-bones, a more
pronounced thinness of the nose, a fading of color in the cheeks, the
old expression of youth and innocence had given place to a sad little
air of fragile resignation. She bore the marks of a sorrow which filled
her life and of which her husband was certainly quite aware. To be
convinced of this, it was sufficient to look at the heavy, pimply visage
behind her—the vacant face of a man prematurely worn out.
The house at Chambéry where the Dulaurenses lived in the
winter reminded one in its massive structure and the pillars of its
staircase of the showy palaces in Genoa the Magnificent. The
drawing-room looked on to the Place Saint-Léger in the centre of the
town. Ten lamps lighted up the vast room that evening, but were not
sufficient to show off the fine old high-timbered ceiling.
Madame Dulaurens anxiously left her daughter, and drawing
back the window-curtain looked out into the square, which she saw
by the gas-jets flickering in the keen frosty air, was quite empty. She
drew down the blind and looked at the party. They seem so
interested in their talk that she decided to wait a few minutes longer.
“Madame Orlandi, who is always late, came too soon to-day,” she
thought rather spitefully.
Round the fireplace the women were listening to Mademoiselle
de Songeon, who was describing the catacombs at Rome with the
devotion of a catechumen. Madame Orlandi, artlessly devoid of
morality and unskilled at suitable comparisons, said she preferred
the ruins at Pompeii, because the pictures there were so diverting.
Mesdames de Lavernay and d’Amberlard, mature and solemn
women, had no opinion at all. Their aristocracy was very pleasing to
Madame Dulaurens, who gladly advertised their origin. They were
well-bred, and valued existence according to the number and the
importance of the invitations that they managed to procure for
themselves. Their husbands, a pair of practised parasites, had
retained a distinguished air from the old royalist days. They had the
right prejudices, were sincerely ignorant of modern life, and sought
pleasure unceasingly. Baron d’Amberlard had high color and liked
good living; the Marquis de Lavernay, still young in spite of his white
hair, reserved his polite speeches concerning feminine beauty.
The latter had just come from the Court of Sessions and was
giving a group of men his impressions of the jury.
“You condemn a thief and let a child-murderer go scot-free,” said
M. Dulaurens. But the nervous little man hastened to add: “Please
note that I am not criticising you.”
M. de Lavernay laughed unreservedly.
“Ah, my dear fellow, if we sentenced child-murderers we should
never have any servants.”
“What a mania there is for having children!” cried M. d’Amberlard.
“One’s family should be governed by the state of one’s finances.
What do you think about it, M. Landeau?”
M. Landeau admitted that he had thought nothing about it. As a
millionaire, he was always fighting terrible battles with labor so as to
be able to pour a golden rain upon his wife and at last with a
triumphant cheque to touch her proud heart. She played with him
much in the same way a tamer does with the beast that roars,
threatens, and arches its back. Under the pretext of filial duty
towards Madame Orlandi (who did not care at all what she did) she
had refused to follow him to Lyons; so twice a week he came to see
her in the splendid villa he had built for her on the Cognin road. It
was an overworked man with bent shoulders and pale face that she
dragged with her into society. There, tamely growling, he admired
Isabelle’s beauty and listened joylessly to her bell-like laughter, as
she showed her white and shining teeth.
M. d’Amberlard, stifling a yawn, began to fidget.
“I’m afraid the dinner will be spoilt. It has been kept waiting too
long,” he whispered to the Marquis de Lavernay, who made no
answer but hastened to an empty seat beside Madame Landeau,
where he was seen shaking his long horse-like head in his efforts to
please.
Armand de Marthenay, motionless and silent up to now,
overheard this and woke from the torpor into which he had sunk.
“It is all Clément’s fault. He must have had a smash up.”
He spoke so loudly that everybody heard and turned towards
him. The long wait had become unbearable to all. The hands of the
clock pointed to eight.
Again Madame Dulaurens tried to hide her anxiety. “Clément,”
she said, “is very careful. But these cars are dangerous at night. One
can so easily run into something in the dark.”
“Where did he go?” asked the women.
“That is just what is worrying me. He left for La Chênaie at five
o’clock. It would hardly take him ten minutes, it is only two miles. And
he hasn’t come back.”
Anxious as ever for peace, M. Dulaurens assured them that
nothing had ever happened to Clément.
“Not to Clément,” Marthenay sarcastically put in. “He is a young
devil! He is always running over something,—hens and dogs, and
the other day it was an old woman.”
“We paid her,” said Madame Dulaurens indignantly. “And paid her
very well indeed.”
“She is limping about on your money.”
M. de Lavernay gallantly, and without any suspicion of irony,
explained to his hostess that there were unfortunate creatures who
were in the habit of throwing themselves in front of motor cars, so as
to make money out of the owners. All except Mademoiselle de
Songeon, who hated progress, were in favor of this fashionable sport
and were busy defending it when Clément entered, looking very jolly
and with a red face, his fur coat covered with frost which shone in
the light.
Madame Dulaurens rushed up to him and scolded him well
instead of satisfying her desire to kiss him. Since her daughter’s
marriage she had insisted on playing a much larger part in her son’s
life. He made no attempt to excuse himself, but laughed, melting like
an icicle all the time.
“Oh, well, we got stuck at Cognin. Such a bad business!”
M. d’Amberlard tossed his head furiously.
“A nice business indeed,” he said. “Dinner kept waiting! He is
talking very coolly about it, the young scoundrel.” He was still raging
inwardly when Madame Dulaurens took his arm to go in to dinner.
Clément made as though to offer his to Mademoiselle de Songeon,
who stared at him scornfully and ordered him to go and dry himself.
“You are quite right, Mademoiselle de Songeon,” he replied
philosophically. “But you aren’t very kind! I shall go and dry myself
and change too.”
He disappeared, returning in his dinner-jacket as they were
serving the filet of beef with mushrooms. With all the coolness of the
rising generation, he asked loudly for soup and fish and made no
attempt to make up for his delay.
As the courses succeeded one another harmoniously, the guests’
pleasure grew and the conversation became general. Clément,
having satisfied his appetite, was burning to take part in it and attract
the attention of the table. He watched his opportunity and called
across the room: “I have some great news for you.”
“What is it?” they cried on all sides.
“I heard it at Cognin. I had it from my chauffeur, who heard it from
the schoolmaster.”
“Cognin news,” said Isabelle ironically. “It will interest the whole of
France!”
“At the news I bring you

Your lovely eyes will weep,”
Clément hummed to the air of “Malbrough.”

“Ha, ha!” laughed everybody.
“You may laugh, Madame, but my news will interest the whole of
France.”
“Then tell us what it is,” cried several voices at once.
Every eye was on the young man. He enjoyed the momentary
superiority which his possession of news gave him. Holding the
whole table at his mercy he had succeeded in gaining his ends. They
were now serving truffled galantine “des gourmets” as it was called,
the glory of a Toulouse specialist. In front of each guest costly
orchids of various hues blossomed in a tall Murano vase. It was
Alice’s idea to have this decoration, which she had read of in a
society paper.
“Well?” said Madame Dulaurens, speaking in the name of all.
Clément could contain himself no longer. He had had time
enough to appreciate his own tactlessness, but with the utmost
coolness he said: “Well, Commander Guibert is dead!”
This news, dropped like a bombshell in the middle of a gay
dinner-party, all but perfect in its arrangements, amid the warmth, the
lights, the charming flowers, the dazzling jewels, the lovely dresses,
and the general cheerfulness, seemed almost an impropriety. It
would be only the unmannerly Clément, coarsened by sport, who
could be guilty of such a blunder. Why, the very introduction of the
subject of death seemed to imply that the pleasures of the evening
were not everlasting; and does not the whole art of enjoying the
present consist in supposing it will last forever? And then if it had
only been the death of some unknown person, they could have
passed it over! But Commander Guibert could not be so quickly
disposed of; the common knowledge of his origin, his personality,
and his brilliant career prevented his name from dropping out of the
conversation. Stupefaction reigned at the table.
Isabelle was the first to speak, and it was to cast doubts on the
truth of the story.
“But it is not possible! Last year we might have believed you. He
was taking part in the Moureau Expedition to Africa. He was
travelling in unknown and dangerous countries. But he came back
safe and sound, and famous as well. Now he is commander and an
officer of the Legion of Honour at thirty-two. He is our great man. You
are all jealous of him, so you think you will just get rid of him.”
She spoke with animation, turning from right to left in her chair, as
if inviting all the guests to witness her anger. On Clément’s unhappy
remark she had looked at Alice and saw the blood leave her cheeks
as though she were dying. This mortal pallor extended even to her
hands, which shook nervously, hardly distinguishable from the white
cloth. Isabelle had immediately turned the attention on herself with
her hasty words.
Clément made a slight gesture.
“No, he is dead. I admire him as much as you do, but he is dead.”
And he repeated this word, which should never be spoken in a
dining-room.
“Oh, for Heaven’s sake do be quiet,” murmured Madame Orlandi,
who had just noticed that they were thirteen at table, counting twice
over in the hope that she was mistaken. Solemnly Mademoiselle de
Songeon exclaimed: “May God rest his soul in peace.”
“Did he die in France?” asked M. Dulaurens. “The Expedition
came back a month or two ago.”
M. d’Amberlard, quite unmoved, was enjoying a truffle that he
kept on his plate so as to reserve its taste to the last, and M. de
Lavernay kept his eyes fixed on Isabelle’s corsage as she bent
forward.
M. de Marthenay put down his glass, which he kept emptying
constantly.
“I met the Commander,” he said, “scarcely three weeks ago. He
was getting out at the station. I went up to him but he seemed not to
know me.”
“Probably because he didn’t want to,” Isabelle could not refrain
from remarking. She hated Alice’s husband, who made persistent
love to her when he had lost at cards and had nothing else to do.
And to prevent any more allusions she added: “No doubt he has a
contempt for officers who have resigned.”
M. de Marthenay had left the army the year before.
“He had a contempt, you mean,” said Clément cruelly. He would
not allow them to rob him of his dead, and when he had reconquered
the general attention he gave a few details.
“My brother-in-law is quite right,” he said. “Commander Guibert
did come back to Savoy last month. He stayed two days with his
mother and sister at Le Maupas and then returned to his barracks at
Timmimun, in Southern Algiers.”
“At the entrance to Touât,” explained the ex-dragoon, who since
he left the army was exceeding keen about all military questions.
“But General Lervières passed Timmimun to-day, so the Berbers and
the Doui-Menia must have attacked him from the rear.”
Young Dulaurens stuck his monocle in his eye and stared
impertinently at Marthenay.
“Armand,” said he, “I don’t recognise you. Have you gone in for
strategy?”
With another look at her friend’s bloodless face, Isabelle made a
fresh interruption.
“I do not understand. He had scarcely returned from crossing the
Sahara, a trip which lasted eighteen months or two years, I don’t
quite remember which. After these expeditions one generally has a
long leave. Then he evidently took no rest? He went back at once to
this expedition? Because, if he is dead, he must have been killed in
battle.”
Raising his eyebrows, Clément let his eyeglass fall.
“When a man is a hero he is not one by halves. He asked for this
post on account of the danger.”
M. de Lavernay, bending towards his neighbor, whispered in her
ear:
“I like to see you get excited. Your cheeks color and your eyes
flash.”
But it was not at either her cheeks or her eyes that he was
looking. The impatient Isabelle cut him short with that sharpness
which marriage had not cured.
“Do be quiet, you old sinner!” she cried.
Alice had taken up her bouquet of orchids and was smelling it,
half hiding her paleness. At last Isabelle, giving full vent to the
uneasiness which had tortured her for the last few minutes, said,
“And Captain Berlier? He was coming back from the Sahara too.
He belonged to the same regiment as Commander Guibert. Had he
gone with him to Timmimun?”
Did Clément Dulaurens guess her anxiety from the tone of her
voice? Too often had he suffered from her sarcastic remarks not to
take a cruel pleasure in tormenting her a little now.
“Yes, that is true,” he said. “Jean Berlier must have been there as
well.”
“Now what do you know exactly?” demanded Isabelle
imperiously.
“Tell us what you heard,” put in Madame Dulaurens. Annoyed at
the course of the conversation, she had given up all hope of diverting
it and was resigned to hearing the whole story.
“Well, here you are! While they were mending my car at Cognin I
went into the Café National. There were only the mayor, the
schoolmaster, and three or four municipal councillors there. When
they saw me they looked at me mysteriously. ‘Hallo,’ I said to them,
‘are you holding a meeting?’ ‘No, we are just chatting,’ the mayor
said. And that was as far as we got.”
“And then?”
“That was all that concerned me. I went out, and sent my
chauffeur to have a drink in his turn. He is very thick with the
schoolmaster. They are both anarchists.”
“Anarchists!” repeated Mademoiselle de Songeon wrathfully.
“Certainly. Everybody is nowadays. It is the fashion. My chauffeur
came back. ‘I know what it is,’ he said. ‘They have had a wire from
the Minister about Commander Guibert’s death in Africa.’ ‘Are you
sure? I said. ‘Quite,’ he said. ‘He was killed by savages defending a
town called Timou—Timmimun?—that’s it. Then of course they had
to tell his people the news. They were very puzzled how to do it. At
last they sent a policeman.’”
“A policeman?” said M. Dulaurens, a stickler for legalities. “But
the mayor should have taken the fatal telegram in person.”
“The Guiberts are conservatives,” said M. de Lavernay. “These
republicans will not trouble themselves in such cases.”
“But the Guiberts are not interested in politics.”
“The grandfather was a councillor, of conservative views, and the
father was mayor of Cognin. That is quite enough.”
Madame Dulaurens was trying to catch a glimpse of her
daughter, who was separated from her by a candelabrum. Alice’s
orchids were drooping under the warm rain of her tears. In the
general confusion no one had seen her cry.
“How did he die?” questioned one of the ladies.
“At the head of his men—after the victory—with a bullet in his
forehead. I quote the telegram that my man read.”
“Did he receive the last sacrament?” asked Mademoiselle de
Songeon shaking her grey head.
The ever-correct M. Dulaurens summed up the affair. “He is a
great loss to his country.”
“Yes,” added his wife, in a noble impulse of eloquence. “We will
honor his glorious memory. We will get up a memorial service whose
magnificence shall astonish all Chambéry. It is the duty of our class
to show France how genuine merit must be recognised and
rewarded, at a time when mediocrity has taken possession of the
country, when envious equality drags it down to the lowest level.”
She had read this last sentence that very morning in a leading article
of the Gaulois.
Alice, surprised to hear all this, thought in her sorrow, “Why then,
did she refuse to let me give myself to him?” And Isabelle was silent,
thinking of Jean Berlier, whose fate was still unknown.
Madame Orlandi, forgetting Pistache for a minute, noticed how
abstracted her daughter was. She looked at her with loving
admiration and praised herself for the depth of her maternal
affection. In an outburst in which the thought of self did not swallow
up all pity she expressed her concern for Madame Guibert.
“Does his mother know?” she asked. And she stopped
confusedly, as though she felt herself guilty of a scandal. All eyes
turned to Clément Dulaurens. The young man answered in a free

Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education An Exploratory Study 1St Edition K Mohammed Basheer Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quality Enhancement in Madrasa Education An Exploratory Study 1St Edition K Mohammed Basheer Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quality Enhancement in Madrasa

Education An Exploratory Study 1st

Motivations barriers and readliness factors for Quality

Quality Control Procedure for Statutory Financial Audit

The Highest Education A Study of Graduate Education in

Faculty Development in Developing Countries Improving

Unnormalizing Education Addressing Homophobia in Higher

Quality of Higher Education Organizational and

Dialogues on Human Enhancement Nicholas Agar

Cultural Perspectives on Indigenous Students Reading

This book first published 2016

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2016 by K. Mohammed Basheer

ISBN (10): 1-4438-9793-0

List of Tables .............................................................................................. ix

List of Acronyms ....................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xvii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 26

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 54

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 83

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 169

Bibliography ............................................................................................ 193

Glossary ................................................................................................... 199

Index ........................................................................................................ 202

Table 3.1 Break-down of the intended sample for the study

Table 4.8 Teachers’ views towards quality in curriculum designing

Figure 4.1 Histogram representing students’ overall views towards

ADB Asian Development Bank

NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling

SYED HAIDER ALI SHIHAB THANGAL,

The Madrasa system of Kerala has rarely attracted scholarly attention

PROF. MOHAMMAD AKHTAR SIDDIQUI

The present book is based on a study conducted in the district of

A. M. Abdul Quadir (Professor Emeritus, University of Calicut), Prof. S.

Finally, I express my gratitude to all those who have directly or

In transliterating Arabic words, I have followed the system of the

1.2 Rationale for Madrasa education

The Madrasa education system introduced by the Muslims has

formal system of education. Now, it is one of the largest networks of

1.3 Overview and brief history of Madrasa education

of the revelation which he had received. Starting from Masjid al Nabawi

1.3.1 Indian scenario

Ghaziuddin at Ajmeri Gate. This period witnessed a wide expansion of

rational sciences and working knowledge of English in its courses of

1. Darul Uloom, Deoband, 1866.

Partition of the country had a significant impact on the Madrasa

1.4 Present scenario of Madrasa education

1. Maktab (for primary education)

2. Madrasa (for secondary/senior secondary level of study)

1.5 Constitutional provisions for education of minorities

Chapter III of the Indian Constitution (Fundamental Rights): Articles

1.5.1 The Scheme of Modernization of Madrasas

1. The objective of the scheme is to encourage traditional institutions

3. In the first phase, primary classes of middle- and secondary-level

The major feedback from the programme was as follows.

1. Although the Scheme of Modernisation of Madrasas was

1.5.2 Scheme for Providing Quality Education in Madrasas

Objectives of the scheme:

The SQPEM is a demand-driven scheme. The scheme was planned to

1.6 Madrasa education in Kerala