Assosa University

College of Computing and Informatics

Department of Computer Science
Course History of Ethiopia and the Horn
Zemene Mesafint and its major features

Group 3
Section 1

Group Members ID

1. Nuredin Maru 1385/13

2. Yeabtsega Melkamu 3323/14
3. Taddese Asefe 2982/13
4.

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................3
ZEMENE MESAFINT...........................................................................................................................4
CAUSES OF ZEMENE MESAFINT........................................................................................................5
EFFECT/CONSEQUENCES...................................................................................................................8
END OF ZEMENE MESAFINT..............................................................................................................9
Zemene Mesafint and list its major features..................................................................................10
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................11

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 INTRODUCTION
This material (assignment) covers about the period of zemene mesafint / Era of
warlord. It focus on characteristics of zemene mesafint, cause and effect, and end of
the period.
The Zemene Mesafint was a period in Ethiopian history between the mid-18th and
mid-19th centuries, when the country was divided into several regions ruled by local
lords, who often fought against each other for power and territory. The emperor in
Gondar had little authority and was mostly a figurehead. The name Zemene Mesafint
means “Era of the Princes” or “Era of the Judges” in Ge’ez, the ancient language of
Ethiopia
Some of the main causes of the Zemene Mesafint were the decline of the central
government, the rise of the Oromo people, who migrated from the south and east and
established their own kingdoms, and the interference of foreign powers, such as
Egypt, Britain, and France, who sought to exploit Ethiopia’s resources and influence
its politics
The Zemene Mesafint ended when Kassa Hailu, a noble from Qwara, defeated his
rivals and became Emperor Tewodros II in 1855. He tried to reunite and modernize
Ethiopia, but faced resistance from some of the regional lords and foreign invaders.
He died.

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 ZEMENE MESAFINT
The Zemene Mesafint variously translated "Era of Judges", "Era of the Princes," "Age of
Princes," etc.; taken from the biblical Book of Judges)
Zemene Mesafint or the "Age of Princes" (1769- 1855) as it is also called was a time period
in Ethiopian history when the country was divided within itself into several areas or regions
with no powerful central authority. It was a time in which the Ethiopian Emperors were
viewed only as figureheads who were limited to the capital city of Gondar.
The Zemene Mesafint, which lasted eighty-six years, saw twenty-three emperors occupy the
Imperial throne, with most of them being placed on the throne and removed several times.All
this chaos came to an end with the rise of Kassa Hailu or better known by his later prophesied
throne name of Tewodros II of Ethiopia.

Modern Ethiopia is believed to have begun with the end of the Zemene Mesafint and the
Imperial throne of Ethiopia once again being led by a powerful single authority.The most
powerful lords, nobles, princes, kings, etc., during this period were Ras Ali I, Ras Aligaz, Ras
Hailu Yosedeq, Dejazmach Wube Hailemariam, Ras Wolde Selassie, Ras Gugsa, Ras Ali II,
and King Sahle Selassie of Shewa.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ZEMENE MESAFINT

It was a period characterized by the weakening of central authority and the growth of the
power of the regional warlords. It was a period when Ethiopia was divided within itself into
several regions. It was a period of intense power struggle among the regional nobility for
political supremacy.

The Zemene Mesafint was also a period when there was no law and order. The unlimited
power of the regional lords endangered the freedom of the people. The absence of peace and
order brought about arbitrariness, lawlessness, disorder and destruction in the country. The
Zemene Mesafint period saw numerous regional authorities abuse their power by choosing
which among the nobles they saw fit to become Emperor of Ethiopia.

On the other hand, the Zemene Mesafint was characterized by the appearance of a foreign
threat that principally came from its western frontiers. This threat came from Egypt after the
rise of Muhammad Ali, who extended Egypt`s rule over the Sudan in 1821. From the Sudan,

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the Egyptians began to encroach on the western frontiers of the Christian highland kingdom.
The Egyptian occupation of Sudan, and the general political situation in Ethiopia laid fertile
grounds for Egyptian expansion. The Egyptian threat coincided with a period of economic,
political and religious crisis in Ethiopia. As a result of this, the responsibility of checking
Egyptian expansion fell on the shoulders of local chiefs and peoples. Among the local
notables who fought against Egyptian aggression were Dejjazmach Wube of Semien,
Dejjazmach Kinfu and Kasa Hailu (later, Emperor Tewodros II) of Quara. However, it was
only after the era of the princes was over that Egyptian aggression became more serious.
 Generally Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 Absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king maker;
 establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state
due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”
 In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature, arts,
architecture etc during the period.

CAUSES OF ZEMENE MESAFINT

The conditions that led to Zemene Mesafint developed over a long period of time. The
erosion of the traditional power and authority of the monarchy led to the Zemene Mesafint.
The factors that led to the erosion of the power and authority of the monarchy had their root
in the wars of Imam Ahmad. Before the wars of Imam Ahmad, kings such as Amde Tsiyon
and Zera Ya’ekob were renowned for their military and political achievement.
In most of their campaigns, they emerged victorious and were able to extend their hegemony
over a vast empire. However, this good image of the kings of the Christian highland kingdom
faded away since the time of Libne Dingil who lived a fugitive life for more than a decade
and died in 1540. His successor, Gelawdewos, lost his life fighting against the forces of Adal
led by Emir Nur ibn al-Wazir in 1559. Several other kings also faced similar defeats at the
hands of the expanding Oromo.

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The establishment of the city of Gondar as a permanent capital was another factor for the
erosion of the traditional power and authority of the monarchy. Before its establishment, the
kings lived in mobile capitals and moved along with their army and retinue constantly from
one district to another. In the absence of an effective administrative structure and garrisoned
army, this ensured the loyalty of the regional lords. But, after the establishment of Gondar,
the kings remained in the city for an indefinite period of time and neglected the provinces. In
the meantime, the regional lords built up their power which threatened the traditional
authority of the monarchy. Some of the powerful lords such as Welde Sillassie of Tigray and
the rulers of Shewa even ignored the very existence of the highest authority and made their
regional power hereditary. Such regional lords began to defy the authority of the kings who
tried to assert their power.

During this period there was a power struggle in Gondar between groups of Wollo and Quara
political factions. Wollo was represented by Wabi, the wife of Iyassu II and mother of the
young monarch, Iyoas (r. 1755-1769). Quara, on the other hand, was represented by her
mother in - law, Itege Mentewab, who then controlled state power in the name of her
grandson, Iyoas. This rivalry took place following the death of Ras Bitweded Welde Leul in
1767. Mentewab had given a power base to the Wallo Oromo by arranging a political
marriage between her son Iyassu II and Wabi, from the Wollo Oromo family. In addition, she
intended to secure their military support to consolidate her power in the Gondarine state.

After that, however, the Wollo Oromo gradually began to enjoy a leading political role and
influence.The conflict between Quara and the Wollo Oromo factions created political disorder
around the capital. This endangered Mentewab's power. She was thus forced to look for any
strong personality who could help her control the situation. The most powerful candidate in
1768 was Ras Michael Sehul of Tigrai. He had a big army and more modern firearms due to
his access to foreign trade through the Red Sea. Michael Sehul was invited to Gondar by
Mentewab and soon restored peace and order in the city.
He was awarded the highest title of Ras Bitweded. When king Iyoas ordered him to go back
to Tigrai, Michael felt strong and refused to obey the king's order. He assassinated King Iyoas
in 1769. This event marked the beginning of a new era in which powerful regional warlords
undermined the monarchy's power.

Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when the actual position of political power was in the
hands of different regional lords. The period from1769 when Ras Michael Sehul

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"assassinated" king Iyoas to 1855 when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
Ras Michael, a kingmaker during the period, took strong measures against the nobility. A
coalition of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo defeated him at the battle of Sarba-
Kussa in 1771 and forced him to go back to his power base in Tigrai. He ruled over Tigray for
the next nine years until his death in 1780. After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos and
disorder continued until the coming to power of Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju Oromo
family. Ali founded a new ruling dynasty known as the Yejju dynasty or the Warra Sheh in
1786.

Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability, but several regional lords
evolved. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen,
Debye, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. This era is commonly known in
Ethiopian history as the Zemene Mesafint (1769 – 1855).
The different regionally based northern Ethiopian warlords of the Zemene Mesafint fought
against each other for various objectives:
•They wanted to expand their territories at the expense of their neighbours because large
territory means enormous human and material resources.
•They wanted to have the title of Ras Bitweded to become guardians of the weak Gondarine
kings and their court.
• They wanted to collect as much tribute as possible in the name of these weak kings.

During the Zemene Mesafint, the kings at Gondar virtually lost their traditional power and
authority. The last king, with some aspect of power was Tekle Giyorgis. But he was
enthroned and dethroned six times from 1789 to 1800. Because of this, the Christian tradition
has nicknamed him Fitsame Mengist (the end of the kingdom). The successors of Tekle
Giyorgis became mere puppets in the hands of regional governors and warlords.

The lives of the kings were secluded in the castles of Gondar and they did not have military
force. Their income consisted of custom duties and fines collected from part of the city of
Gondar only and the charity of some pious peoples of the city. To cite one example, in 1832,
the annual income of the king at Gondar was 300 Maria Theresa Thalers (Austrian unit of
currency in use at that time in Ethiopia). In contrast, in 1816, the annual income of the
Tigrian lord, Ras Welde Sellassie was 75,000, while in 1840; King Sahle Sellassie of Shewa
had an annual income of 85,000 Maria Theresa Thalers. In short, the kings lived in poverty
without any power or authority.

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 The actual rulers of the Christian kingdom were regional governors, the Rases and
Dejjazmaches of the various provinces. They maintained their own army and kept the tribute
and revenues of their provinces. Nevertheless, even the regional lords were not secure and did
not retain power for long. The decisive factors in securing regional power for long and
contending for more power were popularity in the eyes of their army and their connection
with other powerful families who might come to their assistance in times of political
difficulty.

The Rasbitwededs appointed and dismissed the kings from power. They were the king
makers. Therefore, the main aim of the struggle among the leading regional lords was to
secure the title of Rasbitweded. But, before assuming this position, one had to increase his
domains and become powerful in order to contend for that position. Because of this, the
struggle was conducted at various levels and the country turned out to be a center of civil
wars.

Moreover, the struggle was further aggravated by religious doctrinal disputes within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Religious conflicts worsened the regional power conflicts of the
Zemene Mesafint. There was an intense doctrinal controversy within the Orthodox Church
during the period.
This weakened the position of both the Ethiopian state and the Church. The Orthodox
Church could not enforce unity among the Christian masses because it was deeply divided
into different factions within itself. The divisions took a regional character. The internal
religious division gave an ideological dimension to the power conflict and further intensified
the power struggle of the Zemene Mesafint. Therefore, the Church was unable to play its
traditional role of unifying diverse groups under one central government

EFFECT/CONSEQUENCES
The endless wars of the Zemene Mesafint affected the social and economic life of the
peasantry. The peasants suffered from frequent wars. The peasants were forced to feed the
enormous armies of the local and regional lords. The many shiftas (bandits) also forced the
peasant to supply them food. Therefore, the various dependents discouraged the peasantry
from working hard and producing surplus production. As a result, many people abandoned
their normal professions and became shiftas (bandits).Moreover, the farmlands of the

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peasantry often became battlefields, and their villages were burnt down. Therefore,
agriculture which formed the backbone of the peasant economy, was depressed in the period
of the Zemene Mesafint.

The continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint also affected the development of trade.
Merchants could not travel peacefully along the long-distance trade routes due to endless
wars and robbery. Moreover, they were forced to pay heavy taxes at the different warlords'
gates (tax stations). The most important trade items during the Zemene Mesafint were natural
products such as ivory, gold, and civet. Enslaved people formed an important element of
trading items. As a result of feudal wars, war captives increased the supply of enslaved
people who were in high demand in Arabia.

The traditional handicrafts were also disrupted. On the whole, the wars of the Zemene
Mesafit caused decline in agricultural production, stagnation in trade and the collapse of
handicrafts, which impoverished the people of the region where most of the wars were
fought. In one way or another, the country’s backwardness is attributed to such periods of
political instability.
By and large, the continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint had undermined the sense of
nationalism. It was a period of weak national feeling and national power

END OF ZEMENE MESAFINT

The ZemeneMesafint came to an end in 1855. The man who initiated the process of restoring
the power and authority of the monarchy was Emperor Tewodros II. Tewodros began his
career as a bandit in Quara, Dembiya. At the time, his name was Kasa Hailu. Dejjazmach
Kasa got rid of the powerful regional lords in four major battles. At the battle of Gur Amba in
November 1852, he defeated Dejjazmach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam, and in April 1853, four
vassals of Ras Ali II fell at the battle of Gorgora Bichen. The next victim was Ras Ali II
himself, the then Rasbitweded who was defeated at the battle of Ayshal in June 1853. The last
powerful regional lord, Dejjazmech Wube of Tigray and Semien, was defeated at the battle of
Deresge in 1855. In the same year, Kasa was crowned emperor by the name Tewodros II (r.
1855-1868) at the church of Deresge Mariyam.
Therefore, the idea of creating a strong central authority, after the Zemene Mesafint was over,
was initiated by Emperor Tewodros II.

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Zemene Mesafint and list its major features
The Zemene Mesafint, which translates to "Era of Princes" in Amharic, refers to a period in
Ethiopian history from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century characterized by
decentralized rule and internal strife among various regional princes. Here are some of its
major features:
1. Decentralization of Power: The Zemene Mesafint was marked by the fragmentation of
central authority in Ethiopia, with power being held by regional warlords and princes rather
than a centralized monarchy.
2. Conflict and Civil War: The era was characterized by frequent conflicts and civil wars
among rival princes vying for power, territory, and influence. These conflicts often resulted in
violence, instability, and social disruption.
3. Weakening of the Monarchy: The authority of the Ethiopian monarchy, traditionally
centered around the Emperor, was significantly weakened during this period. The emperors
often served as figureheads while real power was wielded by regional rulers.
4. Economic Decline: The continuous warfare and political instability of the Zemene
Mesafint contributed to economic decline in Ethiopia. Trade routes were disrupted,
agriculture suffered, and the overall prosperity of the empire declined.
5. Cultural Stagnation: The era saw a decline in cultural and intellectual pursuits due to the
preoccupation of rulers with power struggles and warfare. Patronage of arts and literature
diminished, leading to a cultural stagnation.
6. Foreign Threats and Invasions: Ethiopia faced external threats during this period,
including invasions from neighboring powers such as the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. These
invasions further weakened the Ethiopian state and contributed to its internal turmoil.
7. End of the Era: The Zemene Mesafint came to an end in the mid-19th century with the
rise of Emperor Tewodros II, who sought to reunify Ethiopia under centralized rule.
Tewodros initiated a series of military campaigns to consolidate power, marking the
beginning of a new era in Ethiopian history.

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 CONCLUSION

The Zemene Mesafint, also known as the "Era of Princes," was a significant period in Ethiopian
history characterized by political fragmentation and power struggles among regional rulers from
the mid-18th to the mid-19th century. As this era drew to a close, Ethiopia experienced a gradual
decline in stability and central authority, paving the way for the rise of Emperor Tewodros II and
subsequent reforms.
The Zemene Mesafint witnessed a marked weakening of central governance, with local princes
and warlords asserting their power and often engaging in conflicts for territorial control. This
power vacuum led to frequent upheavals, factionalism, and a lack of unity within Ethiopian
society. As a result, the country faced internal strife and external threats, including invasions by
neighboring states such as Sudan and the Ottoman Empire.
However, despite the political chaos, this era also saw the emergence of important cultural and
intellectual movements. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church played a significant role in preserving
religious traditions and intellectual discourse, while regional rulers patronized art, literature, and
architecture, leaving behind notable cultural legacies.
The Zemene Mesafint eventually gave way to a new era marked by the rise of Emperor
Tewodros II, who aimed to centralize power and modernize Ethiopia. His reign, starting in the
mid-19th century, initiated a series of reforms and military campaigns aimed at unifying the
country and bolstering its defenses against external threats. Tewodros' efforts set the stage for
subsequent political transformations in Ethiopia.
In conclusion, the Zemene Mesafint was a tumultuous period in Ethiopian history, characterized
by political fragmentation, conflicts, and a decline in central authority. However, it also
witnessed important cultural developments and paved the way for the subsequent reforms that
aimed to unify and modernize Ethiopia under Emperor Tewodros II.

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 REFERENCES
 History grade 9 and 10 student text book
 Wikipedia
 Ethiopian history from emperor Libne Dingel to Emperor Tewodros ( Tekletsadik
Mekuria 6th edition 2013)
 History of Ethiopia and the horn module( revised 2020)

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