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QRH:QuickReferenceHandbook
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MathQRH
AlgebraIItoCalculusIII
FirstEdition
WrittenandPublishedby:KatarinaCosta
Artwork:KatarinaCosta
ISBN:978-1-365-28582-0
(InhardcoveronLulu.comorMathQRH.com)
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TableOfContents
Section1:AlgebraII 29
1.0 SummarySheet 29
1
.1 GraphingBasics 36
1.1.1 Intercepts 36
1.1.2 Symmetry 36
1.1.3 Circles 38
1.1.3.a CompletingtheSquare 38
1.1.4 DifferenceQuotient 39
1
.2 FunctionsandTheirGraphs 39
1.2.1 FunctionDefinition 39
1.2.2 DomainandRange 40
1.2.2.a Notation 40
1.2.3 CategoriesandCharacteristicsofFunctions 41
1.2.3.a OddorEven 41
1.2.3.b Increasing,Decreasing,andConstant 42
1.2.3.c MaximumsandMinimums 42
1.2.4 ParentFunctions 43
1.2.5 PiecewiseFunctions 46
1.2.6 TransformationsofFunctions 46
1.2.6.a RigidTransformations 46
1.2.6.b Distortions 47
1.2.6.c EquationForm 47
TableofContents
1.3 LinearandQuadraticFunctions 48
1.3.1 LinearDefinition 48
1.3.1.a Depreciation 48
1.3.2 QuadraticFunctions 49
1.3.2.a VertexForm 49
1.3.2.b Roots 50
1.3.2.c AxisofSymmetry 50
1.3.2.d Discriminant 50
1.3.2.e QuadraticInequalities 51
1.4 PolynomialandRationalFunctions 51
1.4.1 PolynomialFunctions 51
1.4.1.a EndBehavior 52
1.4.1.b BehavioratIntercepts 54
1.4.1.c MultiplyingPolynomials 54
1.4.1.d PolynomialLongDivision 55
1.4.1.e SyntheticPolynomialDivision 55
1.4.2 RationalFunctionsandAnalysis 57
1.4.2.a DomainRestrictions 57
1,4.2.b VerticalAsymptotes 57
1.4.2.c Holes 58
1.4.2.d MultiplicityoftheVerticalAsymptote 58
1.4.2.e HorizontalAsymptotes 59
1.4.2.f Oblique/SlantAsymptotes 60
1.4.3 GraphingRationalFunctions 61
1.4.4 PolynomialandRationalInequalities 62
1.4.4.a Graphically 62
1.4.4.b Algebraically 62
1.4.5 FactoringPolynomialsandRealZeros 64
1.4.5.a TheFactorTheorem 64
1.4.5.b TheRemainderTheorem 64
1.4.5.c Descartes’RuleofSigns 64
1.4.5.d RationalZerosTheorem 65
1.4.5.e CombiningToolstoFindZerosofPolynomial 65
2 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
1.4.6 ImaginaryandComplexNumbers 66
1.4.6.a PowerPattern 67
1.4.6.b ComplexConjugate 68
1.4.7 ComplexZeros 68
1.4.7.a FindingEquationsfromZeros-Example 68
1.4.7.b FindingZerosfromaFunction-Example 69
1.5 ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions 70
1.5.1 CompositeFunctions 70
1.5.1.a DomainofCompositeFunctions 70
1.5.2 OnetoOneFunctions 70
1.5.3 InverseFunctions 71
1.5.3.a Notation 71
1.5.3.b ProcessofFindinganInverseFunction 71
1.5.3.c GraphsandInverseFunctions 72
1.5.4 ExponentialFunctions 73
1.5.4.a Transformations 73
1.5.4.b CheckingforanExponential 74
1.5.4.c Euler’sNumber 74
1.5.4.d SolvingExponentialFunctions-Example 75
1.5.5 LogarithmicFunctions 76
1.5.5.a Implementinglog-Examples 76
1.5.5.b DomainandRange 77
1.5.5.c Graphing 78
1.5.5.d LawsofLogarithms 79
1.5.6 FinancialModelFormulas 80
1.5.7 GrowthandDecay 81
1.5.7.a UninhibitedGrowthandDecay 81
1.5.7.b Newton’sLawofCooling 82
1.5.7.c LogisticalModel 83
1
.6 MyNotesforAlgebraII 84
TableofContents
Section2:Pre-Calculus 87
2.0 SummarySheet 88
2
.1 TrigonometricFunctions 98
2.1.1 Angles,ArcLength,CircularMotion 98
2.1.1.a BasicVocabulary 98
2.1.1.b MinutesandSeconds 99
2.1.1.c ArcLength 100
2.1.1.d RadiansandDegrees 100
2.1.1.e AreaofaSector 101
2.1.1.f LinearSpeed 101
2.1.1.g AngularSpeed 101
2.1.2 TrigonometricFunctions:UnitCircleApproach 102
2.1.2.a TrigonometricFunctionsofaRealNumber 102
2.1.2.b UndefinedFunctions 103
2.1.2.c TrigonometryandTriangles 103
2.1.2.d CommonAngles 104
2.1.2.e Symmetry 104
2.1.2.f FindingRadius 105
2.1.3 PropertiesofTrigonometricFunctions 105
2.1.3.a PeriodicFunctionsandtheFundamentalPeriod 105
2.1.3.b SignsofTrigonometricFunctions 106
2.1.3.c PythagoreanIdentities 106
2.1.3.d FindingExactValuesUsingIdentities-Example 106
2.1.3.e FindingExactValuesGivenOneValueandSignofOther-Example 107
2.1.3.f EvenandOddPropertiesTheorem 107
4 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
2.1.4 GraphsoftheSineandCosineFunctions 108
2.1.4.a SineFunction 108
2.1.4.b CosineFunction 109
2.1.4.c Relationship 110
2.1.4.d Transformations 110
2.1.4.e G
raphingUsingKeyPoints-Example 111
2.1.4.f FindingtheEquationUsingtheGraph-Example 111
2.1.5 GraphsofTangent,Cotangent,Secant,andCosecantFunctions 112
2.1.5.a TangentFunction 112
2.1.5.b CotangentFunction 113
2.1.5.c WritingDomain 114
2.1.5.d Transformations 114
2.1.5.e CosecantFunction 115
2.1.5.f SecantFunction 115
2.1.5.g TransformationsoftheCosecantandSecantFunctions 116
2.1.5.h AmplitudesoftheseGraphs 116
2
.2 AnalyticTrigonometry 117
2.2.1 TheInverseFunctions 117
2.2.1.a InverseSineFunction 117
2.2.1.b InverseCosineFunction 118
2.2.1.c InverseTangentFunction 119
2.2.1.d PropertiesofInverseFunctions 119
2.2.1.e FindingtheInverseofaTrigFunction-Example 120
2.2.1.f SolvinganInverseTrigFunction-Example 121
2.2.2 TrigonometricIdentities 121
2.2.2.a IdenticallyEqual,Identity,andConditionalExpression 121
2.2.2.b Identities 122
2.2.2.c AlgebraicTechniques 122
2.2.2.d GuidelinesforEstablishingIdentities 123
TableofContents
2.2.3 SumandDifferenceFormulas 123
2.2.3.a Theorem(Cosine) 123
2.2.3.b Theorem(Sine) 124
2.2.3.c Theorem(Tangent) 125
2.2.3.d ExactValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions-Example 125
2.2.3.e WritingTrigExpressionsasAlgebraicExpression-Example 126
2.2.3.f T
rigonometricEquationLinearinSineandCosine-Example 127
2.2.4 DoubleAngleandHalf-AngleFormulas 128
2.2.4.a DoubleAngleFormulas 128
2.2.4.b FindingExactValue-Example 128
2.2.4.c EstablishinganIdentity-Example 129
2.2.4.d SquaredTrigFunctionsFormulas 129
2.2.4.e SolvingUsingIdentities-Example 130
2.2.4.f ProjectileMotion 130
2.2.4.g Half-AngleFormulas 131
2.2.4.h SquaredHalf-AngleFormulas 131
2
.3 ApplicationsofTrigonometricFunctions 132
2.3.1 RightAngleTrigonometry:Applications 132
2.3.1.a ComplementaryAngles 132
2.3.1.b ComplementaryAngleTheorem 132
2.3.1.c SolvingaRightTriangle-Example 133
2.3.2 SolvingObliqueTriangles 134
2.3.3 TheLawofSines 135
2.3.3.a Example-SAATriangle 135
2.3.3.b SolvingSSATriangles 136
2.3.4 TheLawofCosines 136
2.3.4.a Example-SASTriangle 137
2.3.5 AreaofaTriangle 138
2.3.5.a AreaofanSASTriangleTheorem 138
2.3.5.b Heron’sFormula-AreaofaSSSTriangle 138
6 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
2.4 PolarCoordinatesandVectors 139
2.4.1 PolarCoordinates 139
2.4.1.a FindingSeveralPolarCoordinatesofaSinglePoint 140
2.4.1.b ConvertingfromPolartoRectangularCoordinates 141
2.4.1.c PointsthatLieonanAxis 141
2.4.1.d ConvertingfromRectangulartoPolarCoordinates 141
2.4.2 PolarEquationsandtheirGraphs 142
2.4.2.a Theorem(Vertical/HorizontalLines) 142
2.4.2.b Theorem(Circles) 143
2.4.2.c SymmetricPoints 143
2.4.2.d TestsforSymmetry 143
2.4.2.e Cardioids 144
2.4.2.f LimaçonswithoutanInnerLoop 145
2.4.2.g LimaçonswithanInnerLoop 146
2.4.2.h Rose 147
2.4.2.i Leminscates 148
2.4.2.j Spiral 148
2.4.2.k GraphingPolarEquations 149
2.4.3 ComplexPlane 149
2.4.3.a MagnitudeorModulus 150
2.4.3.b CartesianForm 150
2.4.3.c PolarFormofaComplexNumber 150
2.4.3.d Argument 150
2.4.3.e Euler’sFormula 151
2.4.3.f ExponentialForm 151
2.4.3.g MultiplicationandDivisionTheorem 151
2.4.3.h PeriodicTheorem 151
2.4.3.i DeMoivre’sTheorem 152
2.4.3.j ComplexRoots 152
2.4.3.k FindingComplexRoots 152
TableofContents
2.4.4 Vectors 153
2.4.4.a GeometricVectors 153
2.4.4.b AddingVectorsGeometrically 154
2.4.4.c MultiplyingVectorsbyNumbersGeometrically 155
2.4.4.d Properties 156
2
.5 AnalyticGeometry(ConicSections) 156
2.5.1 EquationCharacteristics 157
2.5.2 Parabolas 157
2.5.2.a Example 158
2.5.3 Ellipses 159
2.5.3.a Graphing 160
2.5.4 Hyperbolas 161
2.5.4.a Graphing 161
2.5.4.b AnalyzinganEquation 162
2.5.5 ParametricEquationsandPlaneCurves 162
2.5.5.a GraphingaPlaneCurve 163
2.5.5.b FindingRectangularEquationofaParametricallyDefinedCurve 164
2.5.5.c UseTimeasaParameterinParametricEquations 164
2
.6 Matrices 165
2.6.1 SolvingaSystemofEquations 165
2.6.1.a Example 166
2.6.1.b PossibleSolutions 166
2.6.2 DeterminantofaMatrix 167
2.6.2.a 2x2Matrix 167
2.6.2.b 3x3Matrix 168
2.6.2.c SwitchRowsorColumns 170
2.6.2.d MultiplesofRows/Columns 170
2.6.3 Cramer’sRule 171
2.6.4 OperationswithMatrices 172
2.6.4.a IdentityMatrices 174
2.6.4.b InverseMatrices 175
8 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
2.7 PartialFractionDecomposition 177
2.7.1 Case1 177
2.7.2 Case2 178
2.7.3 Case3 178
2.7.4 Case4 178
2.7.4.a Example(Case1andCase2) 179
2
.8 MyNotesforPrecalculus 180
Section3:C
alculusI 183
3.0 SummarySheet 183
3
.1 Limits 189
3.1.1 LimitLaws 190
3.1.2 DirectSubstitutionProperty 190
3.1.3 TheSqueezeTheorem 191
3.1.4 ContinuousFunctions 191
3.1.5 ContinuityTheorems 192
3.1.6 CompositeFunctionTheorem 192
3.1.7 CompositesofContinuousFunctionsTheorem 193
3.1.8 TheIntermediateValueTheorem 193
3.1.9 “Intuitive”DefinitionofaLimitatInfinity 193
3.1.10 LimitsofRationalNumbersTheorem 194
3
.2 Derivatives 194
3.2.1 DerivativesatthePoint(a,f(a)) 195
3.2.2 TheDerivativeofaFunction 195
3.2.3 Differentiability 195
3.2.3.a Theorem 196
3.2.3.b AFunctionisNotDifferentiableattheFollowing 196
TableofContents
3.2.4 HigherOrderDerivatives 197
3.2.5 BasicDerivativeFormulas 197
3.2.6 D
erivativesofTrigonometricIdentities 198
3.2.6.a Theorem 198
3.2.7 TheChainRule 198
3.2.8 TheDerivativeofanExponentialFunction 199
3.2.9 ImplicitDifferentiation 199
3.2.9.a Example 200
3.2.10 DerivativesofLogarithmicFunctions 201
3.2.10.a Proof 201
3.2.10.b PropertiesofLogarithms 202
3.2.11 StepsinLogarithmicDifferentiation 202
3.2.12 ExponentialGrowthandDecay 203
3.2.12.a P
opulationGrowth 204
3.2.12.b RadioactiveDecay 204
3.2.12.c Newton’sLawofCooling 205
3.2.13 RelatedRates 205
3.2.13.a Example 206
3.2.14 LinearApproximations 207
3.2.15 D
ifferentials 208
3.2.16 MinimumsandMaximums 209
3.2.17 ExtremeValueTheorem(EVT) 209
3.2.18 Fermat’sTheorem 210
3.2.19 TheClosedIntervalMethod 210
3.2.20 Rolle’sTheorem 211
3.2.21 MeanValueTheorem 212
3.2.22 Corollary 213
10 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
3.2.23 HowDerivativesAffecttheGraph 213
3.2.23.a Increasing/DecreasingTest 213
3.2.23.b TheFirstDerivativeTest 213
3.2.23.c Concavity 214
3.2.23.d ConcavityTest 215
3.2.23.e InflectionPoint 215
3.2.23.f TheSecondDerivativeTest 215
3.2.24 IndeterminateForms 215
3.2.25 L’Hospital’sRule 216
3.2.25.a IndeterminateProducts 217
3.2.25.b IndeterminateDifference 217
3.2.25.c IndeterminatePowers 218
3.2.26 GraphSketching 219
3.2.27 Optimization 219
3.2.27.a Example 220
3
.3 Integrals 222
3.3.1 Antiderivatives 222
3.3.1.a PowerRuleandAntiderivatives 222
3.3.1.b FunctionsandTheirParticularAntiderivatives 222
3.3.2 ParticleMotion 224
3.3.3 SigmaNotation 224
3.3.3.a Theorem 225
3.3.3.b Theorem 225
3.3.4 DefiniteIntegrals 226
3.3.4.a NegativeIntegrals 227
3.3.4.b Theorem(JumpDiscontinuities) 227
3.3.4.c Theorem 228
3.3.4.d MidpointRule 228
3.3.4.e PropertiesofaDefiniteIntegral 228
3.3.4.f ComparisonProperties 229
TableofContents
3.3.5 TheFundamentalTheoremofCalculus 230
3.3.5.a PartOne 230
3.3.5.b PartTwo 231
3.3.5.c Notation 231
3.3.5.d Composite 231
3.3.6 IndefiniteIntegrals 232
3.3.6.a CommonIndefiniteIntegrals 233
3.3.7 TheSubstitutionRule(IndefiniteIntegrals) 234
3.3.7.a Example 234
3.3.8 TheSubstitutionRule(DefiniteIntegrals) 236
3.3.9 IntegralsofSymmetricFunctions 236
3
.4 MyNotesForCalculusI 238
Section4-CalculusII 241
4.0 SummarySheet 241
4
.1 ApplicationsofIntegration 253
4.1.1 AreaBetweenCurves 253
4.1.2 AverageValueofaFunction 254
4.1.3 ArcLength 254
4.1.4 y-AxisIntegration 255
4.1.4.a GraphingaComplicatedFunctionofy 255
4.1.4.b AreaBetweentheGraphofx=f(y)andthey-Axis 255
4.1.4.c FindingtheAreaBetweenTwoCurves 256
4.1.5 Volume 256
4.1.5.a MathematicalDefinitionofVolume 256
4.1.5.b Example 257
12 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
4.1.6 VolumesofRevolution 258
4.1.6.a Disk 259
4.1.6.b Washer 260
4.1.6.c CylindricalShells 261
4.1.7 Work 261
4.1.7.a UnitsforWorkWordProblems 262
4.1.7.b ChangingForce 262
4.1.7.c Hooke’sLaw 263
4.1.7.d CableProblems 263
4.1.7.e TankProblems 263
4
.2 TechniquesofIntegration 264
4.2.1 IntegrationbyParts 264
4.2.1.a Example 265
4.2.1.b HowtoChooseu 266
4.2.2 TrigonometricIntegrals 266
4.2.2.a ImportantIdentities 266
4.2.2.b S
trategies/Guidelines 267
4.2.3 TrigonometricSubstitution 269
4.2.3.a Example 270
4.2.3.b DefiniteIntegrals 272
4.2.4 IntegrationbyPartialFractions 272
4.2.4.a Example 273
4.2.4.b Trick1-RationalizingSubstitution 274
4.2.4.c Trick2-CompletingtheSquare 275
4.2.5 ImproperIntegrals 276
4.2.5.a TypeI:UnboundedIntegrals 276
4.2.5.b TypeII:DiscontinuousIntegrand 277
4.2.5.c ImportantRule 277
4.2.5.d ComparisonTestforImproperIntegrals 278
TableofContents
4.3 SequencesandSeries 278
4.3.1 Sequences 278
4.3.1.a RecurrenceRelation 279
4.3.1.b ArithmeticSequence 279
4.3.1.c GeometricSequence 280
4.3.1.d LimitsofSequences 281
4.3.1.e Vocabulary 282
4.3.2 Series 283
4.3.2.a Notation 284
4.3.2.b E
stimatingConvergence 285
4.3.2.c DeterminingDivergence/ConvergencewithPartialSums 285
4.3.2.d TestforDivergence(nthTermTest) 286
4.3.2.e HarmonicSeries 287
4.3.2.f GeometricSeries 288
4.3.2.g SeriesFacts 289
4.3.2.h TelescopingSeries 290
4.3.3 IntegralTest 291
4.3.3.a Example 293
4.3.3.b p-Series 293
4.3.3.c U
singtheIntegralTesttoEstimatetheSum 294
4.3.4 ComparisonTests 295
4.3.4.a DirectComparisonTest 295
4.3.4.b LimitComparisonTest 297
4.3.5 AlternatingSeriesTest 298
4.3.5.a EstimatetheSumofanAlternatingSeries 299
4.3.6 RatioandRootTests 299
4.3.6.a Conditionally/AbsolutelyConvergent 299
4.3.6.b RatioTest 300
4.3.6.c R
ootTest 301
14 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
4.4 PowerSeries 302
4.4.1 Theorem 303
4.4.1.a Example 304
4.4.2 RepresentationofFunctionsbyPowerSeries 305
4.4.2.a Example 305
4.4.2.b IntegralsandDerivatives 306
4.4.3 TaylorSeries 307
4.4.3.a Example 308
4.4.3.b Taylor’sRemainderTheorem 309
4.4.3.c ImportantTaylorSeries 310
4.4.3.d OperationswithTaylorSeries 311
4
.5 DifferentialEquations 311
4.5.1 CheckingSolutions 312
4.5.2 Slope/DirectionFields 313
4.5.2.a Example 313
4.5.3 Euler’sMethod 314
4.5.4 SeparableDifferentialEquations 315
4.5.4.a Method1 316
4.5.4.b Method2 317
4.5.4.c MixingProblems 318
4
.6 CalculuswithParametricEquationsandPolarCoordinates 319
4.6.1 CalculuswithParametricCurves 319
4.6.1.a SlopeandConcavity 319
4.6.1.b Areas 321
4.6.1.c ArcLength 322
4.6.2 TangentsandAreaswithPolarCurves 322
4.6.2.a D
erivativeswithaPolarCurve 323
4.6.2.b AreaofaPolarCurve 323
4
.7 MyNotesforCalculusII 325
TableOfContents
Section5-CalculusIII 327
5.0 S
ummarySheet 327
5
.1 VectorsinSpace 341
5.1.1 VectorsinthePlane 341
5.1.1.a PropertiesofVectorOperations 342
5.1.2 VectorsinThreeDimensions 343
5.1.2.a PlottingPoints 343
5.1.2.b TheCoordinatePlanes 344
5.1.2.c DistanceFormula(3D) 344
5.1.2.d EquationsofSurfaces(3D) 345
5.1.2.e Spheres 345
5.1.2.f 3DVectors 346
5.1.2.g PropertiesofVectorsinSpace 347
5.1.3 DotProduct 347
5.1.3.a PropertiesoftheDotProduct 348
5.1.3.b OrthogonalVectors 349
5.1.3.c VectorProjection/Component 349
5.1.4 CrossProduct 350
5.1.4.a PropertiesoftheCrossProduct 351
5.1.5 EquationsofLinesandPlanesinSpace 353
5.1.5.a ParametricCurves 353
5.1.5.b EquationofaPlane 354
16 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
5.1.6 QuadricSurfaces 356
5.1.6.a Cylinders 356
5.1.6.b Traces/CrossSections 357
5.1.6.c Ellipsoid 357
5.1.6.d Paraboloid 358
5.1.6.e HyperboloidofOneSheet 358
5.1.6.f HyperboloidofTwoSheets 359
5.1.6.g EllipticCone 360
5.1.6.h HyperbolicParaboloid 361
5
.2 DifferentiationofFunctionsofSeveralVariables 361
5.2.1 FunctionsofSeveralVariables 361
5.2.1.a LevelCurves 362
5.2.1.b ThreeVariableFunctions 362
5.2.1.c LevelSurfaces 362
5.2.2 LimitsandContinuity 363
5.2.2.a Epsilon/DeltaDefinitionofaLimit(1D) 363
5.2.2.b LimitswithTwoorMoreVariables 363
5.2.2.c LimitLaws 364
5.2.3 PartialDerivatives 365
5.2.3.a AlternativeNotations 365
5.2.3.b CalculatingPartialDerivatives 366
5.2.3.c PartialDerivativeswithThreeorMoreVariables 367
5.2.3.d HigherOrderPartialDerivatives 367
5.2.3.e Clairaut’sTheorem 368
5.2.4 TangentPlanesandLinearApproximations 368
5.2.4.a TangentPlanes 368
5.2.4.b LinearApproximations 369
5.2.4.c Differentials 370
5.2.4.d HelpfulFactwithNormalVectors 370
TableofContents
5.2.5 ChainRule 371
5.2.5.a ImplicitDifferentiation 373
5.2.6 DirectionalDerivativesandtheGradient 374
5.2.6.a GradientVector 375
5.2.6.b Theorem 375
5.2.6.c PropertiesoftheGradient 376
5.2.6.d LevelCurveTheorem 376
5.2.6.e H
igherDimensionalGradients 377
5.2.7 Maxima/MinimaProblems 377
5.2.7.a SecondDerivativeTest 378
5.2.8 LagrangeMultipliers 379
5.2.8.a NoteonExtrema 381
5
.3 DoubleandTripleIntegrals 381
5.3.1 DoubleIntegralsoverRectangularRegions 381
5.3.1.a Fubini’sTheoremandIteratedIntegrals 382
5.3.1.b PropertiesofDoubleIntegrals 384
5.3.2 DoubleIntegralsoverGeneralRegions 385
5.3.3 DoubleIntegralsinPolarCoordinates 387
5.3.4 TripleIntegrals 389
5.3.4.a TripleIntegralsoveraGeneralBoundedRegion 389
5.3.4.b AverageValueofaFunctionofThreeVariables 391
5.3.5 TripleIntegralsandCylindrical/SphericalCoordinates 392
5.3.5.a CylindricalCoordinates 392
5.3.5.b SphericalCoordinates 393
5.3.6 CentersofMass 396
5.3.6.a OneDimensional 396
5.3.6.b TwoDimensional 397
5.3.6.c ThreeDimensional 398
18 TableofContents-M athQ RH
TableofContents
5.4 VectorCalculus 399
5.4.1 VectorFields 399
5.4.1.a Notation 399
5.4.1.b UnitVectorField 400
5.4.1.c GradientVectorField 401
5.4.2 LineIntegrals 401
5.4.2.a ScalarLineIntegral 401
5.4.2.b ArcLength 403
5.4.2.c VectorLineIntegrals-Work 403
5.4.2.d VectorLineIntegrals-Flux 406
5.4.2.e Tip:ParameterizingaLineSegmentin3D 407
5.4.3 ConservativeVectorFields 407
5.4.3.a Simple/ClosedCurves 407
5.4.3.b C
onservativeFieldTheorem 408
5.4.3.c FundamentalTheoremofLineIntegrals 408
5.4.3.d Theorem 409
5.4.3.e FindingPotentialFunctions 409
5.4.4 Green’sTheorem 410
5.4.4.a ConnectivityofRegions 410
5.4.4.b PiecewiseSmooth 411
5.4.4.c Green’sTheorem 411
5.4.5 Divergence 414
5.4.6 Curl 416
5.4.7 ParametricSurfaces 417
5.4.8 SurfaceIntegrals 418
5.4.8.a SurfaceArea 418
5.4.8.b ScalarSurfaceIntegrals 420
5.4.8.c OrientationofaSurface 421
5.4.8.d SurfaceIntegralinaVectorField 421
TableofContents
5.4.9 Stokes’Theorem 423
5.4.9.a Example 424
5.4.10 DivergenceTheorem 426
5.4.10.a Example 427
5
.5 MyNotesForCalculusIII 428
20 TableofContents-M athQ RH
“Reservey ourrighttothink,fore ventothinkwronglyisb etterthann ot
tothinka ta ll”
-HypatiaofAlexandria
Section0-Introduction
0.0 Introduction
Mathematics:manypeoplehearthiswordandinternallygroan. Thismakessense!
Everyonehasbeentoldatleastonceintheirlifethatmathishard,evenfromtheirown
teachers. WhenIwasineighthgrade,oneofthefirstthingsmyteachertolduswashow
expectedtounderstandconceptsthateventheirteacherthoughtwasdifficult?
AlthoughIloveitnow,Iwasnotalwaysmath’sbiggestfan. Oneofmyfirstmemoriesof
mathiswhenIwasaroundthreeyearsoldandlearninghowtocount. Everythingwasfine
untilIhitonenumber. Iwassittingwithmydadandgettingincreasinglyangryathim,asI
waspositivethathewaswrongabout80comingafter79. Afterhetriedtoconvinceme
manytimesthathedid,infact,knowhowtocount,IstompedofftogowatchTVwithmy
momandsister. Let’ssaythatcountingfrom79to80wasnotmystrongsuitatthattime.
WhenIgotalittleolderIneededtotaketheACTtestinordertoapplyforaschoolthatI
dadjokedthatitmaybe“tootoughforagirltolearnonherown.” Withmyspitegivingme
anevenbiggermotivation,Itaughtmyselfenoughtrigonometrytogetagoodscore,which
helpedtogetmeacceptedintotheschoolthatIwanted.
Mathematicsrequiresustoputinworkandeffort. Withthenumberoftoolsthatare
availabletoeveryone,anyonecandowellatmathematics! Maybemyteacherwhosaid
thatmathwashardwasright. Mathematicscanbechallenginganditcanwrapyourbrain
puzzleoragametoenjoy! Itisasmuchanartasitisascience.
WhileImaylovemathnow,Iknowthatmanypeopledon’t. WhenIwasamathtutor,Isaw
somanysmartkidsstrugglewithmathwhentheydidn’tneedto. It’shardtoremember
everythingthatwascoveredinpreviousmathclasses! Thisbookisacompilationofallthe
notesItook,asIfoundmyselffrequentlyreferringbacktothem. Myhopewiththisbookis
alotgoingoninmylifeandlookfortoolsallthetimetomakegettinggoodgradesin
schooleasier. Thisbookismywayofhelpingyousavetimeandfindsuccessinyourmath
classesbycondensingwhatI’vefoundusefulintooneplace.
Disclaimer:thisisnotatextbook!
MathQRHismeanttobeusedasacomplementarytooltoyourassignedtextbooks. Ihave
summarizedthemostimportantaspectsofeachclasssothatitiseasytoreviewthingsyou
mayhaveforgotten(orjumpaheadforfun!). Usethisbookasawaytoguideyournotes,
quicklyfindimportantformulas/concepts,andstudyforupcomingtests. Writeinthis
book! IleftroomforyournotesinMathQRH.
Ididmybesttobeaccurate,ofcourse,butIwrotethisbookfrommynotes. Ifyoufind
errorsorhavenotesofyourownthatyouthinkwillbenefitothers,pleasesharethemat
MathQRH.com! Asfortheimagesinthisbook,dorefertothechapter“ReasoningWell
fromPoorlyDrawnFigures”inJordanEllenberg’sbookS
hape.
Iwishyougreatsuccesswithyourjourneyinmathematics!
0.1 TipsandResources
Noneofthesetipsaresupergroundbreaking;you’velikelyheardmostofthem! ButIthink
itisimportanttoreiteratethemhere,astheyreallydohelpyoutobesuccessfulinyour
classes. Thereisno“trick”tomathclassesandnooneisinherentlygoodatmath,itjust
takeswork.
Mybiggesttipforbeingsuccessfulinamathclassisverybasic:takegoodnotes. “Good
notes”donothavetomeanwritingwithtendifferentpensandpencilsinperfect
handwriting. WhileIloveusingfuncoloredpensformyonlinelectures,it’snotreally
feasibleforinpersonclasses. Allyouneedispaper(Ipreferloosegraphpaperinabinder)
andatleastonepencilwithaneraser. “Goodnotes”isdifferentforeveryonebutallgood
notesinclude(1)handwritingy oucanreadand(2)thestrategiesandexamplesyour
teachergivesyou.
ThisbookhasalreadyprovidedmanyofthenotesthatyouwillneedinAlgebraII,
Precalculus,andCalculusI,IIandIII. Fillupyourcopyofthisbookwithyournotesandit
willserveyouinuppermathematicsaswellasscienceandengineeringclasses!
Stayingorganizedissuperimportantforgettingagoodgradein(andgettingsomething
outof)yourmathclasses. Igetthatitiseasiersaidthandone,butit'sallaboutfinding
what’srightforyou. WhileIlovebindersandweeklyto-dolistsonmylaptop,somepeople
prefertouseaphysicaloronlineplanner. Experimentandfindoutwhatworksbestfor
you.
Mathisaveryinvolvedsubjectthatcannotbelearnedinjustacouplehoursaweekina
lecture. Thismeansthattotrulylearnmathyouwillneedtoputintimeoutsideofclass.
I’msureyou’vebeennaggedbyteachersandparentsaliketodoyourhomework,butthisis
forgoodreason. Evenifyouneedtolookupanansweroruseacalculatortosolvea
problem,justputtingintheextratimecanmakeahugedifference.
Ifyoucompletelyforgethowtodoaproblemwhiletakingatest,tryanything,evenifyou
thinkit’srightandexplainyourreasoningordefinewhatyouused. Evenforquestionsyou
areprettysureon,itishelpfultoaddnotestoyourteacherso,ifyougetitwrong,youcan
maybekeepsomepoints.
Thismayseemcounterintuitive,butyoudon’tnecessarilyneedtounderstandeverylittle
detailofmath. Sometimesyoujustneedtoknowthataformulaworks,beabletouseit,
andmoveon.
HereisalistofafewgreatresourcesthatIrecommend:
● Symbolab
○ Thisismyfavoriteonlinecalculator. Itcanhandlealmostanymathproblem.
● GeoGebra
○ GeoGebraisoneoftheonlygraphingcalculatorsthatcanactuallyplotin
both2Dand3D. Ithasalotofusefulfunctionsthatarehelpfulformore
complexgraphs. However,itcantakesometimetogetusedtotheformat
thatitusesforfunctions.
○ IactuallyusedthiswebsitetocreatemostoftheCalculusIIIimages.
● Desmos
○ Desmosisamoreuser-friendlyversionofGeoGebra. Itdoesn’thavethe
abilitytodo3Dgraphing,butifyouarelookingtomake2Dgraphs,thisisthe
bestwebsitetouse.
● KhanAcademy
○ KhanAcademyprovidesentirecourses(includinganamazingSATprep
program)withvideoexplanationsforfree.
● OpenStax
○ OpenStaxprovidescompletelyfreetextbooksforeverymathclass
mentionedinthisbook. Whileyoumayalreadyhaveatextbookforyour
class,sometimesitcanbehelpfultoseeconceptsdescribedinacouple
differentways.
● MatrixCalc.org
○ ThisisoneofthebestmatrixcalculatorsI’veused.
● WolframAlpha
○ Personally,I’mnotabigfanofWolframAlpha(Ithinktheuserinterfaceis
ugly),butitisabletosolvemostproblems.
Ifyouarelookingforsomemorefunmathbooks,IhighlyrecommendInfinitePowersby
StevenStrogatzandS
hapebyJordanEllenberg. Thesebooksaresuperaccessibleand
allowyoutoseehowimportantmathisoutsideofaclassroom.
Don’tletanyonetellyouthatyoushouldnotexpectanAinyourclasses. Itmightnotbe
easyanditmighttakesomework,butyoucandoit;Ibelieveinyou!
Mathematicsisa toolforreasoning.”
-RichardFeynman
0.2 Mynotes,resourcesandtips:
0.2 Mynotes,resourcesandtips:(con’t)
Section1-AlgebraII
1.0 SummarySheet
GeneralGraphing
Symmetry:
● y axissymmetry:f (x) = f (− x )
○ thisisthetestforevenfunctions
● originsymmetry:f (x) = − f (− x )
○ thisisthetestforoddfunctions
CompletingtheSquare:a x 2 + a y 2 + b x + c y + d = 0 ⇒ (x + b 2
2a ) + (y + 2ac )2 = − d
a + ( 2ab )2 + ( 2ac )2
f (x + h) − f (x)
DifferenceQuotient: DQ = h
FunctionBasics
Afunctionmustpasstheverticallinetest:everyx hasoney .
Thedomainisallofthepossibleinputvalues,andtherangeisallofthepossibleoutput
values.
Extrema:
● Alocalextremaistheextremeonacertaininterval. Itmusthavepointsonboth
sidesforittobelocal.
● Anabsoluteextremaisthehighest/lowestvalueoftheentirefunction.
(note:addparentfunctionshere?)-visitwww.MathQRH.comandletusknow!
● a ,verticalstretchorcompression
● b ,reciprocalofthehorizontalstretchorcompression
● h ,horizontalshift
● k ,verticalshift
LinearDefinition:constantchangeovertime
functionhas.
● b 2 − 4 ac < 0 ,nosolutions
● b 2 − 4 ac = 0 ,onesolution
● b 2 − 4 ac > 0 ,twosolutions
PolynomialandRationalFunctions
smoothandcontinuous.
EndBehavior:
● evenexponent,positivea
○ asx → ∞ , y → ∞ ,asx → − ∞ , y → ∞
● evenexponent,negativea
○ asx → ∞ , y → − ∞ ,asx → − ∞ , y → − ∞
● oddexponent,positivea
○ asx → ∞ , y → ∞ ,asx → − ∞ , y → − ∞
● oddexponent,negativea
○ asx → ∞ , y → − ∞ ,asx → − ∞ , y → ∞
Multiplicityofaroot(x intercept)determineshowthegraphbehaves. Ifitisodd,thegraph
Arationalfunctionhasatleastafirstdegreepolynomialinthedenominatorandtakesthe
p(x)
formr(x) = q(x)
.
Tographarationalfunction:
1. Factorbothpolynomials.
verticalasymptoteatthesamex value.
areverticalasymptotes. Alsonotethemultiplicityoftheseasymptotes,asthese
determineendbehavior.
4. Findthex valuesthatmakethenumeratorequaltozero. Thesearethex
interceptsofthefunction.
5. Pluginzeroforx tofindthey interceptofthefunction,ifoneexists.
6. Ifthenumeratorpolynomialofthefunctionisonedegreehigherthanthe
denominatorpolynomial,thenusepolynomialdivisiontofindtheslantasymptote.
7. “Plugin”infinityforx tofindifthereareanyhorizontalasymptotes.
a. Ifthefunctionhasaslantasymptote,itwillnothaveahorizontalasymptote.
8. Onceyouhavenotedallimportantinformation,plotallpointsand/orasymptotes
andsketchinthegraph.
SumandDifferenceofCubes:
a 3 + b 3 = (a + b )(a 2 − a b + b 2 )
a 3 − b 3 = (a − b )(a 2 + a b + b 2 )
FactorTheorem:iff (c) = 0 ,(x − c ) isafactorofthepolynomialf (x) .
Descartes’RuleofSigns:
● ifn isequaltothenumberofsignchangesinf (x) ,thefunctionhasn orn − 2 ...
positivezeros
● ifn isequaltothenumberofsignchangesinf (− x ) ,thefunctionhasn orn − 2 ...
negativezeros
RationalZerosTheorem:forf (x) = a n x n + a n−1 x n−1 + ... + a 0 ,therationalzerostaketheform
p
± q
,wherep isafactorofa 0 andq isafactorofa n .
ImaginaryandComplexNumbers
Acomplexnumberisacombinationofrealandimaginarynumbersintheforma + b i ,
CompositeFunctions
CompositeFunction:f (g(x)) = f ° g (x) ,plugsafunctionintoanother
ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions
Anexponentialfunctionhastheformf (x) = a x .
● Transformations:f (x) = c · − (a −x − h ) + k
○ c isaconstantmultiplier
○ h isthehorizontalshift
○ k istheverticalshift
f(x + 1)
● CommonQuotient:a = f(x)
Euler’sNumber= e ≈ 2 .71828
Logarithms:ifb y = x ,theny = log b x
LogarithmLaws:
1. log a 1 = x ⇒ x = 0
2. log a = x ⇒ x = 1
a
3. alog a M = x⇒ M =x
4. log a = x ⇒ x = r
a
r
6. log a ( M
N
) = log a M − log a N
7. log a M r = r · log a M
r
8. eln a = ar .
FinancialFormulas
SimpleInterest:I = P rt
CompoundInterest:A = P · (1 + nr )nt
ContinuousCompounding:A = P e rt
EffectiveRateofInterest:r e = (1 + nr )n − 1 ,r e = e r − 1
GrowthandDecay
Addyourownnotesbelow.Sharethem!QRHMath.com
1.1 GraphingBasics
1.1.1 I ntercepts
anintercept,plugzerointotheothervariableandsolve. Forexample,ifyou’retryingto
findthey interceptofafunction,pluginzeroforx andsimplify.
● Ifyouaretryingtofindtheinterceptofavariablethatissquared,besuretonote
thatthenumbercouldbepositiveornegative. Sincesquaringanumbermakesit
positive,wecannotbesurethattheoriginalnumberispositive.
○ Forexample,thex interceptsofy = x 2 − 4 are− 2 and2 . Thisisbecause
and2 satisfythatequation.
1.1.2 S
ymmetry
Therearethreetypesofsymmetry:
● x -axissymmetry
● y -axissymmetry
● originsymmetry
○ Agraphhassymmetryabouttheoriginwhenyoucanpluginboth− y and
○ Ifyouspinthegraph1 80 ° ,itwilllandonitself,asitisreflectedacrossboth
1.1.3 C
ircles
Acircleisasetofpointsthatareallequidistantfromonepoint,thecenter. Therearetwo
formsofacircleequation:
andr istheradius.
coefficientandsign.
1
.1.3.a CompletingtheSquare
Asnoted,standardformistheformusedforgraphing. So,whengivenageneralform
equation,youmustcompletethesquare.
a x2 + a y 2 + b x + cy + d = 0
Dividebothsidesbya .
x 2 + y 2 + ab x + ac y + d
a =0
Movetheconstanttotheotherside.
x 2 + y 2 + ab x + ac y = − d
a
Dividetheconstantcoefficientsbytwoandsquare,thenaddtobothsides.
x 2 + ab x + ( 2ab )2 + y 2 + ac y + ( 2ac )2 = − d
a + ( 2ab )2 + ( 2ac )2
Then,factorbothquadratics.
b 2
(x + 2a ) + (y + 2ac )2 = − d
a + ( 2ab )2 + ( 2ac )2
1.1.4 D
ifferenceQuotient
Thedifferencequotientisusedtofindtheslopeofacurveusingatangentline.
f(x + h) − f(x)
Theformulaforthedifferencequotientis:D Q = h
. Ifyoupluginaformula,like
f (x) = − 3 x 4 ,you’llgetaformulathatistheslopeofthatspecificfunction.
1.2 FunctionsandTheirGraphs
1.2.1 F
unctionDefinition
Asetofpointscanbecalledarelation. Thiscanbeafewpoints,oraninfinitenumberof
cannotproducemorethanoney . Theverticallinetestcanbeusedtodetermineifagraph
isafunction;ifalinecanbedrawnthatcrossesthegraphmorethanonce,it’snota
function.
1.2.2 D
omaina
ndR
ange
afunctionisthesetofallpossibley coordinatesoroutputvalues.
valueswherethefunctionisundefinedorimaginary,lookingatendbehavior(positiveor
negativeinfinity),ifthereareanygapsinthegraphofthefunction,etc.
1.2.2.a Notation
● IntervalNotation:thisnotationshowsallofthenumbersinadomain,ratherthan
focusingontheexceptions.
○ Use( ) iftheendpointisnotincluded
■ theseareusedwheneverinfinityisanendpoint
○ Use[ ] iftheendpointisincluded
○ ‘⋃ ’isusedtoshowaunionofintervals
Example:
to4 ,sincetheminimumisequalto4 .
Therefore,thedomainisD = {x ∈ R} or (− ∞, ∞) andtherangeis
R = {y ∈ R | y ≥ 4} or [− 4, ∞).
1.2.3 C
ategoriesandC
haracteristicsofF
unctions
1.2.3.a OddorEven
Afunctionise
venw
henithassymmetryaboutthey -axis. Thismeansthatf (x) = f (− x ) .
Afunctioniso
ddifithassymmetryabouttheorigin. Thismeansthatf (− x ) = − f (x) .
Itisimportanttonotethattheexponentalonedoesnotsignifythatafunctionisevenor
function.
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