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Ebook Principles of Chemistry A Molecular Approach 4Th Global Edition Nivaldo Tro Online PDF All Chapter
Ebook Principles of Chemistry A Molecular Approach 4Th Global Edition Nivaldo Tro Online PDF All Chapter
Ebook Principles of Chemistry A Molecular Approach 4Th Global Edition Nivaldo Tro Online PDF All Chapter
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This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and
GLOBAL universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition
for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you
GLOBAL
EDITION purchased this book within the United States or Canada, you should be aware EDITION
EDITION
GLOB AL
that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author.
Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach takes Nivaldo Tro’s bestselling Chemistry: A Principles of
Chemistry
Molecular Approach and streamlines the coverage of topics for a general chemistry course.
Principles of Chemistry
Nivaldo Tro draws on his award-winning teaching to illustrate for students why a knowledge
of chemistry is important in their careers, lives, and the world, with the simple goal of engaging
them in active learning not just during but also before and after class.
A Molecular Approach
Features
• Three-part images – macroscopic, molecular, and symbolic – help students see the
connections between the formulas they write down, the world they see around them, and
A Molecular Approach
the atoms and molecules that compose that world. These have now been revised to include
figure captions as an instructor’s voice and, in more complex images, to track from left to FOURTH EDITION
right.
• A consistent problem-solving approach – Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check – in
a two- or three-column format helps students understand both the concept of and the
solution to the problem.
• Conceptual Questions, 10–12 in each chapter, encourage active learning and hold
students accountable for reading assignments, with over 60 new to this edition.
• NEW! Missed This? – a feature added to the self-assessment and end-of-chapter problems
that lists the resources that students can use to learn how to answer the question. Nivaldo J. Tro
• NEW! How To… – a feature that lists the steps for essentials like drawing Lewis structures
and naming compounds in a consistent, step-by-step, numbered approach.
Available separately for purchase is Mastering Chemistry, the teaching and learning platform
EDITION
that empowers instructors to personalize learning for every student. Combined with trusted
FOURTH
educational content, Mastering Chemistry helps students and instructors achieve their learning
outcomes measurably.
Mastering Chemistry for Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach includes
Tro
w = MRT
Osmotic Pressure (14.6) Equilibrium Constant (19.10)
Gold Au 79 196.97 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Pressure-Volume Work (7.4) ∆H r°xn 1 ∆S r°xn
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Sulfur S 16 32.06
w = -P ∆V ln K = - a b +
Hassium Hs 108 269.13a Tantalum Ta 73 180.95 R T R
The Rate Law (15.3)
Helium He 2 4.003 Technetium Tc 43 98a
Change in Enthalpy (7.6) Rate = k[A]n (single reactant) 𝚫G° and E°cell (20.5)
Holmium Ho 67 164.93 Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Tennessine Ts 117 294a ∆H = ∆E + P ∆V ∆G ° = -nF E c°ell
Rate = k[A]m[B]n (multiple reactants)
Indium In 49 114.82 Terbium Tb 65 158.93
Standard Enthalpy of Reaction
Iodine I 53 126.90 Thallium Tl 81 204.38 Integrated Rate Laws and E°cell and K (20.5)
(7.9)
∆H r°xn = a np ∆H f° (products) -
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 Thorium Th 90 232.04 Half-Life (15.4) 0.0592 V
Iron Fe 26 55.85 Thulium Tm 69 168.93 E c°ell = log K
n
a nr ∆H f° (reactants)
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Tin Sn 50 118.71 Integrated Half-Life
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 Titanium Ti 22 47.87 Order Rate Law Expression Nernst Equation (20.6)
Lawrencium Lr 103 262.11a Tungsten W 74 183.84 0 [A]t = - kt + [A]0 [A]0 0.0592 V
Frequency and Wavelength (8.2) t1>2 =
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Uranium U 92 238.03 2k Ecell = E°cell - log Q
c n
Lithium Li 3 6.94 Vanadium V 23 50.94 n =
l 1 ln[A]t = - kt + ln[A]0 0.693
Livermorium Lv 116 292a Xenon Xe 54 131.293 t1>2 = Einstein’s Energy-Mass
Energy of a Photon (8.2) k
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.05 Equation (21.8)
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Yttrium Y 39 88.91 E = hn 2 1 1 1
= kt + t1>2 = E = mc 2
Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Zinc Zn 30 65.38 [A]t [A]0 k[A]0
hc
Meitnerium Mt 109 268.14a Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 E =
l
a
Mass of longest-lived or most important isotope.
1Aa
A01_TRO8889_04_GE_FM.indd 1
8A
1 18
1 2
1 H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
Metals Metalloids Nonmetals
1.008 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.012 Transition metals 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 [98] 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 [208.98] [209.99] [222.02]
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
[223.02] [226.03] [227.03] [261.11] [262.11] [266.12] [264.12] [269.13] [268.14] [271] [272] [285] [284] [289] [289] [292] [294] [294]
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 [145] 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide series Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 [237.05] [244.06] [243.06] [247.07] [247.07] [251.08] [252.08] [257.10] [258.10] [259.10] [262.11]
a Thelabels on top (1A, 2A, etc.) are common American usage. The labels below these (1, 2, etc.) are those recommended
by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
Atomic masses in brackets are the masses of the longest-lived or most important isotope of radioactive elements.
25/08/2020 23:56
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Principles of
Chemistry
A MOLECULAR APPROACH
GLOBAL EDITION
Nivaldo J. Tro
The rights of Nivaldo J. Tro to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular
Approach, 4th Edition, ISBN 978-0-13-489574-1 by Nivaldo J. Tro, published by Pearson Education ©
2020.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
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This eBook is a standalone product and may or may not include all assets that were part of the print
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The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.
Nivaldo Tro has been teaching college Chemistry since 1990 and
is currently teaching at Santa Barbara City College. He received his Ph.D.
in chemistry from Stanford University for work on developing and using
optical techniques to study the adsorption and desorption of molecules to
and from surfaces in ultrahigh vacuum. He then went on to the University
of California at Berkeley, where he did postdoctoral research on ultrafast
reaction dynamics in solution. Professor Tro has been awarded grants
from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund, the
Research Corporation, and the National Science Foundation to study the
dynamics of various processes occurring in thin adlayer films adsorbed on
dielectric surfaces. Professor Tro lives in Santa Barbara with his wife, Ann,
and their four children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, and Kaden. In his leisure time,
Professor Tro enjoys mountain biking, surfing, and being outdoors with
his family.
To Michael, Ali,
Kyle, and Kaden
INTERACTIVE WORKED EXAMPLES (IWEs) 7.11 ∆H°rxn and Standard Enthalpies of Formation
8.2 Photon Energy
1.5 Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a 8.3 Wavelength, Energy, and Frequency
Number
8.5 Quantum Numbers I
1.6 Significant Figures in Calculations
8.7 Wavelength of Light for a Transition in the
1.8 Unit Conversion Hydrogen Atom
1.9 Unit Conversions Involving Units Raised to a Power 9.2 Writing Orbital Diagrams
1.10 Density as a Conversion Factor 9.4 Writing Electron Configurations from the
1.12 Problems with Equations Periodic Table
2.3 Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotope 9.5 Atomic Size
Symbols 9.6 Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties
2.5 Atomic Mass for Ions
2.8 The Mole Concept—Converting between Mass and 9.8 First Ionization Energy
Number of Atoms 10.4 Writing Lewis Structures
2.9 The Mole Concept 10.6 Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
3.3 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 10.7 Writing Resonance Structures
3.11 Using the Nomenclature Flowchart to Name 10.8 Assigning Formal Charges
Compounds
10.9 Drawing Resonance Structures and Assigning
3.13 The Mole Concept—Converting between Formal Charge for Organic Compounds
Mass and Number of Molecules
10.10 Writing Lewis Structures for Compounds Having
3.15 Using Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Expanded Octets
Factor
10.11 Calculating ∆Hrxn from Bond Energies
3.16 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors
11.1 VSEPR Theory and the Basic Shapes
3.18 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from
11.2 Predicting Molecular Geometries
Experimental Data
11.4 Predicting the Shape of Larger Molecules
3.21 Determining an Empirical Formula from
Combustion Analysis 11.5 Determining Whether a Molecule Is Polar
4.2 Balancing Chemical Equations 11.8 Hybridization and Bonding Scheme
4.3 Balancing Chemical Equations Containing a 11.10 Molecular Orbital Theory
Polyatomic Ion 12.1 Dipole–Dipole Forces
4.4 Stoichiometry 12.2 Hydrogen Bonding
4.6 Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield 12.3 Using the Heat of Vaporization in Calculations
5.1 Calculating Solution Concentration 12.5 Using the Two-Point Form of the Clausius–
5.2 Using Molarity in Calculations Clapeyron Equation to Predict the Vapor Pressure
at a Given Temperature
5.3 Solution Dilution
13.3 Relating Unit Cell Volume, Edge Length, and
5.4 Solution Stoichiometry
Atomic Radius
5.5 Predicting Whether an Ionic Compound Is Soluble
13.4 Relating Density to Crystal Structure
5.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
14.2 Henry’s Law
5.9 Writing Equations for Acid–Base Reactions
14.3 Using Parts by Mass in Calculations
Involving a Strong Acid
14.4 Calculating Concentrations
5.11 Acid–Base Titration
14.5 Converting between Concentration Units
5.13 Assigning Oxidation States
14.6 Calculating the Vapor Pressure of a Solution
6.5 Ideal Gas Law I
Containing a Nonelectrolyte and Nonvolatile Solute
6.7 Density
14.9 Boiling Point Elevation
6.8 Molar Mass of a Gas
14.12 Calculating the Vapor Pressure of a Solution
6.10 Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions Containing an Ionic Solute
6.11 Collecting Gases over Water 15.1 Expressing Reaction Rates
6.12 Gases in Chemical Reactions 15.2 Determining the Order and Rate Constant of a
6.15 Graham’s Law of Effusion Reaction
7.2 Temperature Changes and Heat Capacity 15.4 The First-Order Integrated Rate Law: Determining
7.3 Thermal Energy Transfer the Concentration of a Reactant at a Given Time
7.5 Measuring ∆Erxn in a Bomb Calorimeter 15.8 Using the Two-Point Form of the Arrhenius Equation
7.7 Stoichiometry Involving ∆H 15.9 Reaction Mechanisms
7.8 Measuring ∆Hrxn in a Coffee-Cup Calorimeter 16.1 Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical
7.9 Hess’s Law Equations
6 Gases 252
7 Thermochemistry 304
10 Chemical Bonding I:
The Lewis Model 434
10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 435
10.2 Types of Chemical Bonds 436
Chemical Bonding II: Molecular
10.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 438
11 Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and
10.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and
Molecular Orbital Theory 478
Lattice Energies 439
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer 439 Lattice Energy:
The Rest of the Story 440 The Born–Haber Cycle 440 11.1 Morphine: A Molecular Imposter 479
Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size 443 Trends in Lattice 11.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes 480
Energies: Ion Charge 443 Ionic Bonding: Models and Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry 481
Reality 444 Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry 481
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Ionic Compounds in Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry 481
Medicine 445 Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry 483
Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry 483
14 Solutions 620
17.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases 776 18.4 Titrations and pH Curves 845
The Arrhenius Definition 776 The Brønsted–Lowry The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 846
Definition 777 The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 850
The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 855
17.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid 856
Constant (Ka) 779 Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors 856
Strong Acids 779 Weak Acids 780 The Acid
Ionization Constant (Ka) 781
18.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility
Product Constant 859
17.5 Autoionization of Water and pH 782 Ksp and Molar Solubility 859
The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity 784
CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY Hard Water 861
pOH and Other p Scales 785
Ksp and Relative Solubility 862 The Effect of a Common
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Ulcers 786
Ion on Solubility 862 The Effect of pH on Solubility 864
17.6 Finding the [H3O+ ] and pH of Strong and
18.6 Precipitation 865
Weak Acid Solutions 787 Selective Precipitation 866
Strong Acids 787 Weak Acids 787 Percent Ionization
of a Weak Acid 792 Mixtures of Acids 793 18.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis 868
Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides 869 Group 2: Acid-
17.7 Base Solutions 796 Insoluble Sulfides 869 Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides
Strong Bases 796 Weak Bases 796
and Hydroxides 870 Group 4: Insoluble
Finding the [OH - ] and pH of Basic Solutions 798
Phosphates 870 Group 5: Alkali Metals and NH4 + 870
CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE What’s in My Antacid? 800
18.8 Complex Ion Equilibria 871
17.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts 800 The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility 873
Anions as Weak Bases 801 Cations as Weak Acids 804 The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides 874
Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral 805
CHAPTER IN REVIEW Self-Assessment Quiz 875 Terms 876
17.9 Polyprotic Acids 807
Concepts 876 Equations and Relationships 877
Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions 808 Finding
Learning Outcomes 877
the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid
Solution 810 EXERCISES Review Questions 878 Problems by Topic 879
17.10 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure 812 Cumulative Problems 884 Challenge Problems 885 Conceptual
Binary Acids 812 Oxyacids 813 Problems 885 Questions for Group Work 886
Data Interpretation and Analysis 886 Answers to Conceptual
17.11 Lewis Acids and Bases 814 Connections 887
Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids 814 Cations That Act
as Lewis Acids 815
17.12 Acid Rain 815
Effects of Acid Rain 816 Acid Rain Legislation 817
20 Electrochemistry 938
To the Student
As you begin this course, I invite you to think about your rea- anti-environmental backlash create confusion that impedes
sons for enrolling in it. Why are you taking general chemis- real progress and opens the door to what could be misin-
try? More generally, why are you pursuing a college education? formed policies. For example, I have heard conservative pun-
If you are like most college students taking general chemistry, dits say that volcanoes emit more carbon dioxide—the most
part of your answer is probably that this course is required for significant greenhouse gas—than does petroleum combus-
your major and that you are pursuing a college education so tion. I have also heard a liberal environmentalist say that we
you can get a good job some day. Although these are good rea- have to stop using hair spray because it is causing holes in the
sons, I would like to suggest a better one. I think the primary ozone layer that will lead to global warming. Well, the claim
reason for your education is to prepare you to live a good life. about volcanoes emitting more carbon dioxide than petro-
You should understand chemistry—not for what it can get leum combustion can be refuted by the basic tools you will
you—but for what it can do to you. Understanding chemistry, learn to use in Chapter 4 of this book. We can easily show that
I believe, is an important source of happiness and fulfillment. volcanoes emit only 1/50th as much carbon dioxide as petro-
Let me explain. leum combustion. As for hair spray depleting the ozone layer
Understanding chemistry helps you to live life to its full- and thereby leading to global warming, the chlorofluorocar-
est for two basic reasons. The first is intrinsic: through an bons that deplete ozone have been banned from hair spray
understanding of chemistry, you gain a powerful apprecia- since 1978, and ozone depletion has nothing to do with global
tion for just how rich and extraordinary the world really is. warming anyway. People with special interests or axes to grind
The second reason is extrinsic: understanding chemistry can conveniently distort the truth before an ill-informed pub-
makes you a more informed citizen—it allows you to engage lic, which is why we all need to be knowledgeable.
with many of the issues of our day. In other words, under- So this is why I think you should take this course. Not
standing chemistry makes you a deeper and richer person and just to satisfy the requirement for your major and not just to
makes your country and the world a better place to live. These get a good job some day, but to help you to lead a fuller life
reasons have been the foundation of education from the very and to make the world a little better for everyone. I wish you
beginnings of civilization. the best as you embark on the journey to understanding the
How does chemistry help prepare you for a rich life and world around you at the molecular level. The rewards are well
conscientious citizenship? Let me explain with two exam- worth the effort.
ples. My first one comes from the very first page of Chapter 1
of this book. There, I ask the following question: What is the
most important idea in all of scientific knowledge? My answer
To the Professor
to that question is this: the behavior of matter is deter- First and foremost, thanks to all of you who adopted this book
mined by the properties of molecules and atoms. That in its previous editions. You helped to make this book one of
simple statement is the reason I love chemistry. We humans the most popular general chemistry textbooks in the world. I
have been able to study the substances that compose the am grateful beyond words. Second, I have listened carefully to
world around us and explain their behavior by reference to your feedback on the previous edition. The changes you see in
particles so small that they can hardly be imagined. If you this edition are the direct result of your input, as well as my
have never realized the remarkable dependence of the world own experience using the book in my general chemistry
we can see on the world we cannot, you have missed out on a courses. If you have reviewed content or have contacted me
fundamental truth about our universe. To have never encoun- directly, you will likely see your suggestions reflected in the
tered this truth is like never having read a play by Shakespeare changes I have made. Thank you.
or seen a sculpture by Michelangelo—or, for that matter, like Higher education in science is changing. Foremost
never having discovered that the world is round. It robs you among those changes is a shift toward active learning. A flood
of an amazing and unforgettable experience of the world and of recent studies has demonstrated that General Chemistry
the human ability to understand it. students learn better when they are active in the learning
My second example demonstrates how science literacy process. However, implementing active learning can be a dif-
helps you to be a better citizen. Although I am largely sympa- ficult and time-consuming process. One of my main goals in
thetic to the environmental movement, a lack of science lit- this revision is to give you, the professor, a range of tools to
eracy within some sectors of that movement and the resulting easily implement active learning in your class. My goal is
23
simple: I want to make it easy for you to engage your students in you can use to easily make a pretest for any of your exams.
active learning before class, during class, and after class. The Self-Assessment Quizzes are assignable in Mastering
Chemistry, and contain wrong answer feedback. Simply
■ BEFORE CLASS Although the term active learning choose the questions that you want from each of the
has been applied mainly to in-class learning, the main quizzes that span the chapters on your exam, and you
idea—that we learn better when we are actively engaged— can create an assignable pretest that students can use to
applies to all of learning. I have developed two main actively prepare for your exams.
tools to help students prepare for class in an active way.
Although we have added many active learning tools to this
The first tool is a complete library of 3– to 6–minute
edition and made other changes as well, the book’s goal
Key Concept Videos (KCVs) that, with this edition, span
remains the same: to present a rigorous and accessible treatment
virtually all of the key concepts in a general chemistry
of general chemistry in the context of relevance. Teaching general
course. The videos introduce a key concept and encour-
chemistry would be much easier if all of our students had
age active learning because they stop in the middle and
exactly the same level of preparation and ability. But alas, that
pose a question that must be answered before the video
is not the case. My own courses are populated with students
continues playing. Each video also has an associated
with a range of backgrounds and abilities in chemistry. The
follow-up question that can be assigned using Master-
challenge of successful teaching, in my opinion, is figuring
ing Chemistry. You can assign a video before each one
out how to instruct and challenge the best students while not
of your classes to get your students thinking about the
losing those with lesser backgrounds and abilities. My strategy
concepts for that day. A second tool for use before class
has always been to set the bar relatively high, while at the
is active reading. Each chapter in the book now contains
same time providing the motivation and support necessary to
10–12 Conceptual Connection questions. These questions
reach the high bar. That is exactly the philosophy of this book.
are assignable in Mastering Chemistry, and contain
We do not have to compromise rigor in order to make chemis-
wrong answer feedback. Instead of passively reading the
try accessible to our students. In this book, I have worked hard
assigned material with no accountability, you can now
to combine rigor with accessibility—to create a book that does
encourage your students to engage in active reading, in
not dilute the content and yet can be used and understood by
which they read a bit and then answer a question that
any student willing to put in the necessary effort.
probes their comprehension and gives them immediate
Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach is
feedback.
first and foremost a student-oriented book. My main goal
■ DURING CLASS By delivering some content through is to motivate students and get them to achieve at the highest
key concept videos and active reading before class, you possible level. As we all know, many students take general chem-
can make room in your lecture to pose questions to your istry because it is a requirement; they do not see the connection
students that make the class experience active as well. between chemistry and their lives or their intended careers.
This book features two main tools for in-class use. The Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach strives to make
first tool is Learning Catalytics, which allows you to pose those connections consistently and effectively. Unlike other
many different types of questions to your students dur- books, which often teach chemistry as something that happens
ing class. Instead of passively listening to your lecture, only in the laboratory or in industry, this book teaches chemis-
students interact with the concepts you present through try in the context of relevance. It shows students why chemistry
questions you pose. Your students can answer the ques- is important to them, to their future careers, and to their world.
tions individually, or you can pair them with a partner Second, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular
or small group. A second tool for in-class use is the Ques- Approach is a pedagogically driven book. In seeking to
tions for Group Work. These questions appear in the end- develop problem-solving skills, a consistent approach (Sort,
of-chapter material and are specifically designed to be Strategize, Solve, and Check) is applied, usually in a two- or
answered in small groups. three-column format. In the two-column format, the left col-
■ AFTER CLASS Active learning can continue after class umn shows the student how to analyze the problem and
with two additional tools. The first is another library of devise a solution strategy. It also lists the steps of the solution,
3– to 6–minute videos called Interactive Worked Examples explaining the rationale for each one, while the right column
(IWEs). Each IWE video walks a student through the shows the implementation of each step. In the three-column
solution to a chemistry problem. Like the KCVs, the IWE format, the left column outlines the general procedure for
video stops in the middle and poses a question that must solving an important category of problems that is then
be answered before the video continues playing. Each applied to two side-by-side examples. This strategy allows stu-
video also has an associated follow-up problem that can dents to see both the general pattern and the slightly different
be assigned using Mastering Chemistry. The second tool ways in which the procedure may be applied in differing con-
for after (or outside of) class active learning is Active Exam texts. The aim is to help students understand both the concept
Preparation. Research studies suggest that students who of the problem (through the formulation of an explicit concep-
take a pretest before an exam do better on the exam, espe- tual plan for each problem) and the solution to the problem.
cially if the pretest contains immediate feedback. Each Third, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular
chapter in this book contains a Self-Assessment Quiz that Approach is a visual book. Wherever possible, I use images
to deepen the student’s insight into chemistry. In developing Examples (IWEs) to the media package that accompanies
chemical principles, multipart images help show the connec- the book. The video library now contains nearly 200 inter-
tion between everyday processes visible to the unaided eye active videos. These tools are designed to help professors
and what atoms and molecules are actually doing. Many of engage their students in active learning.
these images have three parts: macroscopic, molecular, and ■ NEW IN-CHAPTER QUESTIONS WITH FEEDBACK
symbolic. This combination helps students to see the rela- I have added approximately 67 new Conceptual Connection
tionships between the formulas they write down on paper questions throughout the book and have changed the
(symbolic), the world they see around them (macroscopic), format to multiple choice (with wrong answer feedback
and the atoms and molecules that compose that world in Mastering Chemistry). Each chapter now has 10–12 of
(molecular). In addition, most figures are designed to teach these assignable questions. These questions transform
rather than just to illustrate. They are rich with annotations the reading process from passive to active and hold
and labels intended to help the student grasp the most impor- students accountable for reading assignments.
tant processes and the principles that underlie them. In this
edition, the art program has been thoroughly revised in two
■ NEW MISSED THIS? FEATURE I have added a new
major ways. First, navigation of the more complex figures has feature called MISSED THIS? to the Self-Assessment
been reoriented to track from left to right whenever possible. Quizzes and to the Problems by Topic section of the end-
Second, figure captions have been migrated into the image of-chapter problems. This feature lists the resources
itself as an “author voice” that explains the image and guides that students can use to learn how to answer the
the reader through it. The resulting images are rich with question or solve the problem. The resources include
information but also clear and quickly understood. chapter sections to read, Key Concept Videos (KCVs) to
Fourth, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular watch, and Interactive Worked Examples (IWEs) to view.
Approach is a “big-picture” book. At the beginning of Students often try to solve an assigned question or
each chapter, a short paragraph helps students to see the key problem before doing any reading or reviewing; they
relationships between the different topics they are learning. seek resources only after they have missed the ques-
Through a focused and concise narrative, I strive to make the tion or problem. The MISSED THIS? feature guides
basic ideas of every chapter clear to the student. Interim sum- them to reliable resources that provide just-in-time
maries are provided at selected spots in the narrative, making instruction.
it easier to grasp (and review) the main points of important ■ NEW FOR PRACTICE FEEDBACK I have enhanced
discussions. And to make sure that students never lose sight of 64 of the in-chapter For Practice problems (which
the forest for the trees, each chapter includes several Concep- immediately follow an in-chapter worked example)
tual Connections, which ask them to think about concepts and with feedback that can be accessed through Mastering
solve problems without doing any math. I want students to Chemistry.
learn the concepts, not just plug numbers into equations ■ REVISED ART PROGRAM The art program has been
to churn out the right answer. This philosophy is also integral
extensively revised. Navigation of the more complex fig-
to the Key Concept Videos, which concisely reinforce student
ures has been reoriented to track from left to right, and
appreciation of the core concepts in each chapter.
many figure captions have been broken up and have been
Lastly, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular
moved into the image itself as an “author voice” that ex-
Approach is a book that delivers the depth of cover-
plains the image and guides the reader through it.
age faculty want. We do not have to cut corners and water
down the material in order to get our students interested. We ■ REVISED DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALY-
have to meet them where they are, challenge them to the SIS QUESTIONS The Data Interpretation and Analysis
highest level of achievement, and support them with enough questions that accompany each chapter have been exten-
pedagogy to allow them to succeed. sively revised to make them clearer and more accessible
I hope that this book supports you in your vocation of to students.
teaching students chemistry. I am increasingly convinced of ■ NEW SECTION ON DATA INTERPRETATION AND
the importance of our task. Please feel free to contact me with ANALYSIS I have added a new section to Chapter 1
any questions or comments about the book. (Section 1.9) on the general topic of analyzing and inter-
Nivaldo J. Tro preting data. This section introduces the skills required
nivatro@gmail.com to address many of the revised data interpretation and
analysis questions.
What’s New in This Edition? ■ NEW HOW TO . . . FEATURE All guidance for essential
skills such as problem-solving techniques, drawing Lewis
The book has been extensively revised and contains more structures, and naming compounds is now presented in
small changes than can be detailed here. The most significant a consistent, step-by-step numbered list called How To…
changes to the book and its supplements are listed below:
■ REVISED CHAPTER 4 Chapter 4 in the previous edi-
■ NEW INTERACTIVE VIDEOS I have added 16 new tion covered both stoichiometry and chemical reac-
Key Concept Videos (KCVs) and 24 new Interactive Worked tions in solution. In this edition, this content has been
expanded slightly and has been divided into two more a long and fruitful collaboration. I also owe a special debt of
focused chapters, so that Chapter 4 is now focused on gratitude to Barbara Yien and Laura Southworth. Barbara was
stoichiometry and Chapter 5 on chemical reactions in involved in many parts of content development, and Laura
solution. This new organization lessens the cognitive played a critical role in the revision of the art program. Many
load for students and allows each chapter to be more thanks to the both of you!
direct and focused. All subsequent chapters have been Thanks also to my media editor, Paula Iborra. Paula has
renumbered accordingly. been instrumental in helping me craft and develop the Key
■ NEW ACTIVITY SERIES CONTENT I added a new Concept Videos, Interactive Worked Examples, and other
subsection to Section 5.9 entitled The Activity Series: Pre- media content that accompany this text. Gracias, Paula.
dicting Whether a Redox Reaction Is Spontaneous. The new I am also grateful to Harry Misthos, who helped with
section includes new figures, tables, and a new worked organizing reviews, as well as numerous other tasks associ-
example. ated with keeping the team running smoothly. I am also
grateful to Jeanne Zalesky, Editor-in-Chief for Physical Sci-
■ NEW READY-TO-GO LEARNING MODULES These
ences. She has supported me and my projects and allowed me
online modules offer students easy access to the best
to succeed. Thanks also to Adam Jaworski, who oversees sci-
Tro content in Mastering Chemistry without needing to
ence courseware at Pearson. I am grateful to have his wise and
have it assigned.
steady, yet innovative, hand at the wheel, especially during
■ NEW TWO-TIER OBJECTIVES A system of two-tier the many changes that are happening within educational
objectives is being applied to the text and to the Master- publishing. I am also grateful to my marketing managers,
ing Chemistry assets. The two tiers are Learning Objec- Chris Barker and Elizabeth Bell. Chris and I go way back and
tives, or LOs, and Enabling Objectives, or EOs. The LOs have worked together in many different ways. Chris, thanks
are broad, high-level objectives that summarize the over- for all you do to promote my books. Elizabeth is a marketing
all learning goal, while the EOs are the building block manager extraordinaire. She has endless energy and ideas for
skills that enable students to achieve the LO. The learn- marketing this book. I have enjoyed working with her over
ing objectives are given in the Learning Outcomes table the last several years and wish to congratulate her on the
at the end of the chapter. recent birth of her first child. Congratulations, Elizabeth!
■ REVISED DATA All the data throughout the book have I continue to owe a special word of thanks to Glenn and Meg
been updated to reflect the most recent measurements Turner of Burrston House, ideal collaborators whose contri-
available. These updates include Figure 4.2: Carbon butions to the first edition of the book were extremely impor-
Dioxide in the Atmosphere; Figure 4.3: Global Temperatures; tant and much appreciated. Quade Paul, who makes my ideas
the unnumbered figure in Section 7.10 of U.S. Energy Con- come alive with his art, has been with us from the beginning,
sumption; Figure 7.12: Energy Consumption by Source; Table and I owe a special debt of gratitude to him. I am also grateful
7.6: Changes in National Average Pollutant Levels, 1990– to Maria Guglielmo Walsh and Elise Lansdon for their creativ-
2016; Figure 15.19: Ozone Depletion in the Antarctic Spring; ity and hard work in crafting the design of this text. Finally, I
Figure 17.15: Sources of U.S. Energy; Figure 17.16: Acid Rain; would like to thank Beth Sweeten and the rest of the Pearson
and Figure 17.18: U.S. Sulfur Dioxide Pollutant Levels. production team. They are a first-class operation—this text
■ REVISED CHAPTER OPENERS Many chapter- has benefited immeasurably from their talents and hard
opening sections and (or) the corresponding art—includ- work. I also thank Francesca Monaco and her coworkers at
ing Chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 18, 19, and 20—have CodeMantra. I am a picky author and Francesca is endlessly
been replaced or modified. patient and a true professional. I am also greatly indebted to
my copy editor, Betty Pessagno, for her dedication and profes-
sionalism over many projects, and to Eric Schrader for his
written. I am also indebted to my children, Michael, Ali, Kyle, Kim C. Calvo, The University of Akron
Stephen C. Carlson, Lansing Community College
and Kaden, whose smiling faces and love of life always inspire
David A. Carter, Angelo State University
me. I come from a large Cuban family whose closeness and Ferman Chavez, Oakland University
support most people would envy. Thanks to my parents, Eric G. Chesloff, Villanova University
Ted Clark, The Ohio State University
Nivaldo and Sara; my siblings, Sarita, Mary, and Jorge; my
William M. Cleaver, The University of Vermont
siblings-in-law, Nachy, Karen, and John; and my nephews Charles T. Cox Jr., Georgia Institute of Technology
and nieces, Germain, Danny, Lisette, Sara, and Kenny. These J. Ricky Cox, Murray State University
Samuel R. Cron, Arkansas State University
are the people with whom I celebrate life.
Guy Crundwell, Central Connecticut State University
I am especially grateful to Michael Tro, who put in many Darwin B. Dahl, Western Kentucky University
hours proofreading my manuscript, working problems and Robert F. Dias, Old Dominion University
Daniel S. Domin, Tennessee State University
quiz questions, and organizing appendices. Michael, you are
Bonnie Dixon, University of Maryland
amazing—it is my privilege to have you work with me on this Alan D. Earhart, Southeast Community College
project. Jack Eichler, University of California, Riverside
Amina K. El-Ashmawy, Collin College
I would like to thank all of the general chemistry stu-
Joseph P. Ellison, United States Military Academy at West Point
dents who have been in my classes throughout my 29 years as Joseph M. Eridon, Central New Mexico Community College
a professor. You have taught me much about teaching that is Deborah B. Exton, The University of Oregon
William A. Faber, Grand Rapids Community College
now in this book.
Michael Ferguson, Honolulu Community College
Lastly, I am indebted to the many reviewers, listed on the Maria C. Fermin-Ennis, Gordon College
following pages, whose ideas are embedded throughout this Oscar Navarro Fernandez, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Jan Florian, Loyola University Chicago
book. They have corrected me, inspired me, and sharpened
Andy Frazer, University of Central Florida
my thinking on how best to teach this subject we call chemis- Candice E. Fulton, Midwestern State University
try. I deeply appreciate their commitment to this project. Ron Garber, California State University at Long Beach
Carlos D. Garcia, The University of Texas at San Antonio
I am particularly grateful to Corey Beck who has played an
Eric S. Goll, Brookdale Community College
important role in developing the objectives for this edition. Robert A. Gossage, Acadia University
I am also grateful to the accuracy of reviewers who tirelessly Pierre Y. Goueth, Santa Monica College
Thomas J. Greenbowe, Iowa State University
checked page proofs for correctness.
Victoria Guarisco, Middle Georgia State University
Christin Gustafson, Illinois Central College
Jason A. Halfen, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Reviewers of the Fourth Edition Nathan Hammer, University of Mississippi
Michael D. Hampton, University of Central Florida
Vanessa Castleberry, Baylor University Tamara Hanna, Texas Tech University
Andrew Frazer, University of Central Florida Lois Hansen-Polcar, Cuyahoga Community College-Western Campus
Alton Hassell, Baylor University Tony Hascall, Northern Arizona University
Barry Lavine, Oklahoma State University Elda Hegmann, Kent State University
Diana Leung, The University of Alabama Monte L. Helm, Fort Lewis College
Lauren McMills, Ohio University David E. Henderson, Trinity College
David Perdian, Broward College Susan K. Henderson, Quinnipiac University
Daniele Ramella, Temple University Peter M. Hierl, The University of Kansas
Shuai Sun, University of Kansas Paula Hjorth-Gustin, San Diego Mesa College
Dennis Taylor, Clemson University Angela Hoffman, University of Portland
Tara Todd, Vanderbilt University Todd A. Hopkins, Butler University
Byron E. Howell, Tyler Junior College
Ralph Isovitsch, Xavier University of Louisiana
Reviewers of Previous Editions Kenneth C. Janda, University of California, Irvine
Milt Johnston, University of South Florida
Patricia G. Amateis, Virginia Tech Jason A. Kautz, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Margaret R. Asirvatham, University of Colorado Catherine A. Keenan, Chaffey College
Paul Badger, Robert Morris University Steven W. Keller, University of Missouri
Monica H. Baloga, Florida Institute of Technology Resa Kelly, San Jose State University
Rebecca Barlag, Ohio University Chulsung Kim, Georgia Gwinnett College
Mufeed M. Basti, North Carolina Agricultural & Louis J. Kirschenbaum, University of Rhode Island
Technological State University Mark Knecht, University of Kentucky
Amy E. Beilstein, Centre College Bette Kreuz, University of Michigan-Dearborn
Donald Bellew, The University of New Mexico Sergiy Kryatov, Tufts University
Maria Benavides, University of Houston, Downtown Richard H. Langley, Stephen F. Austin State University
Kyle A. Beran, University of Texas of the Permian Basin Clifford B. Lemaster, Boise State University
Thomas Bertolini, University of Southern California Sarah Lievens, University of California, Davis
Christine V. Bilicki, Pasadena City College Robley Light, Florida State University
Silas C. Blackstock, The University of Alabama Adam List, Vanderbilt University
Robert E. Blake, Texas Tech University Christopher Lovallo, Mount Royal University
Angela E. Boerger, Loyola University Chicago Eric Malina, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Robert S. Boikess, Rutgers University Benjamin R. Martin, Texas State University
Paul Brandt, North Central College Lydia J. Martinez-Rivera, University of Texas at San Antonio
Michelle M. Brooks, College of Charleston Marcus T. McEllistrem, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire
Gary Buckley, Cameron University Danny G. McGuire, Cameron University
Joseph H. Bularzik, Purdue University, Calumet Charles W. McLaughlin, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Cindy M. Burkhardt, Radford University Curt L. McLendon, Saddleback College
Andrew E. Burns, Kent State University at Stark Lauren McMills, Ohio University
W. Tandy Grubbs, Stetson University Reva A. Savkar, Northern Virginia Community College
Jerome E. Haky, Florida Atlantic University Thomas W. Schleich, University of California, Santa Cruz
Jason A. Halfen, University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire Donald L. Siegel, Rutgers University, New Brunswick
John A. W. Harkless, Howard University Mary L. Sohn, Florida Institute of Technology
Paul I. Higgs, Barry University Sherril Soman-Williams, Grand Valley State University
Norris W. Hoffman, University of South Alabama Allison Soult, University of Kentucky
Tony Holland, Wallace Community College Louise S. Sowers, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
Todd A. Hopkins, Butler University Anne Spuches, East Carolina University
Moheb Ishak, St. Petersburg College, St. Petersburg William H. Steel, York College of Pennsylvania
Kamal Ismail, CUNY, Bronx Community College Uma Swamy, Florida International University
Greg M. Jorgensen, American River College Richard E. Sykora, University of South Alabama
Sharon K. Kapica, County College of Morris Galina G. Talanova, Howard University
Jason Kautz, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Claire A. Tessier, University of Akron
Mark Kearley, Florida State University Kathleen Thrush Shaginaw, Villanova University
Catherine A. Keenan, Chaffey College John Vincent, University of Alabama
Steven W. Keller, University of Missouri, Columbia Gary L. Wood, Valdosta State University
Ellen Kime-Hunt, Riverside Community College, Riverside Campus Servet M. Yatin, Quincy College
Peter J. Krieger, Palm Beach Community College, Lake Worth James Zubricky, University of Toledo
Roy A. Lacey, State University of New York, Stony Brook
David P. Licata, Coastline Community College
Michael E. Lipschutz, Purdue University
Patrick M. Lloyd, CUNY, Kingsborough Community College Acknowledgments for the Global
Boon H. Loo, Towson University
James L. Mack, Fort Valley State University Edition
Jeanette C. Madea, Broward Community College, North
Joseph L. March, University of Alabama, Birmingham Pearson would like to acknowledge and thank the following
Jack F. McKenna, St. Cloud State University for their work on the Global Edition.
Curtis L. McLendon, Saddleback College
Dianne Meador, American River College
David Metcalf, University of Virginia
John A. Milligan, Los Angeles Valley College Contributors
Alice J. Monroe, St. Petersburg College, Clearwater Mathew Akerman, University of KwaZulu-Natal
Elisabeth A. Morlino, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia James Brady, The University of Auckland
Heino Nitsche, University of California at Berkeley Mark Lynch, University of Southern Queensland
Pedro Patino, University of Central Florida Katherine Stevens, The University of Adelaide
Jeremy Perotti, Nova Southeastern University Bheki Xulu, University of KwaZulu-Natal
Norbert J. Pienta, University of Iowa
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Cathrine E. Reck, Indiana University
Thomas Ridgway, University of Cincinnati
Reviewers
Jil Robinson, Indiana University Burkhard Kirste, Freie Universität Berlin
Richard Rosso, St. John’s University Jakob “SciFox” Lauth, University of Applied Sciences, Aachen
Steven Rowley, Middlesex County College Sadhna Mathura, University of the Witwatersrand
Benjamin E. Rusiloski, Delaware Valley College Nor Saadah Mohd Yusof, University of Malaya
Karen Sanchez, Florida Community College, Jacksonville Toon Peters, Zuyd Hogeschool
David M. Sarno, CUNY, Queensborough Community College Susan Pyke, Flinders University
With Learning
Catalytics, you’ll hear
from every student when
it matters most. You pose
a variety of questions
that help students recall
ideas, apply concepts, and
develop critical-thinking
skills. Your students
respond using their own
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laptops.
You can monitor responses with real-time analytics and find out what your students
do — and don’t — understand. Then, you can adjust your teaching accordingly, and even
facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay motivated and engaged. Learning
Catalytics includes prebuilt questions for every key topic in General Chemistry.
p. 246
Interactive Worked Examples are digital versions of select worked examples from the text
that instruct students how to break down problems using Tro’s “Sort, Strategize, Solve, and Check”
technique. The Interactive Worked Examples pause in the middle and require the student to interact
by completing a step in the example. Each example has a follow-up question that is assignable in
Mastering Chemistry. There are 24 new Interactive Worked Examples for a total of 125.
NEW! Ready-to-Go
Practice Modules
in the Mastering
Chemistry Study Area
help students master
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Assignable Self-
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complete with answer-specific
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The Self-Assessment Quizzes
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Chemistry. Professors can use
questions from these quizzes to
prepare a pretest on Mastering
Chemistry. Research has shown
that this kind of active exam
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exam scores.
K+
NO3-
K+ NO3-
PbI2
Pb2+
I-
Precipitation reactions do not always occur when two aqueous solutions are mixed. For
example, if we combine solutions of KI(aq) and NaCl(aq), nothing happens (Figure 5.14▶):
KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) ¡ NO REACTION
The key to predicting precipitation reactions is to understand that only insoluble
compounds form precipitates. In a precipitation reaction, two solutions containing soluble
compounds combine and an insoluble compound precipitates. Consider the precipita-
tion reaction described previously:
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ¡ PbI2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)
soluble soluble insoluble soluble
KI and Pb(NO3)2 are both soluble, but the precipitate, PbI2, is insoluble. Before mixing,
KI(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq) are both dissociated in their respective solutions:
I- NO3-
+
K Pb2+
KI(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq)
Pb (NO3)2 PbI2
If the possible products are both soluble, no reaction occurs and no precipitate forms. If
K+
one or both of the possible products are insoluble, a precipitation reaction occurs. In
this case, KNO3 is soluble, but PbI2 is insoluble. Consequently, PbI2 precipitates. NO3-
To predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur when two solutions are mixed
PbI2
and to write an equation for the reaction, we use the procedure that follows. The steps
are outlined in the left column, and two examples illustrating how to apply the proce-
PbI2(s) and KNO3(aq)
dure are shown in the center and right columns.
No Reaction
Cl- Na+ I-
+
K
K+
Na+ Cl-
-
I
pgs. 222–223
Ready-to-Go Study Tools provide organized material for every tough topic in General
Chemistry. The modules – created for and by instructors – provide easy-to-use before and after class
assignments, in-class activities with clicker questions, and questions in Learning Catalytics™. The
modules are easily accessed via Mastering Chemistry.
1
C H A P T E R
Matter, Measurement,
and Problem Solving
W
hat do you think is the most important idea in all of
human knowledge? This question has many possible
answers—some practical, some philosophical, and some
scientific. If we limit ourselves to scientific answers, mine would be
this: the properties of matter are determined by the properties
of atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules determine how
matter behaves—if they were different, matter would be different.
The properties of water molecules determine how water behaves,
the properties of sugar molecules determine how sugar behaves,
and the properties of the molecules that compose our bodies
determine how our bodies behave. The understanding of matter
at the molecular level gives us unprecedented control over that
matter. For example, our understanding of the details of the mole-
cules that compose living organisms has revolutionized biology
over the last 50 years.
42
43
The czar arrived at St. Petersburg from his foreign tour on the 21st
of October, 1717. Twenty years before he had signalised his return
from a first visit to civilised countries by the inhuman butchery of the
strelitz, and now he was about to give still more appalling evidence
of the deep depravity of his heart.
Peter’s early aversion to Eudoxia had a most deplorable influence
on Alexis, the son she bore him in 1690. The dissensions between
the father and the mother speedily diminished the father’s affection
for Alexis. Moreover, as Peter’s vast labours prevented him from
paying much attention to the education of his son, Alexis at first grew
up under female tuition, and then fell into the hands of some of the
clergy, under whose guidance he daily conceived a greater
abhorrence for his father. This being observed by Peter, he put an
end to the spiritual education, and appointed Menshikov
superintendent of the prince’s preceptors.
Menshikov was no friend to Alexis, and the latter had been early
inspired by his mother with contempt and aversion for the favourite
of his father. The tutors who were now placed about the prince were
not able to eradicate the prejudices impressed on his mind from his
infancy, and now grown inveterate; besides, he had an
unconquerable dislike to them as foreigners. The future sovereign of
so vast an empire that was now reformed in all its parts, and by
prosperous wars still further enlarged; the heir of a throne whose
possessor ruled over many millions of people, had been brought up
from his birth as if designed for a Russian bishop; theology
continued to be his favourite study. With a capacity for those
sciences which are useful in government, he discovered no
inclination to them. Moreover, he addicted himself early in life to
drunkenness and other excesses. There were not wanting such as
flattered his perverse dispositions, by representing to him that the
Russian nation was dissatisfied with his father, that it was impossible
for him to be suffered long in his career of innovation, that even his
life was not likely to hold out against so many fatigues, with many
other things of a like nature.
The conduct of Alexis, particularly his indolence and sloth, were
highly displeasing to Peter. Menshikov, from political motives, to
preserve himself and Catherine, was constantly employed in fanning
the czar’s resentment, while the adherents of Alexis, on the other
hand, seized every opportunity to increase the aversion of the
prince, who, from his very cradle, had never known what it was to
love, and had only dreaded his father. Alexis at times even gave
plain intimations that he would hereafter undo all that his father was
so sedulously bringing about. Nay, when the latter, in 1711,
appointed the prince regent during his absence, in the campaign of
the Pruth, Alexis made it his first business to alter many things in
behalf of the clergy, so as clearly to evince in what school he had
been brought up.
The czar was in hopes of reforming his son by uniting him with a
worthy consort; but even this attempt proved fruitless. The princess
of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, who was selected for his bride, and to
whom Alexis was married at Torgau, in 1711, notwithstanding all her
eminent qualities of mind and heart and her great beauty, could
make no impression on him, and sank under the load of grief brought
on by this unhappy connection, soon after giving birth to a prince,
who was called by the name of his grandfather, Peter (1715). By a
continuance in his dissolute mode of life, by his bad behaviour
towards his spouse, and his intercourse with persons who were
notorious for their hatred of Peter and his reforms, Alexis seemed
bent upon augmenting his father’s displeasure.
After the death of the princess, Peter wrote his son a letter, the
conclusion of which ran thus: “I will still wait awhile, to see if you will
amend; if not, know that I will deprive you of the succession, as a
useless limb is cut off. Do not imagine I am only frightening you; nor
would I have you rely on the title of being my eldest son; for since I
do not spare my own life for the good of my country and the
prosperity of my people, why should I spare yours? I shall rather
commit them to a stranger deserving such a trust than to my own
undeserving offspring.”
At this very juncture the empress Catherine was delivered of a
prince, who died in 1719. Whether the above letter disheartened
Alexis, or whether it was imprudence or bad advice, he wrote to his
father that he renounced the crown, and all hopes of reigning. “God
is my witness,” said he, “and I swear upon my soul, that I will never
claim the succession; I commit my children into your hands, and for
myself desire only a subsistence during life.”
His father wrote to him a second time. “I observe,” says he, “that
all you speak of in the letter is the succession, as if I stood in need of
your consent. I have represented to you what grief your behaviour
has given me for so many years, and not a word do you say of it; the
exhortations of a father make no impression on you. I have brought
myself to write to you once more; but for the last time. If you despise
my counsels now I am living, what regard will be paid to them after
my death? Though you may now mean not to violate your promises,
yet those bushy beards will be able to wind you as they please, and
force you to break your word. It is you those people rely on. You
have no gratitude to him who gave you life. Since you have been of
proper age, did you ever assist him in his labours? Do you not find
fault with, do you not detest everything I do for the good of my
people? I have all the reason in the world to believe that, if you
survive me, you will overthrow all that I have been doing. Amend,
make yourself worthy of the succession, or turn monk. Let me have
your answer either in writing, or personally, or I will deal with you as
a malefactor.”
Though this letter was harsh, the prince might easily have
answered that he would alter his behaviour; but he only acquainted
his father, in a few lines, that he would turn monk. This assurance
did not appear natural; and it is something strange that the czar,
going to travel, should leave behind him a son so obstinate, but this
very journey proves that the czar was in no manner of apprehension
of a conspiracy from his son. He went to see him before he set out
for Germany and France; the prince being ill, or feigning to be so,
received him in bed, and confirmed to him, by the most solemn
oaths, that he would retire into a convent. The czar gave him six
months for deliberation, and set out with his consort.
He had scarcely reached Copenhagen when he received advice
(which was no more than he might well expect) that Alexis admitted
into his presence only evil-minded persons, who humoured his
discontent; on this the czar wrote to him that he must choose the
convent or the throne, and, if he valued the succession, to come to
him at Copenhagen.
The prince’s confidants instilled into him a suspicion that it would
be dangerous for him to put himself into the hands of a provoked
father and a mother-in-law, without so much as one friend to advise
with. He therefore feigned that he was going to wait on his father at
Copenhagen, but took the road to Vienna, and threw himself on the
protection of the emperor Charles VI, his brother-in-law, intending to
continue at his court till the czar’s death.
This was an adventure something like that of Louis XI, who, whilst
he was dauphin, withdrew from the court of Charles VII, his father, to
the duke of Burgundy. Louis was, indeed, much more culpable than
the czarevitch, by marrying in direct opposition to his father, raising
troops, and seeking refuge with a prince, his father’s natural enemy,