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Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
Luis Grave de Peralta ·

Maricela Fernández Lozada ·
Hira Farooq · Gage Eichman ·
Abhishek Singh · Gabrielle Prime
Relativistic and
Non-Relativistic
Quantum
Mechanics
Both at Once
Series Editors
Neil Ashby, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
William Brantley, Department of Physics, Furman University, Greenville, SC, USA
Matthew Deady, Physics Program, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson,
NY, USA
Michael Fowler, Department of Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
VA, USA
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Michael Inglis, Department of Physical Sciences, SUNY Suffolk County
Community College, Selden, NY, USA
Barry Luokkala , Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (ULNP) publishes authoritative texts
covering topics throughout pure and applied physics. Each title in the series is
suitable as a basis for undergraduate instruction, typically containing practice
problems, worked examples, chapter summaries, and suggestions for further reading.
ULNP titles must provide at least one of the following:
● An exceptionally clear and concise treatment of a standard undergraduate subject.
● A solid undergraduate-level introduction to a graduate, advanced, or non-standard
subject.
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ULNP especially encourages new, original, and idiosyncratic approaches to physics

teaching at the undergraduate level.
The purpose of ULNP is to provide intriguing, absorbing books that will continue to
be the reader’s preferred reference throughout their academic career.
Luis Grave de Peralta ·
Maricela Fernández Lozada · Hira Farooq ·
Gage Eichman · Abhishek Singh · Gabrielle Prime
Relativistic
and Non-Relativistic
Quantum Mechanics
Both at Once
Luis Grave de Peralta Maricela Fernández Lozada
Department of Physics and Astronomy Instituto Tecnológico de Hermosillo
Texas Tech University Hermosillo, Mexico
Lubbock, TX, USA
Gage Eichman
Hira Farooq Department of Physics and Astronomy
Department of Physics and Astronomy Texas Tech University
Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX, USA
Lubbock, TX, USA
Gabrielle Prime
Abhishek Singh Department of Physics and Astronomy
Department of Physics and Astronomy Texas Tech University
Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX, USA
Lubbock, TX, USA
ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-37072-4 ISBN 978-3-031-37073-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37073-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Preface
This book is a first attempt at introducing relativistic quantum mechanics to

interested learners with no previous knowledge of quantum mechanics. Currently,
relativistic quantum mechanics is considered an advanced topic that is only acces-
sible to students that have already received considerable training in non-relativistic
quantum mechanics. However, the authors believe to have found an excellent
pedagogic approach for simultaneously introducing both topics of non-relativistic
and relativistic quantum mechanics.
Purposely, we have avoided the utilization of the well-known Lorentz invariant
equations. With that avoidance, we only refer to the Klein–Gordon and Dirac equa-
tions for justifying the use of the Poveda-Poirier-Grave de Peralta (PPGP) equations.
The PPGP equations are the equations this book is solely based on. Nevertheless, to
steer clear of unnecessary complications in an introductory book, we sporadically
refer to well-known results obtained by using the Klein–Gordon and Dirac equations.
There exists a PPGP equation that coincides with the Schrödinger equation in
the non-relativistic limit. The solutions of this Schrödinger-like PPGP equation are
identical to the solutions of the Klein–Gordon equation associated with positive
kinetic energies. Therefore, when this does not affect the comprehension of a topic,
we sometimes refer to the well-known results obtained by using the Klein–Gordon
equation. We do this instead of solving the Schrödinger-like PPGP equation.
Also, there exists a Pauli-like PPGP equation that coincides with the Pauli equa-
tion in the non-relativistic limit. The solutions of this Pauli-like PPGP equation are
identical to the solutions of the Dirac equation associated with positive kinetic ener-
gies. Like the process above, we sometimes refer to the well-known results obtained
using the Dirac equation. We utilize this instead of solving the Pauli-like PPGP
equation.
v
vi Preface
In addition, there exist two complementary Schrödinger-like and Pauli-like PPGP

equations. The solutions of these equations are identical to the respective solutions
of the Klein–Gordon and Dirac equations associated with negative kinetic ener-
gies. These equations are not studied at an extensive amount in this introduction
to relativistic quantum mechanics. Nevertheless, their relation to the existence of
antiparticles is discussed.
Lubbock, TX, USA Luis Grave de Peralta

Hermosillo, Mexico Maricela Fernández Lozada
Lubbock, TX, USA Hira Farooq
Lubbock, TX, USA Gage Eichman
Lubbock, TX, USA Abhishek Singh
Lubbock, TX, USA Gabrielle Prime
About This Book
Chapters 1 and 2 provide a fast and traditional introduction to non-relativistic

quantum mechanics. In Chap. 3, this book diverges from a traditional introduction
to quantum mechanics. The first proposed ideas of relativistic quantum mechanics
are introduced for a background sense of what this book wants to ultimately pursue.
This includes the introduction of the Schrödinger-like PPGP equation and its use to
solve simple one-dimensional problems.
Chapter 4 contains a novel and ambitious study of the consequences of the special
theory of relativity for quantum mechanics. This includes the study of the relativistic
harmonic oscillator, and a pedagogical presentation of Klein’s paradox based on
solving the Schrödinger-like PPGP equation for a step potential.
More realistic three-dimensional problems are solved in Chap. 5. The spin and the
Pauli-like PPGP equation are introduced in Chap. 6. The relativistic description of
the Hydrogen atom is presented and compared with experimental results. In addition,
the relativistic descriptions of a spin-(s = 0) and a spin-(s = 1/2) particle moving in a
Coulomb potential are compared. Chapter 7 provides a brief overview of the problem
of how to describe systems with more than one quantum particle. This includes the
application of Pauli’s exclusion principle for describing atoms, a precise yet brief
visit to a relativistic Fermi gas, and the discussion of the importance of including
relativity for describing the formation of black holes in Cosmology.
Most of the results that are presented in this book are widely known results
proposed and discovered by a multitude of physicists. However, we introduced some
controversial but exciting topics in the last Chapter. Only time and experiments will
judge the validity of the ideas discussed in Chap. 8. These topics were included for
celebrating the first century of quantum mechanics, for illustrating that relativistic
quantum mechanics remains an open field of research, and for emphasizing that the
pleasure of discovery and critical thinking skills should be systematically cultivated.
vii
Contents
1 The Need for Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 The Stability of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Atoms Absorb and Emit Electromagnetic Radiation
and the Absorption and Emission Spectra are Formed
by a Discrete Set on Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Particles are Waves Kind of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 The Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Hydrogen Spectral Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Spectral Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Hyperfine Structure and Lamb Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 The Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 The Statistical Interpretation of the Wavefunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 The Time Independent Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 The Infinite One-Dimensional Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 The Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.7 Does the Schrödinger Equation Satisfy Expectations? . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Introducing Relativity in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 The Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 The Klein-Gordon Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 The Dirac’s Sea and the Hole Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 The Poveda-Poirier-Grave De Peralta Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 The Relationship Between the PPGP and the Klein-Gordon
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 A Relativistic Particle Trapped in an Infinite One-Dimensional
Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
ix
x Contents
3.7 A Beam of Relativistic Particles in a Constant Potential . . . . . . . . . . 46

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Other One-Dimensional Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 The Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 A Beam of Particles Hitting a Sharp Potential Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Particles, Antiparticles, and Exotic Quantum States
with Negative Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5 Quantum Mechanics in Three Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.1 The Infinite Cubic Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.1.1 The Coulomb Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1.2 The Angular Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.1.3 The Radial Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.1.4 The Spectrum of Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.1 Orbital Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.2 The Quantum Mechanical Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3 Electron in a Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.4 The Pauli-Like PPGP Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.5 The Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7 Identical Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 Fermi Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2.1 Non-relativistic Fermi-Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2.2 Relativistic Fermi Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.3 Fermi-Gas Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3 Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8 Some Consequences of Relativity for Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . 115
8.1 Atoms Cannot Be Too Heavy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.2 A Possible Frontier Between the Classical and the Quantum
World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.3 About the Observed Asymmetry Between Matter
and Antimatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
About the Author
Luis Grave de Peralta is currently a full professor in the Department of Physics

and Astronomy at Texas Tech University (TTU), USA. He is a Licenciado en Física
from the Oriente University in Cuba. He obtained a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering
at TTU. He has published more than 90 papers in archival peer review journals.
Maricela Fernández Lozada (Ph.D.) is a Cuban Mexican theoretical physicist with a
large experience teaching quantum mechanics. Hira Farooq (Ph.D.) is an instructor
in the TTU Department of Physics and Astronomy. Gage Eichman, Abhishek Singh,
and Gabrielle Prime are bright undergraduate physics students at the TTU Depart-
ment of Physics and Astronomy. The classroom interactions between the authors
resulted in the novel pedagogical approach to relativistic and non-relativistic quantum
mechanics this book is based on.
xi
Chapter 1
The Need for Quantum Mechanics
Abstract Quantum mechanics was discovered in the second decade of the twentieth
century. In that time, physicists were trying to explain phenomena involving atoms
and molecules, so quantum mechanics was originally developed as the mechanics of
the sub-microscopic world. Therefore, the concept of quantum particles referred to
molecules, atoms, and the particles forming the atoms. Some of the phenomena that
motivated the development of quantum mechanics are mentioned and explained in
this chapter.
1.1 The Stability of Atoms
A vast number of atoms are stable. An atom with the atomic number Z is formed
by a nucleus with a charge eZ, and Z negative-charged electrons with charge -e.
The electrons are attracted to the nucleus, so therefore, their acceleration is not null.
Classical electromagnetism predicts that any charged particle moving with a non-
null acceleration must radiate, so ultimately it must lose energy. Classical physics
predicts that the electrons in an atom must lose energy and will ultimately fall towards
the nucleus. Atoms should not be stable in theory, but in reality, many are stable.
With that being said, the necessity of a new concentration in physics was essential
for explaining the observed stability of many atoms.
1.2 Atoms Absorb and Emit Electromagnetic Radiation

and the Absorption and Emission Spectra are Formed
by a Discrete Set on Lines
Several decades before the discovery of the Schrödinger Equation in 1925, Max
Planck and Albert Einstein had a proposition. This proposal stated that the frequency
(ν) of the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted or absorbed by an atom, is propor-
tional to the internal energy (∆E) lost or gained by the atom. Respectively, this is
represented by:
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

L. Grave de Peralta et al., Relativistic and Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics,
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37073-1_1
2 1 The Need for Quantum Mechanics
Fig. 1.1 Bohr’s model of

the Hydrogen atom. There is n=3
a discrete set of possible
electron’s orbits. The
electron’s energy (E) is
larger in most external orbits. n=2
A photon is emitted when the
electron jumps to an interior
orbit. The frequency of the n=1
emitted radiation is
determined by the relation
∆E = hν Nucleus ΔE
Electron
ΔE=hν
Radiation
∆E = hυ. (1.1)
In Eq. (1.1), h represents the Planck’s constant. It was experimentally well-known

at the beginning of the twentieth century that atoms solely absorb and emit discrete
sets of frequencies. As a result, the internal energy of atoms should only have a
discrete set of values. In the year 1913, Niels Bohr proposed that the electron in an
atom has orbits with a discrete spectrum of energy. This is depicted in Fig. 1.1 above.
In the Bohr model, ∆E, is the difference of the electron energy in different orbits.
Later (Fig. 1.2), using the ideas proposed in 1924 by Louis De Broglie, the stability
of the electron’s orbits was explained by assuming there is a wave associated to any
particle with mass. The length of the stable orbits must equal a multiple of the wave-
length that corresponds to an electron with a magnitude of its linear momentum (p):
h
p= . (1.2)
λ
1.3 Particles are Waves Kind of
When these equations are applied to the electrons in atoms, Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2)
mix the properties of a subatomic particle with the properties of a wave. Frequency
and wavelength are properties of waves. They are properties of something that is
not spatially localized but is distributed in a spatial region. However, ∆E and p
1.5 Hydrogen Spectral Series 3
Fig. 1.2 The length of a

possible electron’s orbit
(2πr) must be equal to a
multiple of the De Broglie’s r
wavelength (λ) associated to
the electron’s linear
momentum (p)
2πr = 2λ
are properties of a subatomic particle where they are properties of something that
is highly localized in the space or is even a mathematical point with mass. A new
physics was in demand to explain the nature of the relationship between a quantum
particle and the wave associated with it.
1.4 The Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom
The Hydrogen atom is the simplest atom known to the Universe. It is formed due to the
interaction of a single electron with a single proton. The simplicity of the Hydrogen
atom helped experimental and theoretical physicists determine the development of
quantum mechanics. The spectrum of the Hydrogen atom is summarized below in
relation to the principal experimental and theoretical results.
1.5 Hydrogen Spectral Series
In 1880, Johannes Rydberg experimentally and empirically discovered the Rydberg’s

formula:
[ ]
1 1 1
= Z2 R − , with R = 1.09678 × 107 m −1 . (1.3)
λ (n ' )2 n2
In Eq. (1.3), n and n' are positive integers, λ is the wavelength of the light emitted
or absorbed by the atom, and Z is the atomic number of a Hydrogen-like atom.
This is where an atom exists with a single electron. Rydberg’s formula is a recipe
for determining a set of λ values corresponding to the experimental lines in the
spectra of Hydrogen-like atoms. Later, in 1913, Bohr’s model provided a semi-
quantitative explanation of Rydberg’s formula. In 1925, Erwin Schrödinger derived
Rydberg’s formula from the solution of today’s famous Schrödinger equation. Theo-
retically, Schrödinger obtained a formula for Rydberg’s constant that is in satisfactory
correspondence with its experimental value:
(a) Balmer
(b)
Series
Pashen
Lyman Series
Series
(c)
n=1 2 3 45
Fig. 1.3 a Sketch of the structural functionalism of the Hydrogen’s spectrum, b illustration of the
emission lines of the Lyman series, c doublet fine structure of the Lyman-α line
m e e4
R= . (1.4)
8εo2 h 3 c
In Eq. (1.4), me symbolizes the electron mass, e represents the charge of a proton,
c stands for the speed of the light in the vacuum, and εo represents the dielectric
constant of the vacuum.
Figure 1.3a depicts a sketch of the structural functionalism of the spectrum of the
Hydrogen atom. This is observed and obtained by utilizing a spectrometer with a
minimal amount of resolution. Several series of lines can be identified in the spectrum.
For instance, the Lyman Series corresponds to n' = 1 and n ≥ 2 in Rydberg’s formula
(Fig. 1.3b).
1.6 Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Spectral Lines
However, if a spectrometer with better resolution were used to observe the spectrum
of the Hydrogen atom, it would be clear that in many cases a single spectrum line is
formed by set of several lines close to each other. For instance, Fig. 1.3c displays that
two close lines are observed where there should appear a single line corresponding
to the Lyman-α line. The Lyman-α doublet corresponding to the electron transition
from n = 2 to n' = 1 is exemplified in Fig. 1.3c.
As sketched in Fig. 1.4, a theoretical explanation of the Lyman-α doublet includes
the existence of the electron’s spin and the introduction of special theory of relativity
in quantum mechanics. How this can be accomplished will be discussed later begin-
ning in Chap. 3. The net result is that the energy of the electron in the Hydrogen
atom depends on not one, but two quantum numbers, the principal quantum number
[n = 1, 2, …], and the total angular momentum quantum number [ j = 1/2, 3/2,…].
1.7 Hyperfine Structure and Lamb Shift 5
Quantum mechanics + Relativity + Quantum spin
En
n=2 n = 2, l= 1, j = 3/2
En = 2, j = 3/2
n = 2, l = 1
En = 2, l = 1
n = 2, l = 0, j = 1/2
En = 2, j = 1/2 n = 2, l = 1, j = 1/2
n = 2, l = 0
En = 2, l = 0
Hydrogen series Fine structure
Fig. 1.4 Sketch of the theoretical explanation of doublet fine structure of the Lyman-α line
1.7 Hyperfine Structure and Lamb Shift
In addition, to explain the so-called hyperfine structure of the Hydrogen’s spectrum,

the magnetic interaction between the spin of the electron and the spin of the proton
should be considered.
Moreover, as sketched in Fig. 1.5, in 1947 Lamb found that the transition from the
states n = 2, P1/2 and n = 2, S1/2 (both with quantum numbers n = 2 and j = 1/2) to
the state n = 1, S1/2 is not a line, but a doublet. The frequency shift between the two
lines in the doublet is ≈ 1000 MHz. This discrepancy, between the predictions of the
fully relativistic Dirac’s theory and the experiments, motivated the development of
quantum electrodynamics, which is the first quantum field theory ever developed.
Quantum mechanics + Relativity + Quantum + Magnetic interaction

+ Quantum spin electrodynamic with proton
n=2
En
n = 2, l = 1, j = 3/2
En = 2, j = 3/2
2S1/2
n = 2, l = 0, j = 1/2
n = 2, l = 1, j = 1/2 En = 2, j = 1/2 2P1/2
Fine structure Lamb shift Hyperfine structure
Fig. 1.5 Sketch of the hyperfine structure the Hydrogen atom spectrum and the Lamb shift
Originally, calculations utilizing quantum electrodynamics were plagued with

infinities. The first indication of a possible way out was given by Hans Bethe in
1947. Bethe made the first non-relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the
Hydrogen atom as measured by Lamb. Despite the limitations of the computation,
the agreement was excellent in the sense of validity. The sole idea was to simply
attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were fixed to a finite value
by experiments. In such manner, the infinities get absorbed in those constants and
yield a finite result in good agreement with experiments. This procedure was named
renormalization. Despite the importance of quantum electrodynamics, and due to the
mathematical difficulties involved, this topic is not included in this short introduction
to relativistic quantum mechanics.
Bibliography
1. R. Harris, Modern Physics, 2nd edn. (Pearson Addison-Wesley, New York, 2008)
2. J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd edn. (J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975)
3. Max Planck (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck. Accessed 10 April 2023
4. Albert Einstein (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein. Accessed 10 April
2023
5. Louis De Broglie (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie. Accessed 10
April 2023
6. Niels Bohr (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr. Accessed 10 April 2023
7. Erwin Schrödinger (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger.
Accessed 10 April 2023
8. Rydberg’s formula (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rydberg_formula. Accessed 10
April 2023
9. Hydrogen spectral series (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_
series. Accessed 10 April 2023
10. Fine structure (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_structure. Accessed 10 April
2023
11. Lamb shift (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_shift. Accessed 10 April 2023
12. Quantum Electrodynamics (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodyn
amics. Accessed 10 April 2023
Chapter 2
The Wave Equation
Abstract In 1925, quantum mechanics was put on solid ground when Erwin
Schrödinger discovered the equation that is named after him today. It was then clear
that the analytical expression of the wave associated to a quantum particle, with mass
m, could be calculated by solving the Schrödinger equation. This chapter provides a
fast and traditional introduction to non-relativistic quantum mechanics.
2.1 The Schrödinger Equation
The one-dimensional Schrödinger equation for a quantum particle of mass m in a

potential V is given by the following expression:
∂ ℏ2 ∂ 2
iℏ ψ(x, t) = − ψ(x, t) + V (x)ψ(x, t). (2.1)
∂t 2m ∂x2
The solution of this specific wave equation is the wavefunction ψ that depends on
the spatial (x) and temporal (t) variables. For pedagogical reasons, we will first study
the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation (Eq. 2.1). However, space is tridimen-
sional, meaning there are more realistic wavefunctions that depend on three spatial
variables instead. The tridimensional Schrödinger equation is later introduced and
studied in Chap. 5. In Eq. (2.1), V (x) represents a potential that only depends on the
spatial variable. It is given that ℏ = h/2π represents the reduced Planck’s constant.
The i in this equation represents the imaginary unit. Note that m and V are the only
properties of the particle and the medium of where the particle is explicitly included
in the Schrödinger equation.
The symbol psi, ψ, represents the analytical expression of the wave associated
to the quantum particle with mass m, which is moving in a potential V. Further on,
we will learn more about the Schrödinger equation by solving and interpreting some
simple examples. Now, let us promptly discuss some of the fundamental properties
of the Schrödinger equation and its solutions. The explicit presence of the imaginary
unit in Eq. (2.1), determines that ψ is considered a complex function, which can be
expressed using two real functions. The real part of ψ (Re[ψ]) and the imaginary
part of ψ (Im[ψ]):
8 2 The Wave Equation
ψ = Re[ψ] + iIm[ψ]. (2.2)
Alternatively, ψ can be expressed in the following way:
ψ = |ψ|eiArg[ψ] . (2.3)
In Eq. (2.3), |ψ| and Arg[ψ] designates the amplitude and phase of the
wavefunction ψ, respectively:
/
Im[ψ]
|ψ| = (Re[ψ])2 + (Im[ψ])2 and Arg[ψ] = ArcTan . (2.4)
Re[ψ]
The amplitude of the wavefunction is particularly important due to the statistical

interpretation of the wavefunction that will be discussed in the next Section. Another
important property of the Schrödinger equation is that it is a linear equation. This
means that if ψ 1 , ψ 2,…, ψ N are all solutions of the Schrödinger equation, then the
following is also a solution of Eq. (2.1):
⎲
N
ψ= an ψn , an ∈ C. (2.5)
n=1
2.2 The Statistical Interpretation of the Wavefunction
Currently, there is broad consent in the community of physicists regarding the analyt-
ical expression that describes the wave associated to a quantum particle with mass m.
This could be calculated through solving the Schrödinger equation. However, there
are several proposals concerning the physical interpretation of ψ. One of the more
popular schemes is the so-called “Statistical Interpretation” of the wavefunction that
was proposed in 1926 by Max Born. Born was a member of the Copenhagen group
led by Niels Bohr. Where this is also called and known as the “Orthodox Interpre-
tation”, |ψ(x,t)|2 is considered to be a probability density. The symbol (ρ) is noted
as the probability per unit of length for finding the particle at the position x with the
time of t = τ:
ρ(x) = |ψ(x, τ )|2 = ψ ∗ (x, τ )ψ(x, τ ). (2.6)
In the statistical interpretation, there is a wave of probabilities associated to any

particle with mass. Therefore, in this account, ψ does not have a real physical exis-
tence. Instead, it is solely a good mathematical tool for calculating the probability
(PAB ) of finding the particle in the segment defined by the points A and B at the time
t = τ:
2.2 The Statistical Interpretation of the Wavefunction 9
∫B ∫B ∫B
PAB = ρ(x, τ )dx = |ψ(x, τ )| dx =
2
ψ ∗ (x, τ )ψ(x, τ )dx. (2.7)
A A A
Other interpretations consider that ψ is a matter wave with a real physical exis-
tence. For instance, Erwin Madelung founded the existence of Quantum Hydrody-
namics in 1926. In 1952, David Bohn developed earlier ideas from Louis De Broglie
given the theory of De Broglie-Bohm’s quantum mechanics. Currently, there is not
a set universal consent about this topic in the collective community of physicists.
Nevertheless, there is universal consent about the random nature of the measure-
ments given the position of quantum particles. This theory is supported and backed
up by a large body of experimental research. If a quantum particle were trapped in the
segment defined by the points at A and B, and if each experiment were conveniently
prepared so that the initial quantum state of the particle (ψ(x,0)) is always the same,
then the position of the particle measured at the same time (t = τ) would be different
in each experiment (x n ). The average position (<x > ) of the particle in a complete
set of N experiment would be equal to:
∑ ∑N ∫B ∫B ∫B
k=1 xk
x= = xρ(x, τ )dx = x|ψ(x, t)| dx =
2
ψ ∗ (x, t)xψ(x, t)dx. (2.8)
N
A A A
The random nature of the measured results is considered by the advocates of the
realistic interpretation of the wavefunction as evidence of the incomplete description
of reality given by quantum mechanics. Physicists such as Albert Einstein and David
Bohm advocated for the existence of hidden variables that are vital for a complete
description of the submicroscopic reality.
There is another universal consent in which that after the position of the particle is
measured at x = x o , the act of measuring the position of the particle puts the particle
in the quantum state that ultimately gives ψ(x o , τ). If the position of the particle is
measured in several successive experiments without returning the particle to its initial
state ψ(x, 0), then all measurements would ultimately end up at the same particle’s
position value of x o . This theory is also supported and backed up by a large body of
experimental research.
There are other supplemental topics with importance related to the physical inter-
pretation of the wavefunction where there is no consent in the modern community
of physicists. Some of these topics will be addressed in Sect. 2.6, respectively. The
existence of quantum mechanics is almost a century old, but it is still a discipline in
development. There exist previous and current novel insights while we are discussing
these complex ideas.
Let us conclude this Section by discussing another important property of the
Schrödinger equation. This property is directly related to the statistical interpretation
of the wavefunction. This property guarantees that if the wavefunction is normalized
at t = 0, then it will remain normalized forever, thus:
∫+∞ ∫+∞
d ∗ ∂[ ∗ ]
ψ (x, t)ψ(x, t)dx = ψ (x, t)ψ(x, t) dx = 0. (2.9)
dt ∂t
−∞ −∞
But:
∂( ∗ ) ∂ ∂
ψ ψ = ψ ∗ ψ + ψ ψ ∗. (2.10)
∂t ∂t ∂t
The time derivatives can be evaluated using Eq. (2.1) as:
∂ iℏ ∂ 2 i ∂ iℏ ∂ 2 ∗ i
ψ= ψ − V (x)ψ, and ψ ∗ = − ψ + V (x)ψ ∗ . (2.11)
∂t 2m ∂x 2 ℏ ∂t 2m ∂x2 ℏ
Therefore:
( ) [ ( )]
∂( ∗ ) iℏ ∗∂ ψ
2
∂ 2ψ ∗ ∂ iℏ ∗ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∗
ψ ψ = ψ − ψ = ψ − ψ . (2.12)
∂t 2m ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x 2m ∂x ∂x
By substituting Eq. (2.12) in Eq. (2.9), we obtain:
∫+∞ ( )I+∞
d iℏ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∗ I
ψ ∗ (x, t)ψ(x, t)dx = ψ∗ − ψ II = 0. (2.13)
dt 2m ∂x ∂x −∞
−∞
In Eq. (2.8), we noted that ψ must go to zero as x goes to ± ∞. Consequently,

the integral in Eq. (2.13) is independent of time. Therefore, if ψ is normalized at
t = 0 and ψ satisfies the Schrödinger equation, then ψ will stay normalized for
eternity. Note that the existence of a quantum particle requires that the following
normalization condition is fulfilled:
∫+∞
ψ ∗ (x, t)ψ(x, t)dx = 1. (2.14)
−∞
2.3 Operators
The formalism of quantum mechanics is extensively developed. For both practical

and fundamental mathematical reasons, it is very common to find the Schrödinger
Equation rewritten in the following way:
( )
Ĥ ψ = K̂ + V̂ ψ. (2.15)
2.3 Operators 11
This is a convenient compact notation. In Eq. (2.15), the characters with a hat
(^) are the quantum operator’s total energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy,
respectively:
∂ p̂2 ∂
Ĥ = iℏ , V̂ = V (x), and K̂ = with p̂ = −iℏ . (2.16)
∂t 2m ∂x
In Eq. (2.15), these operators act over ψ and returns a different function:
∂
Ĥ ψ = iℏ ψ = f (x, t), V̂ ψ = V (x)ψ = g(x, t). (2.17)
∂t
And:
( )
1 2 1 ∂ 2 ℏ2 ∂ 2
K̂ψ = p̂ ψ = −iℏ ψ =− ψ = h(x, t). (2.18)
2m 2m ∂x 2m ∂x2
The operator of kinetic energy is an example of an operator which has a mathe-

matical expression obtained from another operator. In this case, it is denoted as the
linear momentum (p) operator. In quantum mechanics there is an operator for each
physical magnitude. Table 2.1 contains a list of some frequently used operators.
In the discipline of classical mechanics, the analytical expression corresponding
to the physical magnitude O is a function of x and p, given O = f (x, p). For instance,
the formula for the kinetic energy of a classical particle is denoted as K = p2 /2 m.
Then, the quantum mechanical operator corresponding to O is:
( )
Ô = f x̂, p̂ . (2.19)
For instance, the analytical expression of the kinetic energy operator given by
Eq. (2.16) was obtained by following the first-quantization procedure given by
Eq. (2.19). Operators are important in quantum mechanics not only because their
use provides for a compact notation. Based on the statistical interpretation of the
wavefunction and if the particle is in the quantum state ψ, then the average value of
the physical magnitude O is given by the following equation:
Table 2.1 Some frequently

Position x̂ = x
used operators
∂
Linear momentum p̂ = −iℏ ∂x
Total energy Ĥ = iℏ ∂t∂
p̂2 ℏ ∂2 2
Kinetic energy K̂ = = − 2m
2m ∂x2
( )
Potential energy V̂ = V x̂ = V (x)
∑ ∑N ∫B
Ok
O= k=1
= ψ ∗ (x, t)Ôψ(x, t)dx. (2.20)
N
A
For instance, Eq. (2.8) takes the form of Eq. (2.20) for the average position of the
particle. In addition, equations of the following kind are of particular interest in
quantum mechanics:
ÔΩ = OΩ. (2.21)
Equations in this form are called “eigenequations”. In general, solving Eq. (2.21)
means to find a set of eigenfunctions (Ω n ) and the corresponding set of eigenvalues
(On ). Eigenequations are firstly relevant in the case if a quantum particle were in the
quantum state Ω n , then a measurement of the physical magnitude O would surely
return to the value of On . However, if the particle were in the quantum state of ψ, that
is not particularly an eigenfunction of Eq. (2.21), then the result of the measurement
could be any one of the eigenvalues of Eq. (2.21). Moreover, if the particle were to
exist in a quantum state ψ that is not an eigenfunction of Eq. (2.21), then the result of
the measurement could not be a value that is not one of the eigenvalues of Eq. (2.21).
Second, if the operators are Hermitic, then eigenequations are relevant from a more
mathematical point of view. The operator O es Hermitic if it satisfies the following
equation:
∫ ∫
Ω∗n' ÔΩn dx = Ω∗n ÔΩn' dx. (2.22)
The eigenvalues of Hermitic operators are always real. For this reason, the oper-
ators that correspond to physical magnitudes should be Hermitic. In this case, if the
set of eigenfunctions were numerable, such as Ω = Ω 1 , Ω 2 … Ω n , then the set of
eigenfunctions of Eq. (2.21) is a complete set. This means that any other function ψ
can be expressed as the following series:
⎲ ∫ ∫
ψ= cn Ωn , where cn = ψ ∗ Ωn (x)dx, and Ω∗n' (x)Ωn (x)dx = δn' n . (2.23)
n
In Eq. (2.23), δnn' is the delta of Kronecker, which is equal to 1 if n = n', but 0
otherwise. In general, cn is a complex number with an important physical meaning.
This is because if the particle were in the quantum state ψ that is not an eigenfunction
of Eq. (2.21), then |cn |2 would be equal to the probability of getting the value On .
This is when the physical magnitude O is being measured.
Although a more formal explanation could be easily found elsewhere in modern
physics literature, this Section itself includes a brief overview of the concept of an
operator and its sole use in quantum mechanics. Formally, any wavefunction is a
vector, and the set of all the wavefunctions form a Hilbert space with very well-
defined properties. Using this formalism, Eqs. (2.7), (2.20), (2.22), and (2.23) could
2.3 Operators 13
be rewritten in a more compact form in the following way:
∫+∞
P−∞+∞ = ψ ∗ (x, τ )ψ(x, τ )dx = 〈ψ|ψ〉 = 1. (2.24)
−∞
∫+∞ < I I >

I I
O= ψ ∗ (x, t)Ôψ(x, t)dx = ψ IÔIψ . (2.25)
−∞
< I I > < I I >
I I I I
Ωn' IÔIΩn = Ωn IÔIΩn' . (2.26)
And:
∫+∞ ∫
cn = ψ ∗ Ωn dx = 〈ψ|Ωn 〉, and Ω∗n' (x)Ωn (x)dx = 〈Ωn' |Ωn 〉 = δn' n . (2.27)
−∞
Therefore, utilizing this formalism, P-∞+∞ is equal to the scalar product of a vector
(wavefunction) of the Hilbert space with itself (Eq. (2.24)). The variable cn is equal
to scalar product of the vector ψ and the vector Ω n , and the wavefunctions Ω n and
Ω n' are orthogonal (Eq. (2.27)). It should be stressed that a rigorous mathematical
foundation of quantum mechanics requires much more specifics about the correct
use of operators in quantum mechanics. However, for pedagogical reasons, we just
provided the minimum information required for our purpose in this fast introduction
to quantum mechanics. Interested learners can find excellent discussions about this
topic in the cited literature at the end of this Chapter. In addition, we included in
Annex F a more formal introduction to this topic.
When the Schrödinger equation was discovered, theoretical physicists knew how
to associate a wave with a classical particle. In the theoretical formulation of the
Hamilton–Jacobi classical mechanics, the concept of action (S) is introduced. S is
a function depending on the time, and the position and linear momentum of the
particle. S satisfies the following equations:
∂S ∂S p2
+ H = 0, = p, with H = + V. (2.28)
∂t ∂x 2m
Schrödinger proposed that the wavefunction associated to a quantum particle (ψ)
is related with S in the following way:
S
ψ = ei ℏ ⇒ S = −iℏLnψ. (2.29)
The Schrödinger equation can be deducted from Eqs. (2.28) and (2.29) in the
following way. By calculating the spatial derivative of Eq. (2.29) and utilizing
Eq. (2.28), we obtain:
∂S −iℏ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
= = p ⇒ −iℏ = pψ ⇒ p̂ = −iℏ . (2.30)
∂x ψ ∂x ∂x ∂x
Therefore:
p̂2 1 ℏ2 ∂ 2 ψ p2 p̂2 ℏ2 ∂ 2
ψ= p̂p̂ψ = − = ψ ⇒ K̂ = =− . (2.31)
2m 2m 2m ∂ x
2 2m 2m 2m ∂ 2 x
Also, by calculating the temporal derivative of Eq. (2.29) and utilizing Eq. (2.31),
we obtain:
[ 2 ] [( ) ]
∂S iℏ ∂ψ p ℏ2 ∂ 2 ψ
− = =H = +V = − + V . (2.32)
∂t ψ ∂t 2m 2mψ ∂ 2 x
Finally, the Schrödinger equation is obtained after multiplying ψ on both sides

of Eq. (2.32).
2.4 The Time Independent Schrödinger Equation
A further understanding of the Schrödinger equation can be achieved by studying

the solutions of the form:
ψ(x, t) = ϕ(x)T (t). (2.33)
Substituting Eq. (2.33) into Eq. (2.1) and dividing the result by the function ϕT,
we obtain the equation:
2
2ϕ
d d
T ℏ2 dx
iℏ dt = − + V (x). (2.34)
T 2m ϕ
Both sides of Eq. (2.34) should be equal for all values of x and t. Consequently,
each side of Eq. (2.34) should be equal to the same constant. Let’s call it E for
convenience. We will later see that E is an excellent label because E is the eigenvalue
of the eigenequation corresponding to total energy of the particle. In this way, we
can reduce the task of solving the Schrödinger equation. That is an equation that uses
partial derivatives involving second-order derivatives, to the simpler task of solving
a system of the following two differential equations:
d
iℏ T = ET . (2.35)
dt
ℏ2 d 2
− ϕ + V ϕ = Eϕ. (2.36)
2m dx2
2.4 The Time Independent Schrödinger Equation 15
For obvious reasons, Eq. (2.36) is termed as the time independent Schrödinger equa-
tion. Using the operator notation discussed in the previous Section and Table 2.1, we
can rewrite Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36), respectively, as the following equations:
Ĥ T = ET . (2.37)
( )
K̂ + V̂ ϕ = Eϕ. (2.38)
Therefore, by solving the time independent Schrödinger equation, we can obtain

the eigenfunctions (ϕ) and the eigenvalues (E) corresponding to the total energy
of the quantum particle. It is easy to check by using simple substitution on it, the
following function is a solution of Eq. (2.35):
T (t) = e− ℏ Et .
i
(2.39)
Consequently, if ϕ is a solution of the time independent Schrödinger equation

(Eq. (2.36)), then the following is a solution of the Schrödinger equation:
ψ(x, t) = ϕ(x)e− ℏ Et .
i
(2.40)
The probability density corresponding to Eq. (2.40) is independent of t because:
ρ(x) = |ψ(x, t)|2 = |ϕ(x)|2 . (2.41)
If the particle were in the quantum state of ϕ, which is an eigenfunction of the time
independent Schrödinger equation, then any measurement of the particle’s energy
would result in the value E. Moreover, if the particle were in the quantum state of
ϕn , then the average value of any physical magnitude O would also be stationary
because:
∫B ∫B I I
∗ I I
O= ψ (x, t)Ôψ(x, t)dx = ϕ ∗ (x)Ôϕ(x)dx = <ϕ IÔIϕ>. (2.42)
A A
For this reason, the time independent Schrödinger equation is known as the
stationary Schrödinger equation.
Making a partial summary of this Chapter, and if we are asked to find the wave-
function and energy values that a particle of mass m moving in a potential V could
potentially have, we should solve the Schrödinger equation (Eq. (2.1)):
( ) [ ]
∂ ℏ2 ∂ 2
iℏ ψ(x, t) = K̂ + V ψ(x, t) = − + V (x) ψ(x, t). (2.43)
∂t 2m ∂x2
The stationary solutions of Eq. (2.43) are given by Eq. (2.40), where ϕ is an
eigenfunction of the time independent Schrödinger:
( ) [ ]
ℏ2 d 2
K̂ + V ϕ(x) = − + V (x) ϕ(x) = Eϕ(x). (2.44)
2m dx2
A quantum particle could only acquire an energy value that equals one of the
eigenvalues (E) of Eq. (2.44). Equation (2.40) corresponds to a particular solution of
the Schrödinger equation. Due to its linearity, if there is a numerable set of eigenvalues
(E n ) of the time independent Schrödinger equation, then the general solution of the
Schrödinger equation is:
⎲
cn ϕn (x)e− ℏ En t .
i
ψ(x, t) = (2.45)
n
If at t = 0, ψ(x,0) = f (x), then:

⎲
f (x) = cn ϕn (x). (2.46)
n
Therefore, due to Eqs. (2.21) to (2.23):

∫
cn = f (x)∗ ϕn (x)dx = f |ϕn . (2.47)
This means that if the wavefunction is known at t = 0, then the Schrödinger

equation completely determines the temporal evolution of the wavefunction.
2.5 The Infinite One-Dimensional Well
While the temporal dependence of the stationary solutions of the Schrödinger equa-
tion is always given by Eq. (2.39), the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of the time inde-
pendent Schrödinger equation are different for separate potentials. In this Section, we
will commence a long journey where we will learn how to solve Eq. (2.43) for increas-
ingly more realistic potentials. As discussed in Chap. 1, quantum mechanics was
developed to try to explain some phenomena at the submicroscopic level involving
very small quantum particles. Possibly, the crudest but simplest possible model of a
quantum particle is then a particle absolutely confined in the open segment of 0 <
x < L. The wavefunction in such a model exists as null in the rest of the line. Even
considering all circumstances, Ψ (0, t) = ψ (L, t) = 0 always. This supposes that the
particle should be moving in a repulsive potential infinitely large in the regions 0 ≤ x
and x ≥ L. The simplest of such potentials is known as the infinite one-dimensional
well:
2.5 The Infinite One-Dimensional Well 17
0, if 0 < x < L
V (x) = . (2.48)
+∞, otherwise
This potential of choice implies that the particle acts like a free particle inside of the
well. For deciding if this crude model is useful or not, we should solve Eq. (2.43) with
V given by Eq. (2.48). This problem reduces to solving the following mathematical
problem:
ℏ ∂
iℏ ∂t∂ ψ(x, t) = − 2m
2 2
ψ(x, t), if 0 < x < L
∂x2 . (2.49)
ψ(x, t) ≡ 0, otherwise
The stationary solutions of Eq. (2.49) are of the form given by Eq. (2.45), where
ϕ is a solution of:
√
d2
ϕ(x)
= −k 2 ϕ, if 0 < x < L 2mE
dx2 , with k = . (2.50)
ϕ(x) ≡ 0, otherwise ℏ
If E ≥ 0, then k ≥ 0. Therefore, the general solution of the time independent

Schrödinger equation in Eq. (2.50) is:
ϕ(x) = Asin(kx) + Bcos(kx). (2.51)
But:
ϕ(0) = B = 0. (2.52)
Thus:
nπ
ϕ(L) = Asin(kL) ⇒ kn = , with n = 1, 2, . . . .. (2.53)
L
Therefore, the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of the time independent
Schrödinger equation in Eq. (2.50) are:
( nπ ) ℏ2 kn2 ℏ2 π 2 2
ϕn (x) = Asin x , and En = = n , with n = 1, 2, . . . . (2.54)
L 2m 2mL2
The constant A can be obtained from the normalization condition (Eq. (2.14)):
∫L ( nπ ) /
2
<ϕn |ϕn > = 1 = 2
A sin 2
x dx = A L ⇒ A =
2
. (2.55)
L L
0
As a result, the stationary solutions of the Schrödinger equation in a one-

dimensional infinite well are:
Fig. 2.1 Energies and |φn (x/L)|2

probability densities
En / E1
corresponding to the first
three quantum states n=3
(Eq. (2.54)) of a particle in a
one-dimensional infinite well 0
n=2
0
n=1
0 x/L
/
2
sin(kn x)e− ℏ En t .
i
ψn (x, t) = (2.56)
L
The corresponding stationary probability density is then:
2 2 ( nπ )
ρn (x) = |ψn (x, t)|2 = |ϕn (x)|2 = sin x . (2.57)
L L
A plot of the probability density corresponding to the smallest values of n is
depicted in Fig. 2.1. Each wavefunction given by Eq. (2.56) satisfies Eq. (2.49), so
therefore, due to the linearity of the Schrödinger equation, the general solution of
Eq. (2.49) is:
+∞
⎲
cn ϕn (x)e− ℏ En t .
i
ψn (x, t) = (2.58)
n=1
If it were known that ψ(x,0) = f (x), then:
+∞
⎲
f (x) = cn ϕn (x). (2.59)
n=1
Therefore (Eq. (2.23)):
∫L
cn = <f |ϕn > = f (x)∗ ϕn (x)dx. (2.60)
0
If f (x) were one of stationary states of the Schrödinger equation, meaning if f (x)
= ϕ i (x), then (Eq. (2.23)):
∫L ( ) (
4 iπ nπ ) 1 if i = n
cn = <ϕi |ϕn > = 2 sin x sin x dx = δin = . (2.61)
L L L 0 if i /= n
0
We should stop now and discuss the physical meaning of the mathematical results
that we obtained. We should not get lost in mathematical formalism and forget
why we were interested in solving Eq. (2.49). Do these obtained results help give a
plausible explanation to the submicroscopic phenomena discussed in Chap. 1? We
proposed Eq. (2.49) as the Schrödinger equation corresponding to a simple, but crude
approximation of a submicroscopic particle completely confined is a small region
of space. This is a simple approximation because it is a one-dimensional problem
and because the infinite well potential is applied. It is a crude approach for the same
reasons. Nevertheless, the obtained results can explain why atoms are stable and why
their spectra are formed by a discrete set of bright or dark lines.
The only possible values of the energy of the stationary states of a quantum
particle, with mass m, that is confined in a small spatial region are given by Eq. (2.54).
Therefore, the minimum possible energy value is:
ℏ2 π 2
E1 = > 0. (2.62)
2mL2
The existence of a non-null minimum value of the energy means that the spatially
localized particle cannot lose more energy if it is in its ground state (n = 1). This
itself explains the stability of atoms. Moreover, from Eqs. (1.1) and (2.54), it follows
that a quantum particle with mass m, that is confined in a small spatial region, must
have a discrete frequency spectrum:
ΔEij Ei − Ej h (2 )
Δυij = = = 2
i − j2 . (2.63)
h h 8mL
It should be noted that Eq. (2.63) does not precisely predict the values of Δν in
the spectrum of the Hydrogen atom. This could be expected because the electron in
the Hydrogen atom is not moving in the infinite well potential (Eq. (2.48)), but in
the Coulomb potential that is produced by the proton. For pedagogical reasons, we
will refine the model of a quantum particle confined in a small spatial region until
the predicted values of Δν match the spectrum of the Hydrogen atom. Nevertheless,
it is astonishing that both the stability of the atoms and the discrete character of their
spectra are just consequences of the spatial localization of the quantum particle.
Other interesting physical characteristics of the quantum world can be extracted
from the mathematical results obtained in this Chapter. From Eq. (2.54), it follows
that the probability (P) of a measurement of the position of the particle in the well
returns the value x with a precision Δx is:
2Δx 2 ( nπ )
P = ρn (x)Δx = sin x . (2.64)
L L
This probability depends on the quantum state the particle is in. From Fig. 2.1, it
follows that if the particle is in the ground state (n = 1), then P is at its maximum
at x = L/2. This signifies that the particle is more probable to be found around the
center of the well. However, if the particle is in the first excited state (n = 2), the
particle is less probable to be found around the walls and the center of the well. This
is where P is found to be at a maximum at x = L/4 and x = 3L/4. In both cases, P is
different from what we should expect if the particle were to be a classical particle.
The potential energy of a particle that lies inside the infinite well is null, which
means that all its energy is kinetic. Therefore, if K > 0, the particle must be moving
inside of the well. This is correct for both a classical and a quantum particle. Note
that a classical particle could exist and be inside the well when K = 0. On the
contrary, if a quantum particle is inside of the well then, the relationship will be K >
0. In the stationary states, the kinetic energy of the particle is constant. A classical
particle with a constant kinetic energy, K = p2 /2m, contains a constant value of the
magnitude of its linear momentum (|p|). This means that if a classical particle with
K > 0 were trapped in a one-dimensional infinite well, then the particle would be
traveling back and forth with a constant value |p|. Consequently, the probability of
finding the particle anywhere inside the well would be the same.
If a quantum particle were trapped in a one-dimensional infinite well, so that the
particle is in a stationary state, then the particle must be moving with constant values
of K and |p|. How does the quantum particle move? A quantum particle does not move
like a classical one does because P depends on the nature of the particle. Certainly,
if the quantum particle were in the first excited state, then its movement would be
extremely unusual. This is because the quantum particle would be highly probable to
be found between the points at x = L/2 and x = 3L/4, but very unlikely be found at x =
L/2. How can a particle moving with constant value of |p| go from x = L/2 to x = 3L/4
without passing through x = L/2? This is known as the quantum particle propagation
paradox. Followers of different interpretations of the mathematical formulism of
quantum mechanics give various amounts of answers to this question.
In most introductory quantum mechanical courses, the quantum particle propa-
gation paradox is not admittedly mentioned. This is because of historical and peda-
gogical reasons. Introductory quantum mechanics courses adhere to the orthodox
interpretation of quantum mechanics, which is also known as the Copenhagen inter-
pretation. This was the original interpretation proposed and defended by the founders
of quantum mechanics. Followers of the orthodox interpretation maintain the belief
that particles do not have trajectory. Therefore, they do not welcome or consider the
question of how the quantum particle moves. A typical answer to such a simple but
challenging question, is that a quantum particle is not in a place until it is measured
there. For them, it does not make any sense to talk about the position of a quantum
particle before it is measured.
The following uncertainty formula is an experimental fact:
ΔxΔp > 0. (2.65)

In Eq. (2.65), Δx and Δp are the uncertainty in the determination of the position
and linear momentum of a quantum particle. It is theoretically possible to simulta-
neously measure the position and the linear momentum of a classical particle with
absolute precision. This means that a classical particle will be ΔxΔp ≥ 0. If Δx
= Δp = 0, then a classical particle describes a well-defined trajectory. Note that a
classical particle could be at rest inside of an infinite well. Thus, it will also reside
in a definite position with |p| = 0. In contrast, a quantum particle cannot be at rest
in the well because K > 0 for a quantum particle. Followers of the orthodox inter-
pretation of quantum mechanics argue that Eq. (2.65) implies that quantum particles
do not move following well-defined trajectories. However, this is not correct as
demonstrated by alternative quantum mechanics interpretations that are consistent
with Eq. (2.65). Quantum particles move following well-defined trajectories in these
theories. However, the trajectories of the quantum particle in these alternative inter-
pretations defies common sense. For pedagogical reasons and for time’s sake, we
will limit the discussion about this here.
A classical particle trapped in an infinite well can contain any value of K, but a
quantum particle can only have the values given by Eq. (2.54). Therefore, it looks
like we could possibly distinguish a classical particle from a quantum particle by
introducing it in a well. Classical particles can be at rest in the well and can have
any value of K. However, quantum particles cannot be at rest and can only occupy a
numerable set of K values. Questions arise from these known theories of particles.
Is there any way to know if the particle of mass m is classical or quantum without
measuring its kinetic energy in the well? So originally, quantum mechanics was
created for describing particles of minuscule mass forming part of submicroscopic
systems. However, m is the only property of the particle in the Schrödinger equation.
This motivates the wonderance of the following questions. Do quantum particles
with a large mass exist or could they exist? Is there a mass value that separates the
quantum world from the classical one? Currently, there is not a viable consent in the
community of physicists about the response to these questions. Nevertheless, let us
discuss a possible response to these questions based on Eq. (2.54).
From the Eqs. (2.62) and (2.63), it follows that for a given value of L, if m >> 1
then E 1 << 1 and Δν << 1. In contrast, if m << 1, then E 1 >> 0 and Δν is large. This
suggests that particles with a large mass should be classic, but particles with a small
mass should be quantum. Is there a value of m limiting the classical and the quantum
world? If this m value exists, Eq. (2.54) does not contain a clue about it. We will
delay further discussion about this topic until Chap. 8. Nevertheless, Eqs. (2.62) and
(2.63) suggest that the size of the well influences the classical or quantum behavior
of a particle with a given mass. If L >> 1, then E 1 << 1 and Δν << 1. In contrast,
if L is very small, then E 1 >> 0 and Δν is large. This insinuates that only particles
confined in a very small spatial region should be quantum. Note that the initial focus
of quantum mechanics on very small particles with a tiny mass is well-justified. The
extension of quantum mechanics for including the study of very massive objects
with a very small size is more controversial. Currently, objects like these are of high
interest. This includes the mysterious and notorious celestial objects such as black
holes and the whole Universe at the first moments of its formation.
2.6 The Free Particle
The most basic difference between a classical and a quantum particle is that there
is a wave associated to a quantum particle. Different interpretations of quantum
mechanics give different answers to the nature of this wave. For instance, as discussed
in Sect. 2.2, the orthodox interpretation of quantum mechanics considers that |ψ(x,t)|2
is a probability density. Nevertheless, all interpretations of quantum mechanics coin-
cide in that the wave associated with a free quantum particle is a solution of the
simplest Schrödinger equation possible (V = 0):
∂ ℏ2 ∂ 2
iℏ ψ(x, t) = − ψ(x, t). (2.66)
∂t 2m ∂x2
Nevertheless, as will be shown below, the simplicity of Eq. (2.66) is only apparent.
We’re looking for stationary solutions of Eq. (2.66) with energy E = K > 0, where
K is the kinetic energy of the free particle:
E
ψ(x) = ϕ(x)e−iwt , with w = . (2.67)
ℏ
We obtain the time independent Schrödinger equation for a free particle:
ℏ2 d 2
− ϕ(x) = Eϕ(x) = 0. (2.68)
2m dx2
Thus:
√
d2 2mE
ϕ(x) + k 2 ϕ(x) = 0, with k = . (2.69)
dx2 ℏ
Therefore:
ϕ(x) = A± e±ikx . (2.70)
Consequently, the stationary solutions of Eq. (2.66) are plane waves traveling
from left to right (→) and plane waves traveling from right to left (←):
ψ→ (x, t) = A+ ei(kx−wt) , ψ← (x, t) = A− e−i(kx+wt) . (2.71)
Unfortunately, a plane wave cannot be the wave associated to a free quantum

particle because a plane wave cannot be normalized since:
∫+∞ ∫+∞
∗
ϕ (x)ϕ(x)dx = |A± | 2
dx = ∞. (2.72)
−∞ −∞
2.6 The Free Particle 23
Nevertheless, each plane wave in Eq. (2.71) could be used for describing not
just a single quantum particle, but a stationary and homogeneous beam formed by
many free quantum particles of mass m that are traveling with K = p2 /2m = E.
This is because |A± |2 could be interpreted as the constant average density of particles
(particles per unit length) at any point in such a beam. Consequently, Eq. (2.71) could
be utilized for describing not just a single particle, but a stationary and homogeneous
beam formed by many identical quantum particles. In such a beam, the average
number of particles per unit length (average particle density) is:
ρ± = |A± |2 . (2.73)
These probability densities remain constant amid all possibilities. Note that there
is a constant stream of particles (current) associated to each one of the plane waves
given by Eq. (2.71):
p p √
j→ = |A+ |2 , and j← = |A− |2 , with p = ℏk = 2mE. (2.74)
m m
Maintaining these currents requires a constant source of particles.
As sketched in Fig. 2.2, and due to the linearity of the Schrödinger equation,
we could look for a normalized solution of Eq. (2.66). This would be found for a
convenient superposition of plane wave forming the wave-packet:
∫+∞
1 E ℏ2 k 2
ψ(x, t) = √ φ(k)ei(kx−wt) dk, with w = , and E = . (2.75)
2π ℏ 2m
−∞
In Eq. (2.75), the linear superposition of plane waves traveling in both directions
is expressed as an integral because the values of k can take any real numbered value.
The function φ(k) can be determined from the initial condition:
∫+∞
1
ψ(x, t = 0) = √ φ(k)eikx dk. (2.76)
2π
−∞
Therefore, φ(k) is the Fourier transform of ψ(x, t = 0):
Fig. 2.2 The wavefunction

of a free quantum particle
may be a spatially localized
wave packet. However, a
quantum particle in wave
packet quantum state cannot
have well-defined value of K
and |p|
∫+∞
1
φ(k) = √ ψ(x, t = 0)e−ikx dx. (2.77)
2π
−∞
If φ(k) is narrowly peaked about some value k = k o , then the wave-packet looks
like a classical particle because it is spatially localized (Fig. 2.2). Moreover, the group
velocity of the spatially localized wave-packet is equal to the speed of a classical
particle (vparticle ). This is a classical particle with approximately the same energy as
the quantum particle associated to the wave-packet:
I ( )I
d w II d ℏk 2 II ℏko po
vg ≈ = = = = vparticle . (2.78)
dk Ik=ko dk 2m Ik=ko m m
It should be noted that in contrast with a free classical particle, a free quantum
particle in the quantum state corresponding to wave-packet cannot have a well-
defined value of its linear momentum (p = èk) and kinetic energy (K = E = è2 k 2 /2m).
This is because a wave-packet contains numerous plane waves with various values of
k. Moreover, in contrast with solid classical particles, the shape of the wave-packet
depends on time because different plane waves forming the wave-packet travel with
different phase velocities:
w ℏ
vph = = k. (2.79)
k 2m
2.7 Does the Schrödinger Equation Satisfy Expectations?
The answer to this question should be an unquestionable and an undeniable yes. This
is because as discussed in Sect. 2.5, solving the Schrödinger equation for a particle
with mass m in an infinite one-dimensional well, allows for the explanation of why
atoms are stable and why the atoms’ spectra are formed by a set of bright or dark
lines.
However, the answer to this question should also be an undoubted no. This is
because the experimental values of the frequencies in the Hydrogen spectra are far
from the theoretical values.
Several things should be improved in the crude model discussed in Sect. 2.5:
(a) The infinite well potential is not the real one, therefore, a more realistic potential
should be introduced.
(b) Real atoms are three dimensional. For that reason, the one-dimensional
Schrödinger equation should be substituted by its tridimensional version.
(c) The Schrödinger equation is not relativistic. This means that it only describes
a particle moving slowly compared to the speed of the light in the vacuum.
Bibliography 25
As a result, it is necessary to substitute the Schrödinger equation with another

relativistic wave equation.
(d) Electrons have spin-(s = 1/2), but there is no reference to the particle’s spin in the
Schrödinger equation (only m is included on it). This is because the Schrödinger
equation only describes spinless particles with spin-(s = 0). On that account, it
is necessary to substitute the Schrödinger equation with another wave equation
that explicitly refers to the spin of the particle.
In the rest of the course, each one of these necessary improvements will be studied.
We will start these studies in the next Chapter, where we will learn the consequences
for quantum mechanics produced by including the special theory of relativity.
Bibliography
1. D.J. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (Prentice Hall, USA, 1995)

2. D. Bohm, Quantum Theory, 11th edn. (Prentice -Hall, USA, 1964)
3. A.S. Davydov, Quantum Mechanics (Pergamon Press, USA, 1965)
4. Schrödinger equation (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equ
ation. Accessed 10 April 2023
5. Wavefunctions (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function#:~:text=A%20w
ave%20function%20in%20quantum%20physics%20is%20a,on%20the%20system%20can%
20be%20derived%20from%20it. Accessed 10 April 2023
6. Interpretations (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mech
anics. Accessed 10 April 2023
7. Pilot wave theory (Wikipedia), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_wave_theory. Accessed 10
April 2023
8. Quantum mechanical operators (Wikipedia), https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Quantum_Mech
anics/Operators_and_Commutators. Accessed 10 April 2023
Chapter 3
Introducing Relativity in Quantum
Mechanics
Abstract In 1905, Albert Einstein discovered the special theory of relativity. In

1925, Schrödinger knew that any foundational law of physics should be Lorentz
covariant. Schrödinger knew that the equation that is named after him today, was not
Lorentz’s covariant, but Galileo’s invariant. For practical reasons, he chose to publish
the equation that carries his name today. He chose to publish this instead of a Lorentz
covariant equation that is known as the Klein-Gordon equation in modern times.
The reason for Schrödinger’s decision was because of the evidence that the Klein-
Gordon equation for a free particle has solutions with negative kinetic energy. On the
contrary, the kinetic energy of classical particles is always positive. In this chapter,
this book diverges from a traditional introduction to quantum mechanics. The first
proposed ideas of relativistic quantum mechanics are introduced for a background
sense of what this book wants to ultimately pursue. This includes the introduction
of the Schrödinger-like PPGP equation and its use to solve simple one-dimensional
problems.
Almost a century later, as it will be discussed below in Sects. 3.2 and 3.3, it is well
known that the quantum states that are solutions of relativistic (Lorentz’s covariant)
wave equations can be grouped into two branches. In the first branch, the total rela-
tivistic energy of the quantum particle is E T = E + mc2 . In the other branch, the
total energy of the quantum particle is E T = E ' − mc2 . Here, we will refer to these
states as “exotic” quantum states for reasons that will be clearly explained below.
The apostrophe (' ) attached to the variable representing a magnitude will be used
to exemplify the magnitude in an exotic quantum state. In addition, it is important
to recognize that there is an antiparticle associated with each elemental particle in
nature. The associated particle and the antiparticle have the same mass and charges
of equal magnitude. On the contrary, the associated particle and antiparticle have
charges with opposite signs. For instance, a positron is the antiparticle associated
with the electron. As will be discussed below, there is a close relationship between
the antiparticle states with E Ta = E a + mc2 and the particle states with E T = E' −
mc2 .

28 3 Introducing Relativity in Quantum Mechanics
3.1 The Special Theory of Relativity
We use reference frames to communicate our observations with other people. If

there were to be two observers at rest respect to an object, then observer A could
indicate the position of the object using a three-dimensional vector rA = (x A , yA , zA )
originating at a reference point PA and ending at the object. However, observer B
could indicate the position of the object using other three-dimensional vector rB =
(x B , yB , zB ) originating at a reference point PB and ending at the object. In general, rA
/= rB , meaning both observers will each state that the object is in different positions
respect to the reference points at PA and PB . However, the observers would agree
with the mass of this object.
In the world of physics, matters are fundamentally more complicated than
the trivial example given above. Nevertheless, for facilitating the communication
between observers, we use frames of reference. In general, two observers usually
do not agree with their individual observations referred to their different frames of
references. However, they often agree on a reduced number of observations.
In non-relativistic mechanics and in special theory of relativity, there are specific
matters the observers should take on to understand the experiment to their fullest
potential. The observers should refer to their observations about the movement of
objects to inertial frames that move respectively to each other with constant velocity.
For instance, in non-relativistic mechanics, two observers could agree on the time
their observations were made. They can also agree about the mass and the acceleration
of a moving object, but they could disagree on the position and velocity of the
object. In special theory of relativity, contents are a bit more complicated. Events
that are simultaneous for an observer could appear to occur at different times for
other observers. Nevertheless, there are observations where all the observers agree.
As it will be shown below, these observer-independent observations are the ones used
for introducing the special theory of relativity in quantum mechanics.
These are the most important results of the special theory of relativity in quantum
mechanics:
(a) The speed of the light in the vacuum (c) and the particle’s mass (m) are relativistic
invariant. This means these are observer-independent magnitudes.
(b) The magnitude of the linear momentum of a free classical particle (p) moving
with velocity (v) is not a relativistic invariant measure and it is given by the
following equation:
1
p = γ mv ≥ 0, with γ = / . (3.1)
v2
1− c2
In Eq. (3.1), γ ≥ 1 is the Lorentz factor of special theory of relativity.

(c) In the special theory of relativity there are some four-dimensional vectors which
magnitudes (modules) are Lorentz (relativistic) invariant. Two notable instances
are:
3.1 The Special Theory of Relativity 29
√
|(ct, i x, i y, i z)| = c2 t 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 = 0. (3.2)
I( )I /
I E T − V , i px c, i p y c, i pz c I = (E T − V )2 − p 2 c2 − p 2 c2 − p 2 c2 = mc2 .
x y z
(3.3)
The energy-linear-momentum four-dimensional vector in Eq. (3.3) corresponds

to a particle with mass m that is moving with total energy E T in the potential V. This
four-dimensional vector is particularly important for quantum mechanics because
the energy operator explicitly appears in the Schrödinger equation (Eq. 2.15).
Classical Particles
Classical particles have constant mass m > 0 and kinetic energy K > 0. Equation (3.3)
can be rewritten as:
(E T − V )2 = p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 , with p 2 = px2 + p 2y + pz2 . (3.4)
Or:
√
E T − V = ± p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 . (3.5)
For classical particles the + sign in Eq. (3.5) must be taken; therefore:
√
ET = p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 + V . (3.6)
From Eq. (3.6), it follows when p = 0 and V = 0, then:
E T = E m = mc2 . (3.7)
There is then an energy (E m = mc2 ) associated with the mass of a classical particle.
Consequently:
E T = E + mc2 , with E = K + V . (3.8)
Substituting E T with K + V + mc2 in Eq. (3.6), we obtain:

/
√ p2
K + mc =2
p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 = γ mc , with γ =
2
1+ ≥ 1. (3.9)
m 2 c2
Note that Eq. (3.9) gives an alternative formula for the Lorentz factor. This is
because substituting p given by Eq. (3.1) in Eq. (3.9), we obtain the original definition
of the Lorentz factor:
/
v2 1
γ = 1 + γ2 2
⇒γ = / . (3.10)
c 1− v2
c2
From Eq. (3.9), we obtain the kinetic energy of a classical particle is given by:
K = (γ − 1)mc2 ≥ 0. (3.11)
Substituting Eq. (3.11) in Eq. (3.8), we obtain the following equations of:
E T − V = γ mc2 . (3.12)
Along with:
K = E − V = (γ − 1)mc2 . (3.13)
From Eq. (3.13), we obtain another very useful alternative formula for γ:
E−V
γ =1+ . (3.14)
mc2
Note that γ ≥ 1 in Eq. (3.14) because for a classical particle E = K + V ≥ V.
Figure 3.1 depicts an instance corresponding to a classical particle with energy
E moving in a parabolic potential. V (x = 0) = 0, thus at x = 0 all the energy of the
particle is kinetic (E = K); however, at x = x min and x = x max all the particle’s energy
is potential energy (K = 0). A classical particle can only be found in the classical
region x min ≤ x ≤ x max . A classical particle cannot be in the inaccessible classical
region where V > E.
An unfamiliar but particularly useful alternative equation for K can be obtained
from Eq. (3.9):
V(x) = x2
Classical region
Inaccessible Inaccessible
classical region classical region
E
xmin xmax x
Fig. 3.1 Energy considerations for a classical particle moving in a quadratic potential
p2
γ2 = 1 + . (3.15)
m 2 c2
Therefore:
p2
(γ + 1)(γ − 1)mc2 = . (3.16)
m
Thus:
p2
(γ − 1)mc2 = K = . (3.17)
(γ + 1)m
Note that for classical particles γ ≈ 1 in the non-relativistic limit; thus, K and p
are given by the non-relativistic formulas:
p2
K = , with p = mv. (3.18)
2m
As it would be discussed in Sect. 3.4, it is useful to introduce the concept of the
effective mass of a classical particle as:
1+γ E−V
μ= m ≥ m, with γ = 1 + . (3.19)
2 mc2
Thus:
( )
E−V
μ= 1+ m ≥ m. (3.20)
2mc2
Using Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20), Eq. (3.17) can be rewritten as:
p2
K = ≥ 0. (3.21)
2μ
Quantum Particles
In contrast to classical particles, a quantum particle with mass m and that is moving
with total energy E T in a potential V, can be in the classical inaccessible region where
E = K + V < V. This will be explained further in Sect. 4.2. Consequently, quantum
particles can have negative kinetic energies (K < 0) in the inaccessible classical
region. Moreover, relativistic quantum particles in exotic states can also have K ' < 0
in the classical region where E > V.
In the classical region where E > V, such as classical particles, quantum particles
can exist in quantum states where E T = E + mc2 and the particle has K > 0. For
these states, all the formulas discussed above are valid in the classical region.
In addition to quantum states where the particle has K > 0 in the classical region,
a relativistic quantum particle can be in other “exotic” quantum states where E T =
E' − mc2 . In contrast with classical particles, quantum particles in these exotic states
can have kinetic energy K ' < 0 in the classical region. For these exotic states, the
formulas discussed above should be modified. The special theory of relativity was
developed by Albert Einstein for classical particles. Therefore, we must be careful in
extrapolating the valid results for classical particles to relativistic quantum particles
in exotic states where E T = E' − mc2 .
In Sect. 3.3 a brief discussion about the Hole Theory and the Dirac’s Sea is
presented. Here it is enough to know that there exist particles and antiparticles in
Mother Nature. An antiparticle is a particle that has the same mass as the associated
particle but contains an opposite charge. For instance, the positron is the antiparticle
of the electron. Although they have the same mass, the positron and electron electric
charges are e and –e, respectively. According to the Hole Theory, the existence of
a hole in Dirac’s Sea means there exists an unoccupied exotic quantum state of a
particle moving in the potential V with total energy E T = E ' − mc2 . This hole is
perceived as an antiparticle moving in the potential −V with total energy E Ta = E a
+ mc2 and E a = −E'. Consequently, due to the relation of E a = −E ' , we can start by
obtaining the relativistic equations which are valid for the antiparticle in the states
with E Ta = E a + mc2 . After they are found and known, the relativistic equations
valid for the exotic quantum states of the particle can be deducted from them.
If the particle is moving in the external potential V, then the associated antiparticle
is a particle moving in the external potential −V. Therefore, for the quantum states
of the antiparticle with E Ta = E a + mc2 , Eqs. (3.1)–(3.21) are valid after modifying
V to −V. Therefore:
(E T a + V )2 = p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 , with p 2 = px2 + p 2y + pz2 . (3.22)
Or:
√
E T a + V = E a + mc2 + V = p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 . (3.23)
Using the relation E' = −E a , we obtain:

√
−E T a = −E a − mc2 = E ' − mc2 = E T' = − p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 + V . (3.24)
Therefore, if the particle is in an exotic state with E ' T = E ' − mc2 , from Eqs.
(3.23) and (3.24) follows when p = 0 and V = 0, then:
E T' = −E T a = −E m = −mc2 . (3.25)
Therefore, mc2 is the absolute minimum value of E T , if a free quantum particle is

in a state where E T = E + mc2 (Eq. (3.7)). However, −mc2 is the absolute maximum
value of E T , if a free quantum particle is in an exotic state where E T = E ' − mc2 .
From Eq. (3.23) follows that:
E T a = E a + mc2 , with E a = K a − V . (3.26)
Thus:
( )
E T' = −E T a = − E a + mc2 = −K a + V − mc2 . (3.27)
We can rewrite Eq. (3.27) as:
E T' = E ' − mc2 , with E ' = K ' + V = −E a , and K ' = −K a . (3.28)
Therefore, E = K + V in a state where E T = E + mc2 (Eq. (3.8)). Also, E' = K '

+ V in an exotic state where E T = E ' − mc2 . Substituting E Ta by K a − V + mc2 in
(3.23), we obtain:
/
√ pa2
K a + mc =2
p 2 c2 + m 2 c4 = γa mc , with γa =
2
1+ ≥ 1. (3.29)
m 2 c2
From Eqs. (3.28) and (3.29), we obtain:
K a = (γa − 1)mc2 = −K ' . (3.30)
Substituting K a given by Eq. (3.30) in Eq. (3.26), we obtain the following equation:
E T a + V = γa mc2 . (3.31)
And:
E a + V = (γa − 1)mc2 . (3.32)
From Eq. (3.32), we obtain an alternative formula for γa :
Ea + V E a − (−V )
γa = 1 + 2
=1+ . (3.33)
mc mc2
Note that γa ≥ 1 in Eq. (3.33) when E a ≥ −V. Also, in general, γa /= γ. This is
because γ is determined by V but γa is determined by −V.
Instead of the substitutions above, if we substitute K' given by Eq. (3.30) in
Eq. (3.27), we obtain the following equations:
E T' − V = −γa mc2 = γ ' mc2 . (3.34)
And:
( )
E ' − V = γ ' + 1 mc2 . (3.35)
From Eq. (3.35), we obtain a formula for γ' :
E' − V
γ ' = −1 + (3.36)
mc2
Note that in Eq. (3.34) we defined γ' = −γa as the Lorentz factor corresponding
to a quantum particle in an exotic state where E T = E ' − mc2 . By substituting γ by
γa in Eqs. (3.15)–(3.21), we obtain:
( ) [ ]
p2 γa + 1 E a − (−V )
Ka = , with μa = m = 1+ m. (3.37)
2μa 2 2mc2
Also, due to γ' = −γa , Eq. (3.15) is also valid for γ' , thus:
( ' )( ) p2
γ − 1 γ ' + 1 mc2 = . (3.38)
m
Nothing that Eq. (3.30) can be rewritten as:
( ) ( )
K ' = − −γ ' − 1 mc2 = γ ' + 1 mc2 . (3.39)
From Eqs. (3.38) and (3.39), we obtain:

( ) ( )
p2 p2 γ' − 1 E' − V
K' = '
= , with μ' = m = −1 + m.
(γ − 1)m 2μ' 2 mc2
(3.40)
We have then obtained similar kinetic energy equations, K = p2 /2μ (Eq. 3.21) and
K = p2 /2μ' . These equations are valid for both kinds of quantum states. However,
'
the effective masses μ (Eq. 3.20) and μ' are different. The equations relating μ y γ
(Eq. 3.19) and μ' y γ' (Eq. 3.36) are also different. Also, due to the relation of E a =
−E ' , if follows that −μ' = μa (Eq. 3.37).
Finally, as will be studied later, quantum particles can tunnel through a potential
barrier and be in spatial regions where a classical particle cannot be. As discussed
in Sect. 1.2, the magnitude of the linear momentum of a quantum particle is p = ℏk.
When a quantum particle is in a classically forbidden region where E < V, then k
can take pure imaginary values; therefore, from Eq. (3.9) follows that:
/
| p|2
γ = 1− . (3.41)
m 2 c2
3.2 The Klein-Gordon Equation 35
Table. 3.1 Relevant relativistic formulas for quantum mechanics

“Like-classical” quantum particles states Exotic quantum particles states
E T = E + mc2 ⇒ E m = mc2 E T' = E ' − mc2 ⇒ E m = −mc2
'
γ = 1 + E−V
mc2
γ ' = −1 + Emc−V
2
( ) [ ] ( ' ) [ ]
γ +1 γ −1 E ' −V
μ= 2 m = 1+ E−V
2mc2
m μ' = 2 m = −1 + 2mc2
m
p2 ( ) p2
K = E − V = (γ − 1)mc2 = 2μ K ' = E ' − V = γ ' + 1 mc2 = 2μ'
This means that |γ| could be less than 1 in the classical forbidden region where E
< V. In general, the potential depends on the position of the particle. Therefore, γ is
a local function on the position of the particle:
[ ]
E − V (x)
γ (x) = 1 + m. (3.42)
mc2
Consequently, μ, μ' , K, and K ' also depends on x. While K(x) > 0, and K ' (x) < 0
in the classical region where E > V; this is not true in a classical inaccessible region.
In addition, when describing the interaction of a charged quantum particle (with
charge e) with an external electromagnetic field, Eq. (3.13) should be modified in
the following way:
I( ( e ) ( e ) ( e ) )II
I
I E T − e Ao , −i px − A x c, i p y − A y c, i pz − A z c I
c c c
/ ( )2 ( )2 (
e e e )2
= (E T − e Ao )2 − px − A x c2 − p y − A y c2 − pz − A z c2 = mc2 .
c c c
(3.43)
In Eq. (3.43), Ao and A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) are the scalar and vector potentials of
Electrodynamics, respectively.
Besides Eqs. (3.3) and (3.43), the more relevant relativistic formulas for quantum
mechanics are summarized in Table 3.1. As discussed above, the formulas for the
exotic quantum particle states where E T = E ' − mc2 are obtained by defining γ' = −
γa , μ' = (γ' − 1)/2 and changing V by −V and E a by −E ' in the relativistic formulas
for the antiparticle in states where E Ta = E a + mc2 .
3.2 The Klein-Gordon Equation
The Klein-Gordon equation is the correct Lorentz covariant equation for a spin-(s
= 0) particle. In 1925, Schrödinger, Klein and Gordon discovered this equation.
However, Schrödinger found this equation independently, but decided not to publish
it. This equation is named after Klein and Gordon because they were the first to
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On Saturday, the 21st August, 1802, we went
with the General,[182] Ld. Robert,[183] and ST. CLOUD
Frederick,[184] and we took Charles to St. Cloud. It
was a palace belonging formerly to the Dukes of Orleans, but poor
Marie Antoinette liked it, and is accused of having exerted her royal
influence to compel the late Duke to sell it, which he did most
reluctantly. She was so partial to its beauties that she was profuse in
her expense to decorate it. In each taste the First Consul imitates
her, as he is so impatient to take possession that the surveyors are
obliged to make the men work all night; and he likes it so much that
no expense is spared to render it a fit residence for the Sovereign of
France. The gallery remains as it was finished by Gaston, Duke of
Orleans, Louis XIII’s brother; only on the panels some of the plunder
of Italy, which was in the Museum of the Louvre, has been placed,
much to their disadvantage, as the gaudy ceiling and rich gilding kills
the colouring of the pictures. They are capital; some of my old
acquaintances out of the Palais Pitti. The apartments that are fitted
up are done in le goût sévère, which, in other words, means a dark
and dingy style. The walls are hung with cloth, and draperies of cloth
edged with magnificent deep parti-coloured fringes are festooned
over it. The colours being generally dark green and brown produce a
solemn effect, and the whole has a sombre military appearance; the
rods of the curtains are finely polished spears. Where the Queen’s
apartments have been preserved, I admire them far beyond those in
the goût sévère, and prefer bright gilding to the heavy mahogany,
and a well-stuffed sofa to a small, hard one. In short, the exchange is
a bad one, les ris et les amours please me, broad cloth and sphinxes
do not. The Library is very pretty, and the books placed in very
appropriate cases, plain and simple, but at the same time rich and
decorated. The gardens are insignificant, but if the Consul continues
to like living there, I doubt not he will find means to extend them, tho’
as yet I only look upon St. Cloud as a halt on the road to Versailles.
On Sunday, ye next day, we went with a large party to Versailles,
where we expected to see the Eaux play, but we had been misled.
We dined at Le petit Trianon, formerly a favourite little palace of the
Queen’s, with a garden à l’Anglaise; but what I did admire indeed is
Le grand Trianon, a most noble palace. The centre, instead of a
corps-de-logis, is a peristyle composed of a double row of large
marble columns; the front to the garden is very large and grand, only
a rez-de-chaussée. The garden is thoroughly in the French style,
broad and spacious walks, fountains, alleys, cabinets de verdure; in
short, just what a garden should be near a large house.
We went from thence to Versailles. What a change from former
days! We walked along the Terrace, and so to the Orangerie, where
there are trees in tubs as large as any I ever saw growing either at
Nice or Naples in the common ground. One old tree they call
François Premier, and they add that it is 400 years old. It is
satisfactorily proved by a procès verbal that it belonged to the
Constable of Bourbon, and was confiscated with the rest of his
property, and so came to François I. Our party was numerous: Mr.
and Mrs. Fox, Ld. Robert, the General, Mr. Allen, Frederick
Ponsonby, Miss Adair, Heathcote, St. John, Trotter,[185] Smith (the
Petrarch of Carolina’s brother), Green.
The following is a list of those who dined with us at Paris in July,

August, and part of September, 1802.
La Fayette, who is indebted to Bonaparte for his
liberty, has, since his return to his native country, LA FAYETTE
resided chiefly upon the small estate the
Revolution has not deprived him of at La Grange. Bonaparte affected
to consult the nation whether he should be Consul for life; was
answered by La Fayette, who wrote a gentle but able remonstrance
upon the subject. Bonaparte was little enough, when an army
promotion took place, to pass over La Fayette’s son and nephew; he
has, however, promoted them since. His son was educated in
Washington’s house, appears very amiable; he was just married.[186]
Andréossy[187] is the son of an obscure man of Italian origin,
employed by Riquet in the Languedoc Canal. He was born at
Castelnaudary, educated at Sorèze, and served under the ancien
régime as an engineer. He made some campaigns in Italy, went to
Egypt, was there employed upon an expedition to ye Lake
Menzalah, and returned in the vessel which brought the First Consul
to France. He has since been named to ye Embassy of England. He
lived very much with us. He is a plain Militaire in his manner, and if
he offends it will be unintentional, as he is disposed to maintain
peace and amity between the two countries.
Caffarelli,[188] brother of a general of the same name killed before
Acre. He is a fellow townsman and school companion of Andréossy,
and like him descended from an Italian family brought by Riquet to
work at the Canal. He is a remarkably displeasing person in his
manner, a sycophant and court echo of the ante-chamber of
Bonaparte; from love of order and morality always proclaiming that
the First Consul and his wife sleep in the same bed, and that the
domestic virtues of a warrior are more important than his heroic
deeds. In short, from him one collects the disgusting cant which is to
be employed by the present Governt. as a counterpoise to the wild
extravagant opinions of atheism and immorality set afloat under the
first constitution of the Republic.
Valence,[189] a general who served in the first campaigns under
Dumouriez, a good-humoured, boasting, bluff Papa.
Mde. de V., daughter of Mde. de Sillery, a beauty on the wane,
pleasing and clever.
Abbé St. Fard, a son of the Duke of Orleans, father to the
unfortunate Égalité; remarkably obliging, and, tho’ not distinguished
for talents, very popular, and a person one cannot but like.
Duc de Duras,[190] a ci-devant Duc returned, but not reconciled to
the changes in his country.
Lally Tollendal,[191] the epitome of sentiment. By
some inconceivable freak imagined himself to be LALLY
the son of Count Lally, executed for the surrender TOLLENDAL
of Pondicherry. Whilst at college he heard the
story; his birth was obscure and even mysterious. A flight into the
region of fancy made him imagine himself the son of the state culprit
(but not till after his execution); he then pleaded for him. He is
returned to France after an absence of many years, but, like many
who were distinguished at first, he returns but to see his
insignificance and the indifference of the Governt. to these, many of
whom conceived themselves to be of the utmost importance.
Psse. d’Hesnin [sic], an excellent woman, formerly about the
Queen, attached for many years to Lally.
Mde. Flahaut.[192] A volume would not suffice. An agreeable
adventuress, who after failing in various projects, both upon English
and French, at last has closed her tempestuous career by marrying
Souza, ye Portuguese Minister. She has written some pretty novels;
her conversation consists more in a narrative of the good things she
has said than in those she actually does say. Her son, a fine, open
young man. He is handsome and uncommonly engaging in his
manners and countenance.
Girardin,[193] an élève of Jean Jacques, and proprietor of
Ermenonville. He was eager in the beginning of Revolution;
emigrated for a short time; is now a Tribune, and intimate friend of
Joseph Bonaparte’s. He is not an Emile, but good-natured. His love
of independence and the naked truth for the sake of truth will never
expose him to the straits a patriot must undergo. He will shift in time.
Gallois,[194] a Tribune, uncommonly interesting in his manner, with
a countenance that proclaims his talents and gentle, amiable heart.
Abbé Morellet,[195] an old économiste. Sprightly, altho’ he is
turned of eighty.
Molé,[196] a descendant of the great President of that name. We
knew him well in England; a mild, gentlemanlike young man, very
unlike a young Frenchman.
Chevalier Acerbi,[197] an Italian Cisalpine. He travelled to North
Cape, and has published two 4to. vols. of his journey; a clever man,
great facility of languages.
Le Chevalier de la Bintinaye, nephew of the ci-devant Archbishop
of Bordeaux.
Marquise de Coigny, celebrated for her wit. Her daughter, a
charming girl.
Narbonne.[198] The scandalous chronicles of the
old Court report that he is the son of Mde. M. DE
Adélaïde of France. He is strikingly like the NARBONNE
Bourbons, but depraved as were the manners, it is
too repugnant to nature to credit the whole story. His conversation is
brilliant, full of lively sallies, and, upon the whole, he is one of the
most agreeable persons in society I ever met with. He was Minister
of War for a moment just after the King accepted the Constitution. He
is attached to Mde. de Staël, who has the most uncontrolled
dominion over his opinions and conduct. His person is a more
divided property. He used to be Talleyrand’s intimate friend, but Mde.
Grand, finding him averse to her elevation, by degrees broke the
friendship.
Ségur,[199] son of the Comte, a promising, rising young man,
married to Mde. d’Aguesseau’s daughter.
Young Ségur, a flippant lad, vain of having made under McDonald
a campaign, which he has written, and of having gone, by order of
Bonaparte, with more celerity than was ever done, from Paris to
Madrid and back again. Age and some well-directed rebuffs will be of
infinite service to him.
Mde. d’Aguesseau.
Jaucourt,[200] a Tribune. Under the days of the Court he was
distinguished for his galanterie and dévouement in affairs of intrigue.
There is a famous anecdote of his losing his thumb not to betray a
lady whose house he quitted by stealth at daybreak. The Swiss
heard a noise at the gate, and shut it with violence; Jaucourt’s thumb
was crushed, but he made no noise, and for many years the
adventure was secret. He is now married, according to the licence
allowed by the Revolution, to Mde. de la Châtre. He is an agreeable
man, she is clever.
Abbé Casti.[201] I will not do to him what an injudicious panegyrist
has done to Ariosto, whose epitaph is laden with an enumeration of
his works. Suffice it to say that his last work is inferior to all his
others—Gli animali parlanti, a poem as dull and as ill-conceived as
Dryden’s Hind and Panther. Those discuss polemical questions, and
Casti’s reason upon the abstract principles of Governt. He is very
old, and worn out by every species of debauchery and excess; his
eyes twinkle at times, and show a trace of his former life, but they
are but rare scintillations.
Rumford, ye Yankee philanthropist. I have often named him
elsewhere.
Le Chevalier,[202] a most cordial, warm-hearted,
zealous man. He travelled to the plain of Troy with M. LE
Sir Francis Burdett, and has written upon it, which CHEVALIER
has given rise to a fresh controversy. He is
employed au Bureau des relations extérieures, merely from
Talleyrand’s friendship for him. His language is not calculated to
obtain him promotion in his career, nor is he trusted with anything,
his place being a sinecure and more a pension than an employment.
Monteron,[203] [sic] one of the unfortunate Duke of Orléans’ set, a
complete mauvais sujet, but an agreeable vaurien. He was one of
the Dsse. de Fleury’s husbands, but has regained his liberty.
Markoff,[204] the Russian Ambassador, a rusé diplomat, scurvily
treated by Bonaparte, who seems to make a point of saying
offensive things before him.
M. de Grave,[205] an obliging driveller.
Abbé Dillon, brother of the Beau Dillon,[206] &c. Knew him in Paris
in 1790, afterwards in Italy and England. A conceited bel esprit, with
too much pretensions.
Calonne. One may say of him as Johnson did of Garrick, that his
loss has removed a stock of harmless amusement from society. He
was delightful; with all the freshness and vivacity of youth, he had
the taste and refinement of riper years. Tho’ he allowed himself to
range in the regions of fancy, when he ought to have been restrained
by the strictness of veracity, yet he did it with such liveliness and wit
that one compounded for the lost fact in hearing the facetious story.
He was murdered by an unskilful physician a very short time after we
quitted Paris.
Talma,[207] the celebrated tragedian. His voice is bad, nor is his
conception of his part always correct. He is the person who has
introduced the severity and perfection of costume in the theatre. He
is not clever and not well informed.
Abbé Sicard,[208] the successor of Abbé de L’Épée. He brought
with him his most intelligent pupil Massieu. The pains he bestows
upon the unhappy objects confided to his care entitle him to much
praise; the lectures are worth seeing once, but to those who stand
not in need of this assistance are soon tedious.
Bertrand.[209] I knew him in Italy. He is a friend of Mde. d’Albany’s,
and belongs to the society of Mde. de Souza, Morellet, &c., &c. He is
declining fast; he was a lively man.
Charles de Noailles,[210] an uncommonly handsome man, son of
the Prince de Poix. He lived very much in England, and at one time
with the Prince, who grew jealous at Mrs. Fitzherbert’s partiality to
him, which occasioned their rupture. He has much more sense and
useful knowledge than one might suppose from a slight
acquaintance with him he possessed.
The English who dined with us were Mr. and
Mrs. Fox, Ld. Robert Adair, St. John, Mr. Trotter, ENGLISH IN
Mr. Clarke, Green, Heathcote, Kemble, Pinkerton, PARIS
Fitzpatrick, 2 Erskines, Mr. Merry, Lens, Abbé
Roberts, Banks, Mrs. H. Fox, Mr. Neave, Miss Townshend, Mr.
Parish, St. Leger, Tuyle, Warner, Francis, A. St. Leger, Capt. Jones,
Jerningham. We dined twice at Sieyès; once at Cambacères’s and
Lucchesini’s; often at Talleyrand’s; once at Versailles with the
Caumonts and Andréossys.
The Hollands left Paris on September 20, 1802, for a tour in the
South of France and Spain. They did not return to England till April
1805. The Journal continues until April 8, but is omitted from these
pages.
July 24th, 1806.—The Russians have made a separate peace.
[211] The Cabinet have determined upon sending a person upon an
extraordinary Mission to Portugal, and have chosen Lauderdale for
that purpose, and he has accepted. Ld. St. Vincent is to follow with
the fleet, and be joined in the Commission; the nature of the
appointment to be the same as Ld. Minto and Ld. Hood were at
Toulon. It is proposed, if Portugal be invaded, that we should carry
off (vi et armis) the Royal family, and such as choose to follow their
fortunes, and establish them at Brésil. A French army of 90,000 men
is assembled at Bayonne for the invasion of Portugal. Eugène
Beauharnais, the Viceroy of Italy, is to have the command of it; the
attack is to be made by Galicia.
25th.—The preliminaries of peace between
France and Russia have been signed by d’Oubril, NEGOTIATION
though he knew at the time that Basilico was on S FOR PEACE
his road to Paris with dispatches from our Governt.
He signed three hours after he knew of his landing at Boulogne. The
following stipulations form the basis of the peace. The Russians are
to return Corfu, but they are not to keep more than 4000 men in
garrison there. Dalmatia and Ragusa are left to the French. The
Montenegrins are not to be punished for the successful resistance
which, in conjunction with the Russians, they have opposed to the
French arms, but this amnesty does not extend to any offences
which they may have committed against their lawful Sovereign. Sicily
is left exposed to the French without a stipulation in its favour. No
provision of any sort is made for the ex-King of Naples, nor is there
any allusion to him in the Treaty, except a declaration on the part of
the French that they have no objection to the King of Sicily et sa
femme (they will not call her Queen) finding an asylum wherever
they can. By a secret article, Minorca, Majorca, and Iviza are to be
transferred from Spain to the D. of Calabria, on condition that the
ports of these islands shall be shut against the English. The
Russians agree to exclude the English from all their ports in the
Mediterranean. The French are to be allowed six months[212] to
evacuate Germany. The present Treaty must be ratified within
twenty-five days.
On the day following this extraordinary transaction, Ld.
Yarmouth[213] presented his credentials to the F. Governt., though
his instructions were not to present them at all, till the basis of the
pacification was settled. This step of Ld. Y.’s is very reprehensible,
as it may give d’Oubril a pretext to justify his conduct.
The terms of peace originally offered by
Talleyrand and conveyed to Mr. Fox by Ld. Y. were NEGOTIATION
very advantageous to this country; indeed, so S FOR PEACE
extremely so, that as the proposals were verbally
made, much doubt was entertained of Ld. Y.’s accuracy in reporting
them, and he owed entirely his being employed in the negotiation to
the doubts of his veracity. The uti possidetis on both sides was to be
the basis of the treaty. Hanover was to be restored to the K. of E., in
return for our acknowledgment of Bonaparte’s newly-created Kings.
No further changes were to be made in Germany or Switzerland.
The integrity of Spain and Portugal was to be guaranteed in both
Hemispheres. We were not to interfere with the settlement of Italy or
Holland. Upon a distant hint being thrown out about commercial
arrangements, ‘Nous voulons être maîtres chez nous’ was the reply.
When Sicily was mentioned, Talleyrand, who had spoken the above,
exclaimed, ‘Mais que voulez vous? Vous l’avez.’ Our Cabinet readily
assented to these terms (in addition to which it was hinted that
Bonaparte was disposed to concur with Mr. F. in taking measures for
the general abolition of the Slave Trade, but this was intended as a
sneer. When Talleyrand read the resolutions of the H. of Commons
upon the subject of the S. Trade, he said there was another Act of
Parliament much more necessary, one for which the Spaniards,
Portuguese, and Germans called out most loudly, ‘Et cette acte du
Parlement, c’est la paix’), and Ld. Y. was sent back to Paris with full
assent to his message. But when he arrived there he found the
views of the French Governt. materially changed in the most
important point. They now demanded that Sicily should be ceded to
them in order to be re-annexed to the kingdom of Naples. Joseph,
the new King, had represented that his kingdom of Naples would not
be secure without the possession of Sicily, and the French engineers
had given in a report that Sicily could be subdued with much more
ease than they had at first supposed. On these grounds, which the
French have the assurance to represent as new occurrences since
their first overtures to Ld. Y., they pretend to justify their deviation
from their original proposals, and they offered to the King of Sicily, in
exchange for that island, to make him King of Dalmatia and Albania.
[214] D’Oubril, the Russian negotiator, who was by this time at Paris,
and who had been privy to everything done by our Cabinet, was
caught by this last proposal, and expressed his opinion decidedly in
favour of it. In the cession of Dalmatia to the King of Sicily, he
fancied that he saw the elevation of power which would remove the
French to a greater distance from the frontiers of Turkey, and prove
in future a bulwark against the extension of their empire in that
quarter. He was ready, as Mr. Fox observed, to sacrifice a well-
understood English object to an ill-defined Russian one. This
modification of the original project was received here with great
disappointment and ill-humour, and was considered as a breach of
faith on the part of the French. We contended that no event had
happened which could justify any departure from the first proposals.
We could not consent to transfer Albania from its present
possessors, who were the friends and allies of England, in order to
make compensation to the K. of Sicily for the loss of his dominions,
which it was equally our interest and our duty to defend. Dalmatia
alone was not to be mentioned as an equivalent for Sicily. But to
show our disposition to accommodate matters, it was at length
proposed as a compromise, that Dalmatia should be given to the
King of Sardinia, with the title of King; and since the new K. of
Naples was desirous to have a greater extent of sea-coast, that
Sardinia, together with the other Spanish Islands of Majorca, &c.,
should be added to his kingdom; Sicily on no account could we yield.
The Minute which Mr. Fox drew up for the Cabinet, in which he
states his reasons compressed into 8 or 10 sentences, is the most
able summary ever penned.
In this state of the negotiation, d’Oubril, who a few days before
had reminded Mr. Fox of the expression of ‘piano piano,’ which he
had used in his letter to Czartorisky upon the Grand Confederacy
forming last year, signed the peace, the outline of which I have just
noted. His excuse for this conduct is said to be the danger to which
Russia would be exposed, if they were to persuade Turkey and
compel Austria to join in a coalition against her. Austria is so much
reduced that she must comply with whatever France demands, and
French influence domineers at Constantinople. But these are not
supposed to be the true reasons for his conduct. The late changes in
the private councils of St. Petersburg are suspected to have had a
greater share in determining him, and it is even said that, on the
strength of those, he has ventured to take this important step without
instructions from his Court. He says, ‘He is gone back to lay his
Treaty and head at the feet of his Master.’
Czartorisky,[215] the late Minister of Russia, is a Pole of great
consideration and high rank in Poland. He owed his elevation to the
partiality of the Empress, who was passionately in love with him. He
afterwards became a favourite with Alexander; he played the truant
to his mistress, who was for a length of time quite inconsolable at his
infidelities. The Empress is with child at present.
26th.—It is determined to send a military man to
Portugal, and Ld. Rosslyn[216] has been fixed upon MISSION TO
for the mission. Ld. H. immediately proposed to PORTUGAL
him to take Brougham, if he had any person in a
civil capacity. He promised to propose him to Ld. Grenville. There is
an idea of employing Dumouriez.
Sr. Sidney Smith has taken the Isle of Capri, and the French have
been worsted in several encounters in Calabria. Hopes are
entertained that we shall be able to defend Sicily against the French,
with the aid alone of the Sicilians. The Queen and Duke of Calabria,
who are surrounded by persons suspected of being secretly in the
French interest, are eager for carrying the war into Calabria.
Great dissatisfaction at Ld. Yarmouth’s conduct, and another
negotiator must go. Ld. Holland not being able to leave his uncle,
Lauderdale, as the next best person, is to go. It is a sad mortification,
as it has long been the darling hope of uncle and nephew; but it
would be impossible to go, as Ld. H., besides being useful, is also
one of the greatest comforts to Mr. Fox. Mr. F. so ill that none of the
last transactions of the preceding three days have been
communicated to him.
27th July.—Mr. Fox stronger, and in better spirits to-day, but there
is no material change in his complaint. The news of the Russian
Treaty, and the determination of sending Lauderdale to Paris, were
communicated to him by Ld. Howick. Upon hearing that L. was to go
to Paris, he exclaimed, ‘Why does not Holland go?’ Ld. Howick was
perplexed, and stammered by way of excuse the ‘suddenness of the
departure’; upon which Fox said, ‘Oh, I understand you!’ and
immediately changed the subject. When he saw Ld. Holland about
an hour afterwards, he began with saying, ‘So, young one, you won’t
go to Paris’; on Ld. Holland’s answering that he preferred staying, as
he thought he was a comfort to him, he caught his hand and said,
with great emotion, ‘Yes, a comfort indeed,’ and was for several
minutes quite overcome and shedding tears. This circumstance is
the first event which has given him any apprehension about his own
danger.
D’Oubril has written to Stroganoff[217] that he
signed the preliminaries with Ld. Yarmouth’s LORD
approbation. Ld. Yarmouth in his dispatches says YARMOUTH’S
CONDUCT
quite the contrary. Copies of the letters have been
sent to St. Petersburg. Our Ministers are greatly displeased with Ld.
Yarmouth for having presented his credentials the very day after
d’Oubril signed, and are not without fear that he may be bullied or
won into signing the preliminaries without further instructions. There
are some unpleasant suspicions afloat about Ld. Y., especially upon
the score of stock-jobbing.[218] General Clarke[219] is the person
named to negotiate with him; he was employed upon d’Oubril’s
business. The French already show a disposition since the signature
of the Russian Treaty, to rise in their demands. They have thrown out
hints that they expect St. Lucia and Tobago to be restored to them,
and Ld. Y. has of his own head suggested that Cuba should be
ceded to the King of Naples, who cannot be reduced to live as a
fugitive or subject in the dominions of his son. Ld. Y. is suspected of
concealments in his report of his negotiations. A messenger went off
instructing him not to proceed in any way, but wait L.’s arrival.
Notwithstanding their displeasure, Ld. Y. has been joined in the
Commission with Ld. Lauderdale.
28th.—Mr. Fox nearly in the same state; his spirits are good, and
he has still great hopes of recovery. He said this morning, ‘I hope my
recovery is not so desperate as peace.’ The news from Paris is
every day less favourable, so much that hints have been thrown out
to Ld. Yarmouth about the restitution of Pondicheri and Surinam, and
the other Dutch colonies in S. America, about the expulsion of the
French Princes from England, and a restraint upon the licence of the
journals. Ministers are much more discontented with Ld. Y. L. has
been told in the most explicit manner by the Cabinet, that if he finds
anything in Ld. Y.’s conduct to disapprove of, he has only to give a
hint, and he shall be recalled.
Bonaparte is elated beyond his usual tone of insolence since he
procured the Russian Treaty; he sent for the Austrian Chargé
d’Affaires, and ordered him to signify to his master that he must lay
aside the title of Emperor of Germany, and yield the precedence to
France, and that he must assent to and recommend the alterations
in the constitution of the Empire, which were proposed to be held at
Frankfort on the 10th August. The Chargé d’Affaires pleaded that he
durst not convey such a message to his Sovereign. ‘Pourquoi votre
maître ne m’envoye-t’-il pas un ambassadeur, et pas un misérable
parlementaire?’
29th.—Professor Dugald Stewart, who has just arrived from
Edinburgh, is to go with L. to Paris. Gaeta is taken, and Sr. Sidney
has met with some check in the kingdom of Naples.[220] L. had a
conversation alone with Mr. F., in which he opened himself freely. He
said he wished to retire from office till he got better, and to have Ld.
H., whom he had always destined ultimately to succeed him,
appointed to fill his place pro tempore, adding that he had been
thinking of this for some time, but that he had put it off in the hope of
being able to sign the peace before he retired. He bid L. ‘open the
matter to Ld. Grenville,’ and added that he ‘would talk further on the
subject to Ld. Grenville in 8 or 10 days.’ In a conversation which L.
had with Ld. Grenville some time ago, during which they talked of Mr.
Fox’s situation and of the small prospect of any amendment in his
health, Ld. Grenville said, ‘That he hoped his own conduct had been
such as to satisfy Mr. Fox’s friends since the period of their being
connected together, and if that disastrous calamity should happen,
and most disastrous indeed would it be for the country, he trusted,
they would have no reason to be dissatisfied with any future
arrangements that might take place.’
Sheridan, who dined here to-day, begged to talk to me privately.
He said that it was the wish of many of Fox’s friends, whenever the
state of his health should make it impossible for him to attend to the
duties of his office, that Ld. H. should be appointed his successor;
that such an appointment would be regarded by them as a pledge
that the Whig Party was still to be kept up, and its principles
maintained; that the Prince was very eager to have them carried into
effect; that he had spoken to Windham, who seemed to listen with
satisfaction. That he, ‘from delicacy, spoke to me instead of to Ld. H.,
and begged I would communicate the substance of them to him,’ He
told me that George Byng and the second-rate sort of politicians
were very eager upon the subject.
Cline, the surgeon, has seen Mr. Fox, and declares himself ready
to perform the operation whenever the physicians shall judge it
expedient, as he does not see any reason to think the result more
formidable to Mr. F. than to any other person.
Ld. Howick is full of plans for an Administration,
in the event of Mr. Fox’s retirement, or worse. He A SUCCESSOR
takes for granted that neither the General or Ld. TO FOX
Fitzwilliam would choose to remain in office if F.
were away. He would, in that case, make Whitbread Secretary at
War, himself S. for the Home Department, Tom Grenville the
Admiralty, Tierney the Board of Control, Ld. H., of course, the
Foreign Office; and, said I, ‘Pray where do you put Lauderdale, ye
first, greatest, and best lord?’
31st.—Lauderdale had an interview with Ld. Grenville, and
repeated the substance of his late conversation with Mr. F.; Ld. G.
listened with great attention, but made no reply. Just as L. went out,
he called him back to beg that he would say to Ld. H. that, ‘He had
many times abstained from going to Stable Yard, from an
apprehension that if Mr. Fox should know he was there, he might
suppose he was come upon business and make an effort to see him,
which might do him harm; but that if he followed the dictates of his
own inclination, he should be there every day,’ Tierney and Ld.
Morpeth have both expressed to me very strongly their wishes and
the necessity that Ld. H. should be the locum tenens for his uncle.
1st August.—Ld. Rosslyn has written a letter on the subject of his
Mission to Portugal, from which it appears he is not inclined to
undertake the services assigned to him. When Admiral Markham
read it, he observed upon it that, ‘Ld. St. Vincent, when he sees this,
will say the fellow has got dung at his heart.’ Not a very elegant or
delicate mode of expression!
It is said that Spain is disposed to a war with France, in
consequence of their having discovered that a plan of partitioning
Spain is in agitation, by which Estremadura and Galicia are to be
annexed to Portugal, and made into a kingdom for the Prince of the
Peace,[221] while the rest of Spain is to be given to one of B.’s
brothers.
Mr. Goddard (Ld. Henry Spencer’s friend) arrived this evening
from Paris with passports for Lauderdale. When the passport was
required, Bonaparte exclaimed, ‘What! another passport! Have they
not a blank one already? But this is of a piece with the whole of their
conduct during the negotiation; delay, delay is their object.’ ‘But will
you grant them the passport?’ ‘Yes, and for twenty more if they
choose.’
2nd.—Lauderdale set off for Paris this evening, with Professor
Stewart, and Mr. Maddison from the Post Office. Ld. H. gave him a
letter to Serra and Prince Masserano.[222]
Mr. Fox better; Vaughan said this morning that there was a greater
assemblage of favourable symptoms than there had been any day
since he attended.
Sheridan came here in the evening, and talked
over his schemes. He enlarged greatly upon the SHERIDAN’S
state in which the House of Commons would be INTRIGUES
left if Mr. Fox were removed from it; deplored the
unpopularity of Ld. Howick, and seemed to insinuate that Petty had
been tried and found unfit for the task.[223] He has some project, all
founded upon his enmity to Ld. Howick and hereditary suspicion of
Ld. Henry, to try and rouse Ld. H.’s old partiality for Canning, and get
him and Perceval into the Administration.
3rd.—Mr. Fox not quite so well.
4th.—Mr. Fox in high spirits, and talks confidently of meeting Parlt.
in October; approves of an early session in time of war. He has not
the slightest expectation of peace, and expects Lauderdale’s
immediate return.
5th.—When Bonaparte was told that L. was coming, he said,
‘Comment! on m’envoye un ancien Jacobin.’ D’Oubril had been shut
up for 14 hours with General Clarke, before he signed the
Preliminaries. It is a dexterous way of carrying a point, to weary out a
man’s physical strength, to tame him like a wild beast, to carry your
purpose. The pretext was to carry the business through rapidly.
Ali Pacha[224] of Janina has sent a letter which he received from
Bonaparte, all written in his own hand, inviting him to form a
connection with France. Ali observed he had never received such a
mark of respect and confidence from the English. Bonaparte is
steady and indefatigable in all his undertakings.
6th.—Ld. Grenville has proposed to Ld. H. that he should be one
of the Commissioners for settling the points in dispute between this
country and the U. States of America.[225] Ld. Auckland, as
President of the Board of Trade, is to be the other Commissioner.
The Americans are Messrs. Monroe[226] and Pinckney.[227] Ld.
Howick and others consider this as a delicate opening on the part of
Ld. G. to show his readiness to comply with the intimation he had
recently had from Mr. F. through Lauderdale.
The operation is to be to-morrow.
7th.—The operation was performed this morn.; Cline and Hawkins
did it. Sixteen quarts of amber-coloured water was drawn off; he
bore the operation perfectly well, his pulse very little affected, and no
disposition to faintness.
8th.—Not so well from nausea and lowness.
Ld. H. has accepted the appointment of Commissioner. Mr. Eden
is the Secretary (by a shabby artifice of his father’s), Mr. Allen the
Assistant-Secretary.
It has been proposed to Tierney to go to Lisbon in the capacity in
which Ld. Rosslyn was to have gone. T.’s intimacy with Ld. St.
Vincent made him be thought of for the service. Ld. St. V. is to follow
with a squadron for carrying off, if necessary, the Portuguese fleet to
the Azores, and for transporting the Prince Regent and his friends to
Brazil. T. is disinclined, and has refused.
9th.—Ld. Grenville sent for Ld. Rosslyn late last
night and renewed his former proposal of sending LAUDERDALE’
him to Lisbon. Ld. R. has accepted, and is to set S MISSION
off to-night. The Commissioners are Lds. Rosslyn,
St. V., and General Simcoe;[228] and, to my great satisfaction, Mr.
Brougham.
10th.—Mr. Fox continues very low; a great flow from ye wound,
the anasarca diminishes fast.
12th.—No messenger from Paris. It is suspected that some
artifice is used to delay the messengers, in order to prolong the
negotiation, it being a matter of importance to France to keep up the
appearance of a negotiation with England till the changes she
meditates in Germany are completed.
14th.—Messengers in. Immediately on L.’s
arrival he presented to the F. Governt. a short NEGOTIATION
recapitulation of what had already passed during S FOR PEACE
the negotiation, recalling to their recollection that
the principle on which the E. Governt. had consented to treat was
the uti possidetis, and reminding them how much this had been
forgotten and departed from in their late demands, and concluding
with the alternative, either to resume the uti possidetis as the
principle of the Treaty, or to send him passports to return to England.
[229] Three days elapsed before any answer was given to this note.
General Clarke proposed that the business should be carried on by
conversations, and not by written notes, which was refused. He also
cavilled at some expressions in L.’s note, but at length presented a
note couched in rather a high tone, complaining that when the Treaty
was far advanced, and that Ld. Yarmouth was on the point of
signing, L. should have been sent over to make inadmissible
pretensions and to disappoint the hopes which all Europe had
conceived of peace. The uti possidetis could not be the basis of the
Treaty, unless the Emperor were to be replaced in the possession of
Fiume, Treviso, and of all the conquests which he had renounced by
the Peace of Presburg. Upon this L. sent for his passports. Three
days were employed in sending from one office to another to obtain
them, without success. M. de Lima (the Portuguese) called upon
him, and implored in the most earnest manner that he would not
break off the negotiation, as this would leave Portugal and Spain
exposed to certain and immediate destruction. No effect being
produced by this manœuvre, and L. persisting in his demand of
passports, a 2nd note was sent, expressed in much more civil and
moderate language, and tho’ denying that the uti possidetis had ever
been admitted as the basis of the Treaty, and declaring that without
great modifications it was inadmissible, but concluding with these
words, ‘Mais l’Empereur l’adopte puisqu’il le trouve.’ It is remarkable
that in this note the word adopte was substituted in the Emperor’s
own handwriting, in place of accepte or admet. And in the date, the
11th had been inserted instead of the 7th, which had been the
original date, so that the note had been detained some days, in
hopes of Lauderdale’s yielding. On receiving this, L. addressed a
note to the French Governt., in which, without taking any notice of
the contents of theirs, he declared he could not go on with the
negotiation, unless he had an explicit assurance from them that he
should have passports at any time within half an hour, for himself or
couriers, whenever he should chance to demand them. This note
produced a very civil answer from Talleyrand, ascribing to accident
entirely the blame of the former delay, and assuring him that it was in
no respect owing to any want of civility to him. Lauderdale returned a
second note, in answer to the former one, that he could not negotiate
further, unless the uti possidetis[230] was distinctly admitted to be the
basis of the Treaty, and that every deviation from it should be
considered as an exception from the general basis of the peace.
Things were in this state when Basilico was sent away.
Ministers, especially Ld. Grenville, are extremely pleased with L.’s
conduct, particularly in his note on the subject of passports, after he
received the second note from General Clarke. A Council was held
immediately, in which it was determined to recall Ld. Yarmouth, and
Basilico was sent back in the evening with an order to that effect.
The reason for this measure:—1st, d’Oubril’s account and Ld.
Yarmouth’s of the conclusion of the Russian Treaty are in flat
contradiction. D’Oubril has written to Stroganoff that he signed the
article with Ld. Yarmouth’s knowledge and approbation. 2ndly, Ld.
Yarmouth seems to have spent some weeks at Talleyrand’s country
house last autumn, tho’ he gave Ministry to understand that he was
hardly acquainted with him. 3rdly, Ly. Yarmouth is very much
connected with Monteron,[231] an agent of Talleyrand’s, and
employed in his office.
Favourable accounts of the disposition of the new Russian
Governt. towards this country; Stroganoff has received letters to that
effect from the new Prime Minister, Budberg,[232] in which he
expresses very strongly Alexander’s high opinion as well as his
confidence in Mr. Fox. Stroganoff thinks Russia will not ratify
d’Oubril’s preliminaries.
Ld. Granville Leveson arrived this day from Petersburg, dined
here, and is looking handsomer than ever. I have not seen him these
four years.[233]
American Commissioners very amicable; disposed to settle the
differences, and to conclude a Treaty of Commerce between the two
countries.
20th.—Ld. Howick dissatisfied with Sr. J. Borlase Warren, who
lost three days after he got orders to sail, and wasted three more at
Madeira, instead of going straight to ye W. Indies, by which Jerome
may escape.[234] Alderman Prinsep did not know how to open the
Stock Exchange.
Alas! Mr. Fox begins to fill again; they talk of another operation in
three weeks.
Lauderdale is abused at Paris, and represented as having
deserted Fox. Goldsmid is supposed to be Ld. Yarmouth’s agent in
the Stock Exchange, and to have transacted business for him to a
great amount. Narbonne was admonished not to visit L. so
frequently, Fouché sent for him to that purpose. Emperor gone to
hunt, his Ministers rejoice at his absence whilst in so violent a mood;
they call him bête féroce.
Second operation performed on Sunday. Bore
the operation extremely well; less water taken from FOX’S HEALTH
him than on the former occasion, but he was more
completely emptied. Some pints of water which had remained in ye
abdomen were drawn off; fell soon after into a state of languor and

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Relativistic and Non-Relativistic

Quantum Mechanics: Both at Once Luis

Relativistic and Non Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics: Non-Relativistic and Relativistic

Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Related Topics 1st

Relativistic Quantum Field Theory Michael T. Strickland

Relativistic Quantum Invariance 1st Edition Chueng

The Transactional Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics A

Elementary Particle Theory Volume 3 Relativistic

Quantum Mechanics Nouredine Zettili

Luis Grave de Peralta ·

ULNP especially encourages new, original, and idiosyncratic approaches to physics

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

This book is a first attempt at introducing relativistic quantum mechanics to

In addition, there exist two complementary Schrödinger-like and Pauli-like PPGP

Lubbock, TX, USA Luis Grave de Peralta

Chapters 1 and 2 provide a fast and traditional introduction to non-relativistic

1 The Need for Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3.7 A Beam of Relativistic Particles in a Constant Potential . . . . . . . . . . 46

Luis Grave de Peralta is currently a full professor in the Department of Physics

1.1 The Stability of Atoms

1.2 Atoms Absorb and Emit Electromagnetic Radiation

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

Fig. 1.1 Bohr’s model of

In Eq. (1.1), h represents the Planck’s constant. It was experimentally well-known

1.3 Particles are Waves Kind of

Fig. 1.2 The length of a

1.4 The Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom

1.5 Hydrogen Spectral Series

In 1880, Johannes Rydberg experimentally and empirically discovered the Rydberg’s

1.6 Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Spectral Lines

Quantum mechanics + Relativity + Quantum spin

1.7 Hyperfine Structure and Lamb Shift

In addition, to explain the so-called hyperfine structure of the Hydrogen’s spectrum,

Quantum mechanics + Relativity + Quantum + Magnetic interaction

Fine structure Lamb shift Hyperfine structure

Originally, calculations utilizing quantum electrodynamics were plagued with

2.1 The Schrödinger Equation

The one-dimensional Schrödinger equation for a quantum particle of mass m in a

ψ = Re[ψ] + iIm[ψ]. (2.2)

Alternatively, ψ can be expressed in the following way:

The amplitude of the wavefunction is particularly important due to the statistical

2.2 The Statistical Interpretation of the Wavefunction

ρ(x) = |ψ(x, τ )|2 = ψ ∗ (x, τ )ψ(x, τ ). (2.6)

In the statistical interpretation, there is a wave of probabilities associated to any

By substituting Eq. (2.12) in Eq. (2.9), we obtain:

In Eq. (2.8), we noted that ψ must go to zero as x goes to ± ∞. Consequently,

The formalism of quantum mechanics is extensively developed. For both practical

The operator of kinetic energy is an example of an operator which has a mathe-

Table 2.1 Some frequently

ÔΩ = OΩ. (2.21)

be rewritten in a more compact form in the following way:

∫+∞ < I I >

Finally, the Schrödinger equation is obtained after multiplying ψ on both sides

2.4 The Time Independent Schrödinger Equation

A further understanding of the Schrödinger equation can be achieved by studying

ψ(x, t) = ϕ(x)T (t). (2.33)

Therefore, by solving the time independent Schrödinger equation, we can obtain