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Second aT | a

OU
Mechanics
A Textbook for Undergraduates

Mahesh C. Jain
QUANTUM MECHANICS
QUANTUM MECHANICS
A Textbook for Undergraduates
Second Edition

Mahesh C. Jain
Formerly Associate Professor
Department of Physics
Hindu College
University of Delhi

PHI Learning Private Limited

Delhi-110092
2017
QUANTUM MECHANICS—A Textbook for Undergraduates, Second Edition
Mahesh C. Jain

© 2017 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81 -203-5338-1

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Seventh Printing (Second Edition) oo an July, 2017

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111,
Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj,
Delhi-110091.
Dedicated to my late parents
Shri Sham Lal Jain
Smt. Lakshmi Devi Jain
Quantum mechanics is very impressive. But an inner voice
tells me that it is not yet the real thing. The theory produces
a great deal but hardly brings us closer to the secret of the
Old One. I am at all events convinced that He does not
play dice.
—Albert Einstein
(in a letter to Max Born)

If God has made the world a perfect mechanism, He has

at least conceded so much to our imperfect intellect that
in order to predict little parts of it, we need not solve
innumerable differential equations, but can use dice with
fair success.
—Born’s reply to Einstein

God not only plays dice. He also sometimes throws the

dice where they cannot be seen!
—Stephen Hawking
 Contents

Preface xvii
Preface to the First Edition xix

Chapter 1 A Brief History of the Creation and Interpretation

of Quantum Mechanics 1-7
Nobel Awards for the Development of Quantum Theory 7

Chapter 2 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin

of Quantum Theory 8-37
2.1 Blackbody Radiation: Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis 8
Planck’s Radiation Law 10
2.2. The Photoelectric Effect 12
Failure of Classical Physics 13
Einstein’s Theory—Photons 14
Stopping Potential 15
2.3. The Compton Effect 20
Experimental Arrangement 21
Failure of Classical Physics 21
Compton’s Explantation 22
Relation between 6 and @ 24
Kinetic Energy of the Recoil Electron 25
2.4 Dual Nature of Radiation 30
Conceptual Difficulty 31
Summary 31
Questions 32
Exercises 33

Chapter 3. Atoms and the Bohr Model 38-59

3.1 Introduction 38
Alpha-Scattering Experiment 38
The Rutherford Nuclear Model 39
ix
x Contents

3.2 Atomic Spectra 39

3.3 Bohr Model of Hydrogenic Atoms 41
Energy of the Electron in the ath Bohr Orbit 43
Frequency and Wavelength of the Radiation in
the Transition n. > n, 43
3.4 Explanation of the Hydrogen Spectrum 44
Hydrogenic Ions 45

3.5 Correction for Finite Nuclear Mass 51

3.6 Limitations of the Bohr Model. Sommerfeld’s
Elliptic Orbits 52
3.7. The Franck-Hertz Experiment 54
3.8 The Correspondence Principle 55
Summary 57
Questions 58
Exercises 58

Chapter 4 Wave Nature of Matter and the Need for

a Wave Function 60-76
4.1 De Broglie’s Hypothesis 60
Other Useful Expressions for the De Broglie Wavelength 62

4.2 Experimental Verification of De Broglie’s

Hypothesis 67
Davisson-Germer Experiment 67
G.P. Thomson’s Experiment 69
4.3 The Double-Slit Experiment with Particles 71
4.4 The Need for a Wave Function 73
4.5 Born’s Interpretation of the Wave Function 74
Summary 75
Questions 75
Exercises 76

Chapter 5 Wave Packets and the Uncertainty Principle 77-103

5.1 Representation of a Particle by a Wave Packet 77
Wave Packets in Three Dimensions 81
5.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 83
Energy-Time Uncertainty Relation 84
General Statement of the Uncertainty Principle 85
5.3 Illustrations of the Uncertainty Principle 85
Heisenberg’s Gamma-ray Microscope 85
Single-Slit Diffraction Experiment 87
Double-Slit Interference Experiment 88
5.4 Bohr’s Complementarity Principle 89
 Contents xi

5.5 Applications/Consequences of the Uncertainty

Principle 90
The Ground State Energy and the Radius of the
Hydrogen Atom 90
Nonexistence of Electrons Inside the Nucleus 91
Zero-Point Energy of a Harmonic Oscillator 92
Broadening of Spectral Lines 93
Mass of a-Meson 95
Summary 100
Questions 101
Exercises 102

Chapter 6 The Schrédinger Equation 104-132

6.1 The Necessity for a Wave Equation and Conditions
Imposed on It 104
6.2. The Time-Dependent Schrédinger Equation 105
Particle in a Force-field 107
6.3 Statistical Interpretation of the Wave Function and
Conservation of Probability 108
Probability Conservation and the Hermiticity of the
Hamiltonian 109
Probability Current Density 110
6.4 Expectation Values of Dynamical Variables 111
6.5 Ehrenfest’s Theorem 113
Proof of (6.45) 113
Proof of (6.46) 115
6.6 Exact Statement and Proof of the Position-Momentum
Uncertainty Relation 116
6.7. Wave Packet Having Minimum Uncertainty
Product 117
6.8 The Time-Independent Schriédinger Equation.
Stationary States 118
Degeneracy 120
Reality of Eigenvalues 120
Stationary States 121
Orthogonality of Eigenfunctions 121
Parity 122
Continuity and Boundary Conditions 123
6.9 The Free Particle 124
Momentum Eigenfunctions 125
Physical Interpretation of the Wave Functions 125
Normalization of Momentum Eigenfunctions 126
Summary 128
Questions 131
Exercise 132
xii Contents

Chapter 7 Particle in a Potential Well 133-157

7.1 One-Dimensional Infinite Square Well 133
Connection with the De Broglie Hypothesis 136
Zero-Point Energy 137
Parity 137
7,2 Three-Dimensional Infinite Square Well 144
7.3, One-Dimensional Finite Square Well
(First Type) 147
Eigenfunctions 149
Parity 150
Energy Levels 150
7.4 One-Dimensional Finite Square Well
(Second Type) 151
Summary 153
Questions 155
Exercises 155

Chapter 8 Scattering of Particles by Barriers and Wells 158-182

8.1 The Potential Step 158
Case 1: E> Vy 159
Case 2; E< Vy 161
8.2 The Square Potential Barrier 165
Case 1: E> VY 166
Case 2; E< VY 169
8.3 Explanation of Alpha Decay 173
8.4 The Square Potential Well 176
Summary 178
Questions 181
Exercises 182

Chapter 9 The Linear Harmonic Oscillator 183-200

9.1 The Time-Independent Schrédinger Equation and
Its Solution. Energy Eigenvalues 183
9.2. The Hermite Polynomials 187
Recurrence Relations 188
Generating Function 188
Rodrigues’ Formula 188
Orthogonality 188
9.3. The Harmonic Oscillator Wave Functions 189
Summary 198
Questions 199
Exercises 199
 Contents xiii

Chapter 10 The Formal Structure of Quantum Mechanics 201-215

10.1 The Dirac Notation 201
10.2 Operators 202
Hermitian Operator 203
Commutator 203
10.3 Orthonormal Functions 205
10.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions 206
Degeneracy 206
Eigenfunctions of Commuting Operators 208
10.5 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 208
Postulate 1: The Wave Function 208
Postulate 2: The Superposition Principle 209
Postulate 3: Operators 209
Postulate 4: Expansion in Eigenfunctions 210
Postulate 5: Measurement of an Observable: Eigenvalues 210
Postulate 6: Expectation Values 210
Postulate 7: Time Development of the Wave Function 211
10.6 Time Variation of the Expectation Value of an
Observable 212
10.7 Ehrenfest’s Theorem 213
10.8 A Note on the Superposition Principle 214

Chapter 11 Orbital Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics 216-232

11.1 The Orbital Angular Momentum Operator
and Its Cartesian Components 217
11.2 Commutation Relations 217
11.3 Angular Momentum Operators in Spherical Polar
Coordinates 219
11.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions of Z? and L, 219
The Case m; = 0 221
Legendre Polynomials 222
The General Case m, # 0 223
11.5 Spherical Harmonics 225
Parity of Spherical Harmonics 226
11.6 Effect of The Operators ZL, and L, on Vimy 226
11.7 Vector Model of Angular Momentum:
Space Quantization 227
11.8 The Rigid Rotator 229
Summary 230
Questions 232
xiv Contents

Chapter 12 Spherically Symmetric Potentials and

Hydrogenic Atoms 233-258
12.1 Separation of the Wave Equation into Radial
and Angular Parts 233
The Angular Equation 235
The Radial Equation 235
12.2 Reduction of a Two-Body Problem to an Equivalent
One-Body Problem 236
12.3 Hydrogenic Atoms 238
Energy Eigenvalues 240
Degeneracy 241
Radial Eigenfunctions 243
12.4 Effect of Magnetic Field on the Atomic Energy Levels:
The Zeeman Effect 249
Magnetic Moment of an Orbiting Electron 250
Effect of External Magnetic Field: Splitting of Energy
Levels 251
Selection Rules 252
Splitting of Spectral Lines 253
Summary 255
Questions 257

Chapter 13 Atomic Structure I: One-Electron Atoms 259-291

13.1 Spin Angular Momentum 260
The Anomalous Zeeman Effect 260
Fine Structure of Spectral Lines 260
The Stern-Gerlach Experiment 260
Spin Eigenfunctions 262
13.2 Magnetic Moment Due to Spin 263
13.3 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment 264
13.4 Total Angular Momentum of the Electron in a
One-Electron Atom 267
13.5 Spectroscopic Notation for Atomic States 270
13.6 Spin-Orbit Coupling and Fine Structure of
Spectral Lines 272
13.7 Total Magnetic Moment of the Electron.
The Landé g Factor 279
13.8 The Anomalous Zeeman Effect 283
13.9 Zeeman Splitting in a Strong Magnetic Field:
The Paschen-Back Effect 287
Summary 288
Questions 290
 Contents xv

Chapter 14 Atomic Structure II: Many-Electron Atoms 292-312

14.1 The Central Field Approximation 293
14.2 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 293
14.3 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Wave Functions:
The Generalized Pauli Principle 294
14.4 Atomic Shell Structure 296
Shells and Subshells 297
Electronic Configurations of Atoms in Their Ground
States 298
14.5 The Periodic Table 302
14.6 Explanation of the Periodic Table 302
14.7 Ionization Energies 304
14.8 Corrections to the Central Field Approximation:
LS Coupling and jj Coupling 305
LES Coupling 306
jj Coupling 309
Summary 310
Questions 3il
Exercises 312
Appendix A The Fourier Transform 313-314
Appendix B- The Dirac Delta Function 315-316
Suggested Further Reading 317-318
Index 319-322
 Preface

It is a great pleasure for me to bring out the second edition of Quantum

Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates. The first edition was published
in 2007. It has received very good response from both students and teachers
and has been reprinted almost every year since then.
A number of modifications/alterations/additions have now been made at
various places and certain concepts, which were overlooked in the first edition,
have been incorporated. A number of new problems have been added and
solutions/hints to some earlier problems are given. These are based on my
experience during teaching and suggestions from students and teachers.
It is well known that quantum mechanics cannot be fully comprehended,
appreciated and enjoyed unless a historical introduction is given in detail. With
this in mind, I have rewritten Chapter 1, giving the fascinating story of the
quantum, beginning with Max Planck and then briefly mentioning the works
of all the principal contributors in a chronological order, and the responses/
reactions of other physicists to their works. I have also mentioned the famous
Bohr-Einstein debate on the interpretation of quantum mechanics. It was the
most exciting period in the history of physics.
I am sure students will be happy and enlightend to get a glimpse of the
development of this fascinating subject right in the beginning of the course.
Care has been taken to get rid of all the errors of the first edition.
However, some might still remain. I shall be thankful to the readers if they
point these out to me. I also invite suggestions from students and teachers for
further improvement of the book, in particular, if some more topics should be
included.
I hope the students will enjoy this first exposure to quantum mechanics.

Mahesh C. Jain

xvii
 Preface to the First Edition

The basic concepts of quantum mechanics constitute the central core around
which the whole of modern physics revolves. It is, therefore, natural that a
large number of excellent textbooks already exist on Quantum Mechanics.
Most of these books provide comprehensive coverage of the material
appropriate for the postgraduate courses. Even though these books begin from
a basic introduction to quantum theory, the range of topics covered by them
is generally broad and large, providing a much deeper coverage of the subject
matter. Hence their presentation tends to become complex, both from the
viewpoints of mathematical formulation and conceptual discussion. This title,
on the other hand, offers a basic introduction to quantum mechanics for
students who are exposed to this subject for the first time at the undergraduate
level. The first encounter with quantum mechanics is a very thrilling and
bewildering experience in which the students realize that the microscopic
world behaves in a manner which is drastically different from the macroscopic
world in many ways which are completely beyond their imagination. They
learn entirely new concepts which do not conform to everyday experience and
to what they have learnt or observed so far. At this beginning stage the
students need a book which is easy to understand and takes them along gently
through the new concepts and ideas at a pace at which they feel comfortable
and can enjoy this marvellous subject. Still, the book should be thoroughly
rigorous, giving all the necessary mathematical details so that it can serve as
a textbook for the undergraduate curriculum. The present book is written
precisely to fulfill this need of the beginner. It has grown out of my
interaction (teaching and discussion) with the undergraduate students for more
than three decades.
The book is written primarily as a textbook for the students of physics
and comprehensively covers the syllabi of all the Indian universities. However,
it will also be useful for the students of engineering and chemistry.
I have tried to develop the course in such a manner that the student gets
a reasonably good grasp of the fundamental principles and the basic
mathematical structure without being unduly frightened. No advanced topics
xix
xx Preface to the First Edition

have been discussed. I have confined the subject matter only to wave
mechanics because the other version of quantum mechanics—the matrix
mechanics—is not taught at the undergraduate level. It is my personal opinion,
too, that matrix mechanics and the state-vector approach should be introduced
only after the student has got a reasonably thorough grounding in wave
mechanics and its applications to simple systems. It is easier to make a
transition from the ‘classical world’ to the ‘quantum world’ through the more
familiar mathematics (differential equations) of wave mechanics than through
the abstract algebraic approach, however elegant it may be.
The book is divided into 14 chapters. After a brief historical introduction
in Chapter 1, the origin of quantum theory is presented in Chapter 2. Here,
it is discussed how Planck explained the blackbody radiation by postulating the
quantization of radiant energy and then, how the photoelectric effect and the
Compton effect established the particle nature of radiation. Chapter 3
highlights how Bohr explained the structure and spectra of simplest atoms
using the quantum hypothesis—by postulating discrete stationary orbits and
quantum jumps. This chapter also discusses the Franck—Hertz experiment,
which demonstrated directly that the energy is absorbed by atoms in discrete
quanta, and explains the correspondence principle, which served as a guiding
principle in the initial development of quantum mechanics.
The basic framework of quantum mechanics is developed in Chapters 4,
5 and 6. Beginning with De Broglie’s hypothesis, these chapters discuss in
detail the need for a wave function and its interpretation, the wave packets,
the uncertainty principle, the Schrédinger equation, the operators, the
eigenfunctions and eigenvalues, the expectation values, ete. The application of
this framework to simple systems—potential wells, barriers and harmonic
oscillator—are explained in Chapters 7, 8 and 9. Chapter 10 presents the
formal structure of quantum mechanics as a set of seven postulates. In
Chapter 11, the quantum mechanical treatment of orbital angular momentum
and its application to the rigid rotator are presented.
In Chapters 12, 13, 14 the application of quantum mechanics to the
structure of atoms is discussed. Here the Schrédinger equation for a
hydrogenic atom is first solved. The concept of spin and its consequences, the
Pauli exclusion principle, the atomic shell structure, the coupling schemes and
the Zeeman effect are then discussed in detail.
Each chapter contains a number of solved problems and exercises. These
are an essential part of the book and must be taken very seriously. A proper
understanding of quantum concepts is not possible without undergoing the
grilling in problem solving. A set of review questions is also given at the end
of each chapter. These are of the type that are generally asked in the
examinations. Students are advised to write their answers. This will help them
to comprehend the subject faster. Each chapter ends with a summary of all the
important key points discussed therein.
 Preface to the First Edition xxi

Students are advised not to get disheartened if they feel confused while
reading certain concepts in the first instance. They should have the patience
to read the whole thing again. They can take heart from one of the greatest
scientists, R.P. Feynmann, who once remarked, “nobody understands quantum
mechanics!” Even if the readers find quantum mechanics conceptually
difficult, they will find it beautiful and enjoyable and with persistent effort,
will soon acquire a working knowledge appropriate at their level.
I have made all efforts to see that the book is free of errors. However,
some might have still remained. I shall be thankful to the students and teachers
alike if they point these out to me. Suggestions for the improvement of the
book are also welcome.
I express my sincere thanks to the management and staff of PHI Learning
for publishing the book in an excellent form. In particular, I am indebted to
Shri Darshan Kumar, Shri Malay Ranjan Parida and Shri K.K. Chaturvedi for
taking keen interest in this book and giving valuable suggestions during the
course of its production.

Mahesh C. Jain
 Chapter
A Brief History of the
Creation and Interpretation of
Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics provides the theoretical framework which makes it possible

to describe, with reasonably good accuracy, the behaviour of radiation and
matter at microscopic (atomic and subatomic) levels. The creation of quantum
mechanics is the most outstanding development of modern science. It is like a
revolution that has changed the old concepts of reality in many respects. As the
great mathematician Henri Poincaré has said:
“It is hardly necessary to point out how much quantum theory deviates from
everything that one has imagined until now, it is, without doubt, the greatest and
deepest revolution to which natural philosophy has been subjected since
Newton”.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, physicists had started believing
that almost all the fundamental laws of nature have been discovered and as such,
the main task of physics is over’. Various branches of physics were unified in
a general theoretical framework, now called classical physics, and it was felt that
all known or to be discovered physical phenomena can be explained in this
framework.
The universe consists of two types of entities—matter and radiation. Matter
is made up of localized particles. The classical mechanics, formulated by
Newton and further developed by Hamilton, Lagrange and many others,
successfully explained the motion of material particles subjected to various
types of forces. Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory in 1855 which
combined electricity, magnetism and optics into a single framework. He showed
that all radiations, including light, are electromagnetic waves. The existence of
such waves was confirmed experimentally by Hertz in 1887. All waves show
interference and diffraction phenomena which were well understood theoretically.
During the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth,
physicists turned their attention to the study of the microscopic structure of

+ In fact, when Max Planck entered into physics, he was advised not to study the subject
because all the problems had been solved.
1
2 ¢ Quantum Mechanics:A Textbook for Undergraduates

matter, the nature of electromagnetic radiation and the interaction of radiation

with matter. In these studies a number of experimental results were obtained
which could not be explained on the basis of classical physics. These puzzling
results created a crisis in theoretical physics. Quantum theory had its origin in
the attempts made to explain these results. Radically new concepts were required
which were completely incompatible with classical physics. These new concepts
are: the particle nature of radiation, the wave nature of matter and the
quantization of physical quantities.
The ‘quantum revolution’ was started by Max Planck in the year 1900
when he discovered the equation which could account for the spectral
distribution of energy in the radiation emitted by a black body. Planck was
already 42 then and was a deeply conservative person who could not easily
reconcile to new ideas. To the persons who knew him, including his students,
it seemed inconceivable that Planck could usher in such a revolution. Even
Planck himself did not believe it. In his own words, “What I did can be
described as an act of desperation”. Planck later struggled hopelessly to get rid
of the quantum hypothesis. He and most other physicists believed that the
introduction of the quantum was just a mathematical trick to get the right
equation and had no real physical significance. They were sure that in due
course, an understanding of the radiation law would be possible in the existing
framework of physics and the concept of the quantum would not be required.
That was not to be! An unknown 26 years old clerk in a patent office in
Switzerland realized the significance of Planck’s work. He was Albert
Einstein. After reading Plank’s work, Einstein felt “as if the ground had been
pulled from under one, with no firm foundation to be seen anywhere upon which
one could have built”. Einstein went one step further. Planck had not quantized
radiation. He had simply suggested that radiant energy was absorbed or emitted
by matter in discrete lumps (quanta). However, he believed that radiation itself
was a continuous wave phenomenon. Einstein made the ‘revolutionary’
suggestion that the electromagnetic radiation was propagated in the form of
quanta. These quanta were later named photons. He applied the photon
hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect. His photoelectric equation is one
of the most beautiful, elegant and simple equations in physics.
In 1905, Einstein sent the paper to Annalen der Physik. Planck was the
adviser to the journal. Though he completely disagreed with Einstein’s quantum
of light, Planck allowed the paper to be published. However, for the next ten
years, no other physicist believed in the quantum of light.
The next important step in the development of quantum theory was taken
by Niels Bohr in 1913. Ernest Rutherford had proposed the Nuclear Model of
the Atom. His nuclear atom could not be stable according to classical
electromagnetic theory. Bohr was struggling to ‘save’ the nuclear atom because
from various considerations, he was convinced that the nuclear atom was indeed
stable and the fault lies with the classical physics, which predicted its collapse.
He realized that to save Rutherford’s atom, some radical change was required.
 A Brief History of the Creation and Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics e 3

Although till then he did not believe in Einstein’s light quanta, it was gradually
becoming clear to him that the only way to save the nuclear atom was by using
quantum concepts. He ‘quantized’ electron orbits, arguing that an electron in an
atom could occupy only some particular orbits, which he called stationary
states. Bohr developed the first successful theory to explain the spectra of
hydrogen-like atoms.
In spite of initial disbelief and rejection by most of the senior physicists in
Europe, Bohr’s quantum atom solved some long-standing problems, in
particular, the mystery of spectral lines. Direct experimental evidence for the
existence of atomic energy levels was obtained by Franck and Hertz. Rutherford
later called the concept of quantum atom a “triumph of mind over maiter”.
It was soon realized that the Bohr model has serious limitations and
shortcomings. Attempts were made by Arnold Sommerfeld and others to
modify it. However, it became clear that this kind of ‘cocktail’ of classical and
quantum physics would not take us very far. What was required was a logically
consistent quantum theory based on sound principles.
Bohr’s work triggered the search for such a theory. Though he did not
create the new mechanics—called quantum mechanics— directly, he became its
chief motivator and spokesman. He acted as a father-figure and guide to some
of the younger physicists who were involved in its creation. Bohr played a key
role in the interpretation of quantum mechanics and was involved in an intense
debate with Einstein (and also Schrédinger) over a long period regarding its
appropriate interpretation. That was perhaps the most momentous and exciting
period in the history of physics. In spite of their sharp academic differences,
Einstein and Bohr were great friends and admirers of each other. “Seldom in
my life has a person given me such pleasure as you have,” Einstein once wrote
to Bohr.
To his contemporaries, Bohr was a scientific giant. According to
Heisenberg and Born, Bohr’s influence on the physics and physicists of the
twentieth century was greater than that of any one else, even more than that of
Einstein. The Danish Government honoured him by creating an institute of his
own in Copenhagen, popularly known as the Bohr Institute. The institute was
a creative heaven for many bright young physicists.
The credit for the creation of quantum mechanics goes to Werner
Heisenberg. His path-breaking paper appeared in Zeitschrift fiir Physik in
1925. He was a young boy (called wunderkind in German) and after finishing
his doctorate, he was working with Max Born in Gottingen as his assistant.
Simultaneously, he was also in constant touch with Bohr and another genius,
Wolfgang Pauli. All of them hoped that Heisenberg would make the crucial
breakthrough. While struggling to make headway to develop a consistent
formulation of quantum theory, he had a very severe attack of hay fever. He
was in a terrible state. To get himself cured, he took leave from Born and went
to the island of Helgoland in the North Sea to find relief in the pollen-free sea
air. There, in the calm and tension-free atmosphere of the sea, he soon
4 « Quantum Mechanics:A Textbook for Undergraduates

recovered. Being in a relaxed state of mind, he could concentrate on his work

and in a few days, he wrote the paper that led to the creation of quantum
mechanics. He was thrilled and excited. “J had the feeling that, through the
surface of atomic phenomena, I was looking at a strange beautiful interior, and
felt almost giddy at the thought that I now had to probe this wealth of
mathematical structures nature had so generously spread out before me”,
recalled Heisenberg later.
However, there was a problem. His formulation required a strange kind of
multiplication where A x B did not equal B x A, A and B being arrays of
numbers. He was deeply troubled by this strange multiplication. Matrices had
not entered physics till then.
Heisenberg quickly returned to Géttingen and gave the ‘crazy’ paper (as
Heisenberg called it) to Born, requesting him to decide whether it was worth
publishing or not. Born was fascinated by the significance of what Heisenberg
had done. During the next few days, he could think of nothing else except
Heisenberg’s strange multiplication rule. One day, he suddenly recalled a
lecture he had attended as a student and realized that Heisenberg had
unknowingly come across matrix multiplication. On being told this, Heisenberg
said, “I do not even know what a matrix is.”
Born asked Pauli to collaborate with him to convert Heisenberg’s idea into
a coherent and systematic theory of quantum mechanics. Pauli was an extremely
talented but outspoken person. He refused saying, “You are only going to spoil
Heisenberg’s physical ideas by your futile mathematics”. Born then turned to
Pascual Jordan, a brilliant 22 years old student and a bigger mathematical genius
than Born himself. Jordan was well versed in matrix theory. In about two months’
time, Born and Jordan laid the foundation of the new quantum mechanics, also
called matrix mechanics. When they sent a copy of the paper to Heisenberg, who
was in Copenhagen, he found it difficult to understand. However, he soon learnt
enough of matrices to be able to collaborate with Born and Jordan, and what came
out was the famous ‘three-man paper’, which contained a logically consistent
formulation of quantum mechanics. Pauli quickly applied it to reproduce the line
spectrum of hydrogen and also calculated the Stark effect. Heisenberg was
unhappy that he himself could not do it.
It is interesting to note that quantum mechanics was also formulated
independently by Paul Dirac, who was a senior research student at Cambridge
University. Dirac’s Ph.D thesis was the first ever on quantum mechanics. He
was soon to become one of the greatest physicists.
In 1932, Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize for ‘Creation of
Quantum Mechanics’. Born was overlooked. He was bitterly disappointed and
very upset. Heisenberg was also not comfortable. He wrote to Born, “The fact
that I am to receive the nobel prize alone for work done in Géttingen in
collaboration—you, Jordan and I—this fact depresses me and I hardly know
what to write to you”.
 A Brief History of the Creation and Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics « §

In 1953, Born complained to Einstein, “That Heisenberg’s matrices bear his

name is not altogether justified, as in those days he actually had no idea what
a matrix was. It was he (Heisenberg) who reaped all the rewards of our work
together, such as the Nobel Prize and that sort of thing. For the last twenty years,
I have not been able to rid myself of a certain sense of injustice”. At last, Born
was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954. A late recognition, but Born and many
others were happy.
As Heisenberg, Born and Jordan were busy formulating matrix mechanics,
Erwin Schrédinger, in Zurich, was developing an alternative version of
quantum mechanics—the wave mechanics. His work was based on Louis de
Broglie’s hypothesis, according to which, with every material particle, a wave
is associated. Debye suggested that if there is a wave, then there should be a
wave equation describing it. Schrddinger decided to find the equation. A few
months of sustained efforts were required to discover the famous wave equation
known as the Schrédinger equation. It is a second order differential equation.
Schrédinger’s paper “Quantization as an Eigenvalue Problem” was
published in March 1926. In this paper, he showed that his equation reproduced
the series of energy levels of the Bohr-Sommerfeld hydrogen atom. The
Schrédinger equation provides the foundation on which the whole edifice of
wave mechanics is built. There is no way to derive it from classical physics; it
required tremendous effort and experience to ‘guess’ it.
Heisenberg—Born formulation was highly abstract and lacked physical
visualizability. It dealt with mysterious entities called matrices with which
physicists were not very familiar in those days. Moreover, it was very difficult
to apply it to practical problems. In contrast, Schrédinger’s theory dealt with
differential equations, which were an essential part of every physicists
mathematical background. Naturally, wave mechanics was greeted by most
physicists with much enthusiasm. Planck wrote to Schrédinger that he read his
paper like an eager child hearing the solution to a riddle that had plagued him
for a long time. Einstein wrote, “The idea of your work springs from true
genius.” Einstein felt that the Heisenberg—Born method was misleading, but
Schrédinger had made a decisive advance. George Uhlenbeck, one of the
discoverers of Spin, said, “The Schrédinger equation comes as a great relief.
Now, we do not any longer have to learn the strange mathematics of matrices.”
Pauli was astonished at the relative ease with which wave mechanics tackled the
problem of hydrogen atom. Even Born realized that wave mechanics is
physically more significant than his matrix mechanics and also superior as a
mathematical tool. According to him Schrédinger’s theory was of fascinating
power and elegance.
The one physicist who did not like Schrédinger’s theory was Heisenberg.
He remained convinced that the matrix mechanics provided a better description
of the phenomena at the atomic level. He was very upset and annoyed when even
Born started using wave mechanics. His frustration grew as more and more
people started abandoning matrix mechanics in favour of wave mechanics.
6 «© Quantum Mechanics:A Textbook for Undergraduates

Surprisingly, Heisenberg himself used it to account for the line spectra of

helium because of its easier mathematics.
Very soon Schrédinger proved that the two approaches are mathematically
equivalent, and so, any one can be used depending on mathematical
convenience. Dirac and Jordan showed independently that matrix and wave
mechanics were just special cases of an abstract mathematical formulation of
quantum mechanics, called transformation theory.
Schrédinger and Dirac were jointly awarded the 1933 Nobel prize in
physics.
One major problem still remained. Solving the Schrédinger equation for a
particular case gives the wave function ['Y (x, )], which represents the wave and
describes its shape at a given time. The question was: “What is the meaning of
this function?”
The function ‘¥ could not be directly measured because it is a complex
number. Schrédinger proposed that the charge of an electron was distributed
like a cloud and |f (x, 4)? was a measure of the charge density at location x at
time t. However, this interpretation did not make physical sense due to various
reasons. We shall not go into the details of this.
The correct interpretation was given by Born. According to him, |W (x, )/?
gives the probability of finding the particle at location x at time ¢ Born’s
interpretation challenged a fundamental belief of physics—determinism.
According to Born, Schrédinger equation describes a probability wave. There
are no real waves, only abstract waves of probability. Born, thus, introduced a
new kind of probability into physics—the quantum probability.
Schrédinger, Einstein and some others did not accept Born’s
interpretation. An intense debate followed among physicists about the correct
interpretation of quantum mechanics, led by Niels Bohr on one side and Einstein
on the other. Einstein expressed his discomfort in a letter to Born, “Quantum
mechanics is very impressive. But, an inner voice tells me that it is not yet the
real thing. The theory produces a great deal, but hardly brings us closer to the
secret of the Old One. I am at all events convinced that he does not play dice.”
However, almost all physicists slowly accepted Born’s interpretation, leaving
Einstein and a few others unconvinced.
As the battle for the interpretation of quantum mechanics was going on,
Heisenbarg discovered that quantum mechanics does not allow the precise
simultaneous determination of both the position and the momentum of a
particle. This led to one of the greatest achievements in the history of quantum
mechaniecs—the uncertainty principle. This principle brought to light a
fundamental difference between classical and quantum mechanics. It is a
consequence of the wave-particle duality of matter. It is of crucial importance
for a proper understanding of the microscopic world and resurfaces again and
again in the development of the theory.
In order to reconcile the quantum theory with the classical physics, Bohr
formulated the correspondence principle in 1923. This principle served as a
 A Brief History of the Creation and Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics « 7

guide in the initial development of quantum theory. It requires that the results
of quantum theory must become identical with those of classical physics in the
limit in which quantum effects become insignificant, that is, when quantized
variables are much larger than their minimum quantum size.

Nobel Awards for the Development of Quantum Theory

1918 Max Planck Discovery of energy quanta
1921 Albert Einstein Discovery of the law of photoelectric effect
1922 Niels Bohr Investigation of the structure of atoms, and of
the radiation emanating from them
1923 Robert A. Millikan Work on the photoelectric effect
1925 James Franck Discovery of the laws governing the impact of
Gustav Hertz an electron on an atom
1927 Arthur H. Compton Discovery of the effect named after him
1929 Louis de Broglie Discovery of the wave nature of electrons
1932 Wemer Heisenberg Creation of quantum mechanics
1933 Erwin Schrédinger Discovery of the new productive forms of
P.A.M. Dirac atomic theory
1937 Clinton J. Davisson Experimental discovery of the diffraction of
George P. Thomson electrons by crystals
1945 Wolfgang Pauli Discovery of the exclusion principle
1954 Max Born Fundamental research in quantum mechanics,
especially for the statistical interpretation of the
wave function
 Chapter

Particle Nature of Radiation:

The Origin of Quantum Theory

Chapter Contents

2.1 Blackbody Radiation: Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis

2.2. The Photoelectric Effect
2.3. The Compton Effect
24 Dual Nature of Radiation

2.1 BLACKBODY RADIATION: PLANCK’S QUANTUM

HYPOTHESIS

The quantum theory had its origin in the search for an explanation of the spectral
distribution of radiant energy emitted by a blackbody. An ideal blackbody is
defined as one that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation incident upon it. It
follows from Kirchhoff’s law that such a body is also a better radiator of energy,
of all frequencies, than any other body at the same temperature. An ideal
blackbody does not exist. The nearest approximation is a hollow enclosure
having blackened inner walls and a small hole. Any radiation entering the
enclosure through the hole will suffer reflections repeatedly and get absorbed
inside. There is very little chance of its coming out. If the enclosure is heated
to a certain temperature 7, it emits radiation. In thermal equilibrium, this
radiation depends only on T. A very small fraction of the radiation will pass out
through the hole. Since the hole acts as a blackbody, this radiation is called the
blackbody radiation at temperature T. Figure 1.1 shows the wavelengthwise
distribution of the intensity (J,) of this radiation. It is found that the radiated
energy is maximum at a particular wavelength /,, and is small for very short
and very long wavelengths.
 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory « 9

4, m a

Figure 2.1 Spectral distribution of blackbody radiation.

Various attempts were made to explain the shape of this curve. Wien
obtained the following semiempirical formula, known as Wien’s law:
—b/AT
(A, T) = = (2.1)
where a and 6 are adjustable parameters. This law fitted the experimental curve
fairly well except at long wavelengths. However, it is not satisfactory in the
sense that it is not derived from a model which would relate the emitted radiation
to physical processes taking place within the enclosure.
A more complete theory was given by Rayleigh and Jeans, based on
classical electrodynamics and thermodynamics. They considered the radiating
body as a collection of a large number of charged particles performing linear
simple harmonic motions. These oscillating charges emit and absorb
electromagnetic radiation. At thermal equilibrium, the energy density of the
radiation inside the cavity will be equal to the energy density of the atomic
oscillators situated in the walls of the cavity.
It can be shown that the number of oscillators per unit volume, of
frequency v, called Jeans’ number, is

n(v) = 8nv"
3 (2.2)
Further, according to the classical theory of equipartition of energy, the
average energy of an oscillator at temperature 7 is kT, where k is Boltzmann’s
constant. Thus, the energy density of the radiation of frequency v in the cavity,
at temperature T, is
2
uv,T) = ° er (2.3)
Cc

This is the Rayleigh-Jeans Law. It can be stated in term of wavelength A

if we note that
n(Ajda = n(v)dv
dv
or n(A) = n(v)
dh
n(v)
ala)
10 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

= nar
8a { c? c
oe [=] (=)

Thus,

U(A,T) = ek (2.4)
The intensity (A, T) of the radiation emitted by the cavity hole is propor-
tional to U(A, T). The exact relation is

KA, T) = qua T)
where c is the speed of light. Therefore,

1A, 1) =k (2.5)
It is found that the Rayleigh-Jeans law agrees with the experimental results
in the long wavelength region. However, it diverges as the wavelength tends to
zero. This failure of the Rayleigh-Jeans law is referred to as the “ultraviolet
catastrophe”. Moreover, Equation (2.3) implies that the total energy emitted at
all temperatures except absolute zero is infinite:

U(T) = [ Uv, Ddv = Sait | Vdy = ©

0 Cc 0
which is obviously impossible.
Since the law was derived by applying the principles of classical physics
rigorously, it gave a serious blow to classical physics and suggested that there
was something fundamentally wrong with it.

Planck’s Radiation Law

Planck realized that some radical change was required to explain the experimen-
tally observed spectrum of blackbody radiation. After much trial, he arrived, in
1900, at the following postulate which is known as Planck’s quantum
hypothesis:
The material oscillators (in the walls of the cavity) can have only discrete
energy levels rather than a continuous range of energies as assumed in classical
physics. If a particle is oscillating with frequency V, its energy can take only the
values

E, =nhy, n=0,1,2,... (2.6)

 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory « I

where h is a constant, later called the Planck's constant. The quantity hv is

called a quantum of energy. This implies that the particle can emit or absorb
electromagnetic energy, not continuously in arbitrarily small amounts, but in
multiples of the quantum hv.
The value of the constant A was chosen to fit the experimental data. Planck
obtained the value 6.55 x 10-*4 Js, which is close to the presently accepted value
6.625 x 10°°4 Js, It is a fundamental constant of nature.
Since the energies of the oscillators are restricted to integral multiples of Av,
the average value of their energies will be different from XT, the value obtained
using the classical equipartition theorem. It can be calculated as follows:
Consider all the particles oscillating with frequency v. At absolute zero, all
the oscillators will be in the lowest energy state. At higher temperatures, some
of the oscillators are excited to higher states. At temperature 7, in equilibrium,
the number of oscillators with energy &, is given by the Maxwell-Boltzmann
function

N(n) = Noe &!*?

This shows that higher the energy state, less likely is it to be populated. As
n — o, N(n) > 0. Note that in classical theory, oscillators of all energies are
excited with equal probability.
The average energy per oscillator is

Ze,
NE,

Sn, ge MAVIKT

n=0

¥ Noe
=0
—nhv/kT

Taking x = ¢*“*", this can be expanded as

_ 14 2x 43x74 4x74.
T+ x+x7°4+x°+-

_ yy - x)? _ hvx
ma —x)y! ~ |=x

=v
ewAT 7
Multiplying it by the Jeans’ number (Equation 2.2) the energy density of the
radiation inside the cavity becomes
12 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

Sav? ov
UW, T)=———
ch —
ehAT 4 2.7
(2.7)

This is Planck’s radiation law. In terms of the wavelength 4 of the radiation,

this becomes

87the 1
UA, T) = a ell ART -1
(2.8)

Planck’s law agrees very closely with the observed spectral distribution
curves for all values of A and 7. It reduces to Wien’s law as A — 0 and
Rayleigh-Jeans’ law as A — ce. Further, it is found to be consistent with Wien’s
displacement law, A,,7 = constant, and Stefan’s law, U « T4 Thus, it
incorporates all that is valid from the classical theory and yet, makes a
fundamental departure, which ultimately shook the foundations of classical
mechanics. Planck was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize for the discovery of
energy quanta.

PROBLEM 2.1 Show that Planck’s law reduces to Wien’s law in the short
wavelength limit and Rayleigh-Jeans’ law in the long wavelength limit.

Solution: When A is small, 7 >> 1. Therefore,

UA, T)~ eet

which is Wiens law (see Equation 2.1).

When A is large,
etl 4 he
AKT
Therefore,
8ahe AKT
UA, T) ~ —
“4D whe
_=8akT

which is Rayleigh-Jeans’ law (Equation 2.4).

2.2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

When electromagnetic radiation of high enough frequency is incident on a metal

surface, electrons are emitted from the surface. This phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are generally called photoelectrons.
This effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory « 13

Radiation
Emitting Collecting
plate plate
@>
Evacuated tube

(4)
4
Figure 2.2 Apparatus for the study of photoelectric effect.

The apparatus used to study the photoelectric effect is shown in Figure 2.2.
When the collecting plate is given sufficiently high positive potential V, all the
emitted electrons reach the collecting plate and the photoelectric current
saturates.
Photocurrent

Saturation current

Vo 0 Collector voltage

Figure 2.3. Photocurrent vs. collector voltage.

The following interesting results were obtained in the study:

(1) No electrons are emitted if the incident radiation has a frequency less
than a threshold value Vo. The value of Vo varies from metal to metal.
(2) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons varies from zero to a
maximum value. The maximum value of energy depends on the
frequency and not on the intensity of radiation. It varies linearly with the
frequency.
(3) The number of photoelectrons emitted per second, or the photoelectric
current, is proportional to the intensity of radiation but is independent of
the frequency.
(4) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process, i.e., there is
negligible time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of
electrons, regardless of how low the intensity of radiation is.

Failure of Classical Physics

These results, except number three, cannot be explained if we consider radiation
to be wave-like, obeying classical electromagnetic theory. Classically, the
 14 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

maximum energy of the emitted electrons should increase with the intensity of
incident radiation. The frequency of radiation has nothing to do with it. The
reason is that the force exerted on the electrons in the metal should be
proportional to the magnitude of the electric field E of the incident wave, and
the magnitude of F increases when the intensity of the radiation is increased.
Contrary to this, it is observed that the energy of the photoelectrons is
independent of the intensity of light but depends on the frequency. Further,
classically, electromagnetic energy is absorbed by the electron gradually and the
electron can be ejected only when this energy becomes more than the work
function of the metal. Therefore, there may be a time lag between the onset
of the radiation and the emission of the electron. The lag will be longer when
the intensity of radiation is decreased. No such time lags have ever been
observed, even with radiation of very low intensity. All observed time lags have
been less than or equal to 10~° seconds.

Einstein’s Theory—Photons
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum hypothesis.
In order to explain the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation, Planck had
assumed that the exchange of energy between the walls of a cavity and the
radiation of frequency v takes place in quanta of magnitude Av, where h is called
Planck’s constant. Einstein went one step further. He suggested that the incident
radiation itself acts like a stream of tiny bundles or quanta of energy hv. These
quanta later came to be known as photons't. When a photon collides with an
electron in the metal surface, it can be absorbed, imparting all its energy to the
electron instantaneously. If the work function of the metal is W, then this much
energy is expanded to remove the electron from the surface. Therefore, the
maximum kinetic energy Ey,,x, and the corresponding velocity Umax, of the
emitted electron are given by

E max
1
=>—mv
2
2
max
=hv-W (2.9)
This is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. It shows that E,,,, varies
linearly with the frequency v of the incident radiation.
The threshold frequency Vj corresponds to the situation when all of the
energy of the photon is used up to remove the electron from the metal and so
no energy is left to provide its kinetic energy. Thus, Vo is given by
hVo =W

or v= (2.10)

* Work function of a material is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an

electron from its surface.
+ Einstein did not introduce the name photon. It was coined much later, in 1926, by
G.N. Lewis.
 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory « 15

Substituting in (2.9), we obtain

Emax = A(V — Vo) (2.11)

as another version of the photoelectric equation. Clearly, no emission is possible

if v< VW.
An increase in the intensity of raditation results in an increase in the number
of photons striking the metal per second but not in the energy of individual
photons. Therefore, the number of photoelectrons emitted per second, and
hence the photoelectric current, increases, but not the energy of photoelectrons.
Lastly, since the electron emission is the result of a direct collision between
an electron and a photon, there is no time delay before emission starts.

Stopping Potential
If the collector plate in the photoelectric apparatus of Fig. 2.2 is made negative,
the electrons are repelled back. For a certain value Vo of this negative potential,
the most energetic electrons are just turned back and therefore the photoelectric
current becomes zero. This potential is called the stopping or cut-off potential.
It is clear that
eVo = Emax
Substituting in (2.11),
eVo = h(v - Vo)

or Vy =v.) (2.12)
é
This shows that Vp « v.

VY

Vo Vv

Figure 2.4 Variation in stopping potential with the frequency of the incident radiation.

The variation in stopping potential with the frequency of the incident

radiation is shown in Fig. 2.4. The graph is a straight line cutting the v-axis at
the threshold frequency Vo. The slope of this graph is h/e. Thus, the value of
Planck’s constant can be determined by measuring the slope of this graph. This
was done by Millikan who found that the value of A obtained from these
graphs is the same as that obtained by Planck from the blackbody radiation
experiments. This was a great achievement as it established the correctness of
the quantum concept and Einstein’s theory. Einstein was awarded the 1921
Nobel Prize and Millikan, the 1923 Nobel Prize.
16 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

PROBLEM 2.2 Find the number of photons emitted per second by a 40 W

source of monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 A.
Solution: Let the number of photons be n. Then
nhv=E
E EA
or n=—=
hv he
40 x 6000 x 107°
6.63 x10 x 3 x 10°
12.06 x 10!°

PROBLEM 2.3 The work function of a photosensitive surface is 3.2 eV. Will
photoemission occur if a photon of energy 3.8 eV is incident on the surface?
If yes, find in joules the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
Solution: Since the energy of the photon is more than the work function of
the surface, photoemission will occur.
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron
=38-—32=06eV
=0.6x 16x10 J

- [Bex]
PROBLEM 2.4 The work function of a metal is 3.45 eV. What is the
maximum wavelength of a photon that can eject an electron from the metal?
Solution: If Vo is the threshold frequency, then we have
Avy =W

or he Ly
Ao
Thus, maximum wavelength is
he _ 663X104 x3x10% |
Ag == = eee = 3.603
x 10-7 m
Ww 3.45
x 1.6 x10

- [5]
PROBLEM 2.5 A metal of work function 3.0 eV is illuminated by light of
wavelength 3000 A. Calculate (a) the threshold frequency, (b) the maximum
energy of photoelectrons, and (c) the stopping potential.
Solution:
(a) Threshold frequency
 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory « 17

W 3.016107
Yo= = oo
~ 663x10
= | 0.72x10" Hz
(b) Frequency of incident radiation

Maximum energy of photoelectrons Ey, = h(V — Vo)

= 6.63 x 10°74 (1.0 — 0.72) x 10!5
1.86 x 10°19 J
1.86x 107!
16x10 = [16eV ]
Evan _ 1861079
(c) Stopping potential V9
e 16x10”

PROBLEM 2.6 Find the frequency of the light which ejects from a metal
surface electrons fully stopped by a retarding potential of 3 V. The
photoelectric effect begins in this metal at a frequency of 6 x 10!* s"!, Find
the work function for this metal.
Solution:
Threshold frequency vy =6x 104s!
Work function W = hvy = 6.63 x 104 x 6 x 10!4
= 39.78 x 10° J
39.78 x 10°
= “=161079
=| 2.486 eV
Now, eVo =hv—hv

Therefore, y= Sotho
BYo

_ 116x107" x3 + 39.78 x 10%

6.63 x 104
132 x 10% 57

PROBLEM 2.7 Work function of Na is 2.3 eV. Does sodium show

photoelectric emission for light of wavelength 6800 A? (hk = 6.6 x 104 Js).
Solution: A = 6800 A = 6800 x 107'° m
. h
Energy of incident photon = >
 18 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

_ 6.6 x10 x3 x 10°

6800 x 107°

=
66x3_ xa
1078 eV
68 1.6 x10
= 1.83 eV
Since the energy of incident photon is less than the work function of Na,
Photoelectric emission is not possible with the given light.

PROBLEM 2.8 Light of wavelength 3500 A is incident on two metals A and

B. Which metal will yield photoelectrons if their work functions are 4.2 eV and
1.9 eV, respectively.
Solution: A = 3500 A
Energy of incident photon £ = “

__ 66x10 x3x10"
3500 x 1071? x 1.6 x 107?
= 3.53 eV
Since 1.9 eV < E < 4.2 eV, only metal B will yield photoelectrons.

PROBLEM 2.9 Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron

(in eV) emitted on shining light of wavelength 6.2 x 107 m ona metal surface.
The work function of the metal is 1.9 eV.
Solution: A= 62x 107m, W= 1.9 eV
Maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron is given by
Emax = hV— W
h he y
A

_| 66x10 x 3x 108
- 19| eV
6.2x 107? x 1.6 x 107!"

=
| 22-19]
66 x3
-19}
==2.0-—19
20-19 = =| [O16]
0.1eV

PROBLEM 2.10 In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of

the cut-off voltage versus frequency of incident light graph is found to be
4.12 x 10° Vs. Given e = 1.60 x 10°"? C, estimate the value of Planck’s
constant.

Solution: eV, =hv—-W

 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory » 19

or Vor hy _W
e €
Therefore, slope of the Vg—v curve = h
e
or h = slope x e
= 412 x 10% x 1.60 x 10°
=| 6.59x10~* Js

PROBLEM 2.11 What should be the frequency of incident radiation to eject

electrons of maximum speed 10° m/s from potassium metal? Work function
of potassium is 2.26 eV.
Solution: W = 2.26 eV = 2.26 16x 10° J
= 3.61 x 101)
Now,

1 ween =hv-W
2
or Av= 1 P imax +W
3

1
5 9.1 x 103! x (10° + 3.61 x 10°
4.55 x 10°! + 3.61 x 10° = 8.16 x 10°
-19
Therefore, v= 816x10 = |123x10% Hz
6.6 x10

PROBLEM 2.12 (a) A stopping potential of 0.82 V is required to stop the

emission of photoelectrons from the surface of a metal by light of wavelength
4000 A. For light of wavelength 3000 A, the stopping potential is 1.85 V. Find
the value of Planck’s constant.
(b) At stopping potential, if the wavelength of the incident light is kept
fixed at 4000 A but the intensity of light is increased two times, will
photoelectric current be obtained? Give reasons for your answer.
h . :
Solution: (a) We have ; = eV, + W and fe = eV, + W. Subtraction gives
1 2
1 1
if -- 2) = eV, _ V;)

e(V,— Vi)
or h=
ft-t
Ay Ay
20 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

1.6 x 107!° (1.85 — 0.82)

3x 10° 1_____i__
3x10 4x10
=| 6.592x10-** Js
(b) No, because the stopping potential depends only on the wavelength of
light and not on its intensity.

PROBLEM 2.13 Light of wavelength 4560 A and power 1 mW is incident

on a caesium surface. Calculate the photoelectric current, assuming a quantum
efficiency of 0.5%. Work function of cesium = 1.93 eV; # = 6.62 x 10% Js.

Solution: Energy of one photon = Av = “

_ 662 x10 34 x3x 10° 8 _ 432 «1019 J

4560 x 10
Number of photons incident on the surface per second
3
— 1x10 = 32x 10!
4.32 x10
Only 0.5% of the incident photons release electrons. Therefore, the number
of electrons released per second is

n= 2.32x 10% x 95 _ 1.16 x 102

100
The photoelectric current
= ne

1.16 x 104 x 1.6 x 10°19

=1186x10°A

2.3 THE COMPTON EFFECT

When a monochromatic beam of X-rays is scattered by an element of low
atomic weight (for example carbon), it is observed that the scattered X-rays,
at all angles, have maximum intensities at two wavelengths, one at the original
wavelength and the other at a slightly longer wavelength. The wavelength shift
is independent of the wavelength of the incident beam and the scattering
material; it depends only on the scattering angle. This phenomenon is called the
Compton effect. It was discovered by A-H. Compton in 1923, who also gave
an explanation of it in terms of quantum theory.
Compton effect provides the most direct evidence for the particle nature of
radiation. Compton was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize for the discovery and
explanation of this effect.
 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory »« 21

Experimental Arrangement
Figure 2.5 shows a schematic diagram of an experimental arrangement for
observing Compton scattering. A monochromatic beam of X-rays of known
wavelength is directed at a block of some scattering material, say graphite. The
scattered X-rays are received by a Bragg X-ray spectrometer to measure their
wavelength and intensity. The spectrometer can rotate about the scattering
target so that measurements can be made at different angles.

a X-ray
\
>, spectrometer

\
\
\
Source of 1
monochromatic 4 al !
X-rays Scattering Unscattered !
material X-rays }
J
/
/
Collimator /

Figure 2.5 Experimental arrangement for observing Compton scattering.

The results obtained by Compton for 6 = 0°, 45°, 90° and 135° are shown
in Figure 2.6. It may be noted that at each non-zero angle, the scattered beam
consists of two peaks— one corresponding to the original wavelength (Ag) and
the other due to the modified wavelength (A). The wavelength shift AA
increases with the increase of scattering angle 6.

Failure of Classical Physics

Let us try to understand this phenomenon on the basis of classical electromag-
netic theory. The X-ray beam, on entering the scattering material, interacts with
the atomic electrons. The “outer” electrons can be considered essentially free
because they are bound to the atoms with an energy which is much smaller than
the energy of the X-ray beam. The electric field associated with the X-ray exerts
a force on these electrons and makes them oscillate simple harmonically with the
frequency of the X-ray. The electrons, being accelerated, will emit electromag-
netic radiation. The initial frequency of this radiation will be equal to that of the
incident X-ray.
The X-ray beam also imparts some momentum to the electron, which then
recoils in the direction of propagation of the beam. As the electron moves away
from the source of the X-ray, it “sees” a lower frequency due to Doppler effect.
22 © Quantum Mechanics: A Textbook for Undergraduates

Original
wavelength
2 6=0°
5
2 1
8 I
1

|
Ay Wavelength
6= 45°
> AA= 0.007 A
ego
=

Wavelength
6=90°
AA= 0.024 A
£wa 1 |
a ' I
2 ' I
5
a—
1 |

Ao a
Wavelength

1 = 135°
. ' AA=0.041 A
2
a
2 1
5
\
AA

4g A
Wavelength

Figure 2.6 Variation of the shifted line with scattering angle. The peak at Ay is due
to the incident beam.

The electron then emits radiation of this lower frequency. The frequency will
decrease continuously till the electron has attained its final speed after scattering
the entire beam. Thus, classically, the wavelengths of scattered X-rays should
have a continuous range of values, which is contrary to experimental observa-
tion.

Compton’s Explantation
Compton was able to explain this phenomenon using the quantum theory of
radiation, developed by Planck and Einstein. He considered the incident X-rays
 Particle Nature of Radiation: The Origin of Quantum Theory « 23

as a stream of photons, each of energy Av and momentum hv/c, where v is the

frequency of radiation, / is the Planck’s constant and c is the speed of light. The
scattering process is treated as an elastic collision between a photon and a “free”
electron, which is initially at rest (Figure 2.7). In the collision, a part of the
photon energy is transferred to the electron which recoils. Therefore, the
scattered photon has a smaller energy and hence a lower frequency (higher
wavelength).

Electron at rest
2
myc” ;0

Incident photon
LSI PLTW”
hy; hvic

Figure 2.7 Collision of a photon with an electron initially at rest.

Let V be the frequency of the scattered photon, mp be the rest mass of the
electron and p be the recoil momentum of the electron. According to the theory
of relativity, the energy of the electron at rest is moc” and that after recoil is
(p’c? + my’c*)'. From the law of conservation of energy,
hy’ + (pe? + mach)!? = hv + moc?
or pee? + mict = [A(v — Vv’) + me???
or pe t+ mac = Pv — VY + 2A(V— Vinge? + mic4
22 2
2
or a =(v-vyP+ aa _v) (2.13)
Applying the law of conservation of momentum along and perpendicular to
the direction of the incident photon,
hv’
pcos@ + —cos@= hy
€ c

and psing = ay sind

c
Rearranging these equations,

7 cos = v—vV cosé (2.14)

and 7 sing = y’sind (2.15)

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the smallest possible compass, often living largely underground. On
the other hand, think of the death-defying Cacti which live in infernos
of the desert heat and dryness and yet put forth flowers of joy.
Faith? Hope? What sustains the perennials through long, bleak
winters and makes them sure of the promise of spring? When the
Alpine flowers are so positive that spring has really come that they
push their inquiring heads up through the snow which still covers the
mountains, they are showing a superhuman faith, literally risking
death in order that they may get a strong and early start in life.
Charity? When trees like the Oak and the Maple allow a whole
multitude of lesser plants to dwell in the snugness of their shadows,
they are showing forth some of the kindly qualities of plantdom. If
they chose to they could discourage lowly neighbours after the
manner of the monopolistic Beech or the aristocratic Pine.
Name a human sin or virtue, good quality or bad, and one does
not have to search far in the plant world for its counterpart. Along
with kindness, mercy, gratitude, submissiveness, and parental love
we also find cruelty, hard-heartedness, ingratitude, arrogance and
neglect of offspring. Even at that, the credit side always exceeds the
debit and no plant is guilty of self-destruction. It must be borne in
mind, that what we call sin and malignity are to them legitimate
courses of action.
If plants have every property of the human soul, why have men
been so slow to admit their kinship with the trees and the flowers?
Life, law and love are divine and bind man to all creation. He is
spiritually as well as physically related to the plants. In the past, he
has endeavoured to set himself apart from Nature and look down
upon her as upon another world. Because he has a brain, he has
imagined that anything which has none cannot possibly possess an
intelligence and an inner life. To uphold this theory he has shut his
eyes to a thousand denying facts.
All plants and animals of whatever kind begin life on exactly the
same level. The wayside Daisy and the Human Being both start their
earthly careers as single cells. In both cases, there is no visible
machinery of life and consciousness, yet we can say “Here is a
potential Daisy. Here is a potential Man.” The wonderful, all-
pervading spirit of life belongs to both.
The language of the Bible classifies man with all life under the
Hebrew term Nephesh chayiah, that is, living soul or creature. The
Old Testament favours a rigorous protection of animals and plants
against wanton destruction. Is not the equality of the three kingdoms
of life hinted at in the following passage from Jonah?
“Thou hast had pity on the Gourd, for the which thou hast not
laboured, neither madest it grow; which came up in a night, and
perished in a night.”
“And I shall not spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more
than six score thousand persons that cannot discern between their
right hand and their left hand and also much cattle.”
Some marvelous experiments carried on by Sir Jaghadish
Chaundra Bose in Calcutta, India, offer interesting light on the higher
life of plants. By exceptionally delicate and ingenious instruments,
Sir Jaghadish has been able to measure the plant movements
associated with growth, shock and response to stimuli in general. He
has come to the conclusion that plants not only have a conscious
intelligence, but have their good and bad days, their moods, their
whims. He believes they react to slight or pleasurable stimuli by
general expansion. Violent stimuli cause pain and contraction. A
plant struck a blow quivers and shakes in veritable agony. Plants
about to die undergo a violent spasm and then by making no
response at all to outside influences, show that they have actually
given up the ghost.
Sir Jaghadish is satisfied that a plant pulled up by the roots
experiences a shock comparable to that of a man being beaten into
insensibility. Many trees and plants, as every gardener knows, fail to
survive transplanting and die from pure shock, even if their tissue
has been in no way injured. Sir Jaghadish has performed the
interesting experiment of administering a powerful chemical to act as
an anesthetic to trees about to be transplanted. Such specimens
have stood the re-location well but in some cases have shown an
apparent loss of memory and a general state of upset habit, exactly
as would a man or animal coming out of a stupor.
All this strongly suggests a soul or driving spiritual force in every
living creature. Regarding its exact nature there are many opinions.
Maeterlinck believes that there is a general scattered intelligence, a
sort of universal fluid, which penetrates all organisms in an amount
proportionate to their conductivity. Man offers the least resistance to
the divine principle and so receives a generous share. The plants
receive lesser amounts, but really belong to the same intellectual
order. They exhibit the same ideas, the same hopes, the same logic
and undergo the same trials in a lesser degree than their more
educated brothers. The plants and man both grope, hesitate and
correct themselves in their labourious evolutionary development.
Of course, this theory is only a conjecture, but is very appealing
and much more modest than the traditional attitude which assumes
that man is a miraculous and marvelously endowed being fallen from
another world and therefore lacking any definite ties with the rest of
terrestrial life.
If then we believe that a vital spiritual force dwells within every
plant, what becomes of it after the death of its enclosing walls? Each
cell of a tree in effect dies many times each season. Continual waste
and renovation bring periodic transformation of cell structure. The
abode is changed but not the inhabitant. There must be an
animating, non-physical force which carries on the cycle. If it is
superior to the forces of bodily dissolution, must it not also be infinite,
immortal?
With so many modern people doubting (or pretending to doubt) the
immortality of man, it may seem presumptuous to claim immortality
for the plants, yet that is the unescapable conclusion to which the
writers of this book are driven. All life is one, indivisible and
inseparable. There is a divine spark in every living creature and it is
reasonable to expect it to live beyond death. Immortality by
reproduction is not enough. If it were true that the eternal principle
continually passes from parent to offspring, and that when the parent
dies, he is dead spiritually as well as physically, then we should
expect immediate degeneracy and death after reproduction takes
place. That a portion of soul essence descends through countless
generations we do not doubt, but each plant and animal is also a
spiritual entity. Man and plants are both tools in the hands of
Maeterlinck’s all-prevailing intelligence. Yet man feels that he is a
free agent. Why not the plants also?
Every plant has racial and family traits, and each one also has a
marked personality. If immortality is a fulfilling, a conserving
continuance of the present earthly existence, then the plants deserve
and have a right to expect a chance for infinite development.
The plants serve to make this earth a floral paradise. Why should
they not be equally necessary in a world of spirit? It is to man’s credit
that he has always pictured heaven as a place made beautiful by
great hosts of trees and flowers.
 CHAPTER XV
Plants and Men

“Our human souls

Cling to the grass and water brooks.”
—Athanase
The average city man gives little thought or attention to his
vegetable neighbours, yet their continued existence is quite as vital
to him as the air he breathes. Directly or indirectly he is utterly
dependent upon them.
Every time he sits down to a dinner table, he is paying an
unconscious tribute to the food-producing abilities of plantdom. In a
general way, plants are the world’s food producers and the animals
are the consumers. Plants are able to build up living tissue from
inorganic material. Animals must prey upon that elaborated structure
to keep themselves alive. Plants separate oxygen from carbon
dioxide and water, thereby storing up sunshine as potential energy.
Animals reverse the process, and, re-combining oxygen with the
plant tissue, liberate heat and power. In a desert region, animals
soon perish, because even carnivorous species live on herbivorous
fellows which in turn are eaters of plants. This is why the distribution
of men and animals is so greatly influenced by that of plants.
For clothing man depends partly upon such plant-products as
Cotton and Flax and partly on plant-fed animals which yield him silk,
wool and leather. The great plant structures of the forest give him the
chief materials which go into the construction of his ships and
houses, with all their appurtenances. The bodies of plants, recently
alive or the bodies of plants long since dead furnish fuel for cooking,
heating and power. Drugs are very largely of vegetable origin. In
brief, the plants feed, clothe, shelter, and warm mankind.
 Man has made many plants his servants. His first attention was
naturally given to such species as he could use for food. Two
thousand years ago, the ancients were growing practically all the
food plants that are known today. Maize, Potatoes, Rice, Beans,
Dates and Bananas have been cultivated for an even longer period.
Fodder plants, calculated to furnish food for man’s domestic animals,
were the next to receive attention, and following those, medical
plants, edible fruits, garden vegetables and aromatic leaves and
seeds, such as Tea and Coffee, came to the fore.
When we consider that plants display superior powers in so many
directions and, as F. L. Sargent says, “do to perfection so many
things we cannot do at all,” it is really remarkable that man has so
completely subjected them to his will. Because of their static
condition, they are quite helpless in his hands. He levels their
grandest forests and burns their widest prairies. Certain plants he
makes his pets, fighting their enemies and nurturing them in the
most careful way. The tender Wheat would never be able to occupy
the vast stretches it does through its own strength. Under man’s
guidance and protection, its volume is increased a thousand fold.
The vast changes which human efforts make in the surface of the
earth have a correspondingly important effect on vegetation. Every
time a tract of woods is cut down, every time a lake is drained, every
time a field is plowed—whenever any alteration is made in the
landscape—the vegetation is affected. Sometimes this disturbance
of the natural order of things becomes a serious menace, as in the
case of deforestation. The welfare of the world is bound up with the
welfare of the plants.
About a hundred years ago, a certain section of forest in France
was levelled. It contained Oak, Beech, and Ash. The new trees to
spring up were Birch and Poplar. After thirty years they too were
felled and young shoots of the same species immediately came up,
with a few descendants of the original growth reappearing. It was not
until the third clearing or ninety years after the original cutting that
the Oaks and Beeches began to regain their lost prestige. This is a
good example of the effect that human operations have on the plant
world. Wholesale cuttings tend to change the chemical composition
of the soil by withdrawing certain elements, thereby causing other
species to flourish which do not need this material.
When it comes to plants grown in nurseries and conservatories,
gardeners are often able to make almost unbelievable changes in
floral and vegetable form and structure. There has been much
experimentation of recent years in connection with the effect of light,
both natural and artificial, on plant processes. In general, it has been
established that it is just as injurious for a plant to have too much
light as too little. Steady exposure to light makes for accelerated
growth of tissue. Lessening light speeds up flowering and
reproduction. Control over a plant’s light supply therefore means that
the manipulator can produce at will either large, luxuriantly foliaged
plants which flower late, or from the same seed develop small
specimens blooming exceptionally early.
Man is not content with merely controlling the external conditions
which affect vegetation but often steps into their internal processes
and moulds their life-forces at their very fountainhead. By the simple
methods of selection and cross-breeding, he is able to work miracles
with the laws of heredity, and bridge in a few years gaps which a
plant would have taken centuries to span by ordinary evolutionary
processes.
Luther Burbank is the modern garden wizard who has attained the
greatest distinction in this field. He says: “There is no barrier to
obtaining fruits of any size, form or flavour desired, and none to
producing plants and flowers of any form, colour or fragrance; all that
is needed is a knowledge to guide our efforts in the right direction,
undeviating patience and cultivated eyes to detect variations of
value.”
Burbank has many times shown that he has the knowledge,
patience and cultivated eye in a superlative degree. He claims to
only apply old methods in a new way, but his results have been
phenomenal. In fruits he has produced many new varieties of
Apples, Pears, Peaches, Apricots, Plums, Prunes, Cherries and
Quinces. His Plumcot is a delicious cross between a Plum and an
Apricot. Out of the Dewberry and a Siberian Raspberry he
compounded what he calls the Primus Berry. A Dewberry plus a
Cuthbert Raspberry equals a Phenomenal Berry. One Lawton
Blackberry and one Crystal White Blackberry make one Paradox
Berry.
Among the Burbank floral creations the Shasta Daisy is notable. It
combines strains from Europe, Japan, and America. A new giant
Amaryllis has twelve-inch blossoms. The Tigridias is spectacular, the
blue Poppies are odd and there are many extraordinary Lilies.
The substitute for Grass developed by the California naturalist
thrives through the most severe drought and so is of practical
economic value. His improved Walnut Trees grow to a large size in a
few years and his Chestnuts bear abundant crops when they are
mere bushes. Spineless Cactus is a very valuable creation.
All these results are obtained in what seems to be a very simple
way, yet their successful outcome is only made possible by the mind
of genius working with infinite patience over long periods of years. To
select out of a group of plants a few individuals which show
exceptional quality of a desirable type; to save the seed of these
favoured few and make further selections among their progeny; to
couple with this the cross-pollenizing of different varieties or species
showing a tendency to greater variation or accentuation of
characteristics—all this may seem only high grade garden practice,
but only one man in two or three generations has the exceptional
and sympathetic perceptive faculties which enable him to attain
really striking results.
On his experimental farms near Santa Rosa, California, Luther
Burbank has made many thousand distinct experiments involving a
wide range of plant species. It is said that at times he has had as
many as three thousand tests, calling for observations on a million
plants and flowers, under way at once. Probably no similar area of
the earth’s surface has grown such a variety of vegetable products
or had such infinite care lavished upon it.
These are the practical aspects of the relations of plants to men.
On the esthetic and pleasurable side they are equally important.
 The love of plants and flowers is a universal sentiment slumbering
in the most prosaic breast. Plants are a perpetual source of joy. They
are friends which never change. In youth, they give zest to our
outdoor pleasures. In age, they bespeak the happiness of days gone
by. In death, they strew our last resting place with fragrance. At all
times, they stand for purity, beauty and peace.

THE END
 INDEX

Acacia, 125

Acanthus, 103

Agave, 67

Aglaia, 139

Air Plants, 41

Alder, 25, 41, 99

Alfalfa, 56

Algae, 18, 19, 22, 24, 44, 60, 127

Almond, 56, 103, 182

Aloe, 93

Amaryllis, 221

Ampelopsis, 108

Anacharis, 49

Anemone, 97, 144

Antirrhinum, 75

Ant Nest Plant, 72

Apple, 61, 82, 220

Apricot, 51, 56, 220

Arrowhead, 47, 92

Arum, 146

Ash, 46, 218

Aspen, 181

Asphodel, 145

Aster, 97, 100, 103

Asterophyllites, 24

Azalia, 79, 97

Bacteria, 31, 55, 66, 135, 139, 190

Balm of Gilead, 150

Balsam, 181

Balsam Poplar, 78

Bamboo, 26, 56, 103, 121

Banana, 124, 126

Banibusa, 139

Barberry, 105, 126

Barley, 26

Barrel Cactus, 67

Basil, 151
Bean, 29, 35, 51, 66, 91, 116, 125, 164, 216

Beech, 62, 139, 208, 218

Beech Drops, 62

Beet, 37, 132

Begonia, 93, 98

Belladonna, 152, 158

Birch, 25, 41, 42, 78, 218

Birth-Wort, 76

Blackberry, 42, 158

Black-eyed Susan, 97

Bladderwort, 46, 131

Brambles, 192

Broom-Rape, 62

Butter-and-Eggs, 50

Buttercup, 37, 92, 96, 103

Butternut, 47

Butter-Wort, 75

Cabbage, 105

Cactus, 34, 66, 98, 132, 207, 221

Calamites, 24
Calceolarias, 97

Camellia, 97

Cardoon Artichoke, 49

Carrion Flower, 88

Carrot, 37, 109, 132

Castor Oil Tree, 41

Catalpa, 116

Cat-Tail, 116

Cecropia, 73, 81

Cedar, 116

Cherry, 51, 56, 72, 103, 175, 220

Chestnut, 42, 221

Chickweed, 171

Cinerarias, 97

Clover, 66, 165

Club-Mosses, 24

Cobaea Scandens, 79

Cockle-bur, 48

Cocoanut, 45

Coffee, 51, 52, 217

Compass-Plant, 172

Conifers, 25, 42

Corn, 116, 168

Cotton, 216

Cottonwood, 115

Cow Horn Orchid, 71

Cowslip, 78, 162

Cranesbill, 98

Crocus, 37, 108, 145

Cuckoo-Pint, 66, 88

Cucumber, 51, 82

Currant, 175

Cyclamen, 161

Cypress, 25, 175, 182

Daffodil, 37

Daisy, 104, 162, 220

Dandelion, 45, 47, 79, 102, 162, 171, 175

Date, 82, 216

Date Palm, 35

Datura, 171
Day-Lily, 171

Delphinium, 97

Devil’s Snuff Box, 159

Devil’s Thread, 62

Dewberry, 220

Diatoms, 127

Dodder, 58, 62

Duckweed, 46

Dutch Clover, 165

Dutchman’s Pipe, 106

Elder, 152, 159

Elm, 25, 26, 42, 46, 115

Enchanter’s Nightshade, 151

Epiphytes, 64, 72

Eryptogams, 24

Ferns, 22, 41, 43, 44, 190

Feterita, 56

Figwort, 87

Fir, 103
Fire Weed, 47

Flagellates, 18

Flax, 63, 216

Four-leaved Clover, 162, 165, 175

Fox Glove, 160, 161

Fuchsia, 79, 93

Fungus, 22, 34, 48, 58, 60, 62, 139

Gas Plant, 135

Gentian, 97

Giant Cactus, 67

Goat’s Beard, 171

Goldenrod, 184

Gorse, 86, 97

Gossamer, 161

Gourd, 210

Grape, 67, 104

Grass, 36, 41

Grass of Parnassus, 193

Groundsel, 146
Harebell, 161

Hawkweed, 80

Hawkweed Picris, 171

Hawthorn, 104

Hazel, 36, 78

Heliotrope, 181

Hemlock, 160

Hemp, 62

Henna, 151

Herban, 158

Herb-Bennett, 159

Herb-Paris, 160

Hollyhock, 79, 97

Hop, 35

Horse Chestnut, 104

Hortensia, 137

Hyacinth, 37, 97, 108, 192

Ice-Plant, 171

Imba-uba Tree, 73

Indian Licorice, 170

Indian Pipe, 61

Indigo, 93

Iris, 92, 103, 192

Ivy, 103

Ivy-Geranium, 108

Jessamine, 97, 175

Job’s Tears, 157

Junger Mania, 127

Lantana, 53, 54

Laurel, 26, 88, 97, 105, 159, 175, 182

Leek, 165, 184

Legumes, 26, 31

Lepidodendrons, 24

Lettuce, 99, 158

Lichen, 22, 42, 48, 60

Lilac, 34, 97

Lily, 79, 97, 103, 145, 149, 156, 175, 181, 221

Lime, 78

Linden, 26, 46
Liverwort, 19, 20, 21, 22

Lomatophylos, 24

Loosestrife, 77

Lotus, 103, 124, 144, 147

Love in the Mist, 193

Lucerne, 51, 93

Luck Flower, 160

Luminous Peridineas, 139

Lupine, 86

Lycoperdon, 159

Magnolia, 26, 99

Maiden-Hair Fern, 145

Maize, 26, 35, 51, 216

Mandrake, 179

Mani Blight, 55

Manioc, 26

Maple, 26, 47, 101, 103, 208

Mares’ Tails, 24

Marigold, 125, 162, 171

Melastroma Plant, 73
Melon, 82

Mermidones, 73

Mexican Grape, 66

Mildew, 61

Milkweed, 102

Mimosa, 122, 121

Mistletoe, 47, 65, 147

Molluka, 146

Monotropa, 61

Monstera, 191

Moonflower, 171

Moon-Plant, 151

Moonwart, 160

Morning Glory, 49, 128

Moss, 20, 21, 22, 42, 48, 190

Mountain Laurel, 88

Mulberry, 51

Mullein, 75, 101

Murderer Liana, 206

Myrtle, 182