Responsible Leadership and Ethical

Decision Making 1st Edition Sunil Savur

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/responsible-leadership-and-ethical-decision-making-1
st-edition-sunil-savur/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Ethical Decision Making Cases in Organization and

Leadership 1st Edition Patricia A. Mitchell

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ethical-decision-making-cases-in-
organization-and-leadership-1st-edition-patricia-a-mitchell/

Ethical Leadership and the Community College Paradigms

Decision Making and Praxis 1st Edition J Luke Wood
Carlos Nevarez

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ethical-leadership-and-the-
community-college-paradigms-decision-making-and-praxis-1st-
edition-j-luke-wood-carlos-nevarez/

Leadership and ethical responsibility the three aspects

of every decision Thomas Schirrmacher

https://ebookmeta.com/product/leadership-and-ethical-
responsibility-the-three-aspects-of-every-decision-thomas-
schirrmacher/

Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making & Cases 12th

Edition O. C. Ferrell

https://ebookmeta.com/product/business-ethics-ethical-decision-
making-cases-12th-edition-o-c-ferrell/
Ethical Decision Making in Clinical Neuropsychology 2nd
Edition Shane S. Bush

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ethical-decision-making-in-
clinical-neuropsychology-2nd-edition-shane-s-bush/

Responsible AI Implementing Ethical and Unbiased

Algorithms 1st Edition Sray Agarwal

https://ebookmeta.com/product/responsible-ai-implementing-
ethical-and-unbiased-algorithms-1st-edition-sray-agarwal/

Business Ethics Ethical Decision Making and Cases 13th

ed O C Ferrell John Fraedrich Linda Ferrell

https://ebookmeta.com/product/business-ethics-ethical-decision-
making-and-cases-13th-ed-o-c-ferrell-john-fraedrich-linda-
ferrell/

Ethical Decision-Making in Management. Perspectives of

the Philosopher, the Sociologist and the Manager 1st
Edition Matej Draš■ek

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ethical-decision-making-in-
management-perspectives-of-the-philosopher-the-sociologist-and-
the-manager-1st-edition-matej-drascek/

Scientific Models and Decision Making 1st Edition Eric

Winsberg

https://ebookmeta.com/product/scientific-models-and-decision-
making-1st-edition-eric-winsberg/
 RESPONSIBLE
LEADERSHIP AND
ETHICAL DECISION-
MAKING
RESEARCH IN ETHICAL ISSUES IN
ORGANIZATIONS

Series Editors: Michael Schwartz and Howard Harris

Recent Volumes:
Volume Spiritual Intelligence at Work: Meaning, Metaphor and
5: Morals – Edited by Moses L. Pava and Patrick Primeaux –
2004
Volume Crisis and Opportunity in the Professions – Edited by Moses
6: L. Pava and Patrick Primeaux – 2005
Volume Insurance Ethics for a More Ethical World – Guest Edited by
7: Patrick Flanagan, Patrick Primeaux and William Ferguson –
2007
Volume Applied Ethics: Remembering Patrick Primeaux – Edited by
8: Michael Schwartz and Howard Harris – 2012
Volume Ethics, Values and Civil Society – Edited by Michael
9: Schwartz, Howard Harris and Stephen Cohen – 2013
Volume Moral Saints and Moral Exemplars – Edited by Michael
10: Schwartz and Howard Harris – 2013
Volume The Contribution of Fiction to Organizational Ethics – Edited
11: by Michael Schwartz and Howard Harris – 2013
Volume Achieving Ethical Excellence – Edited by Michael Schwartz
12: and Howard Harris with Guest Editor Alan Tapper – 2014
Volume Conscience, Leadership and the Problem of ‘Dirty Hands’ –
13: Edited by Matthew Beard and Sandra Lynch – 2015
Volume The Ethical Contribution of Organizations to Society – Edited
14: by Michael Schwartz, Howard Harris and Debra Comer –
2015
Volume Contemporary Issues in Applied and Professional Ethics –
15: Edited by Marco Grix and Tim Dare – 2016
Volume The Contribution of Love, and Hate, to Organizational Ethics
16: – Edited by Michael Schwartz, Howard Harris and Debra R.
Comer – 2017
RESEARCH IN ETHICAL ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONS
VOLUME 17

RESPONSIBLE
LEADERSHIP AND
ETHICAL DECISION-
MAKING
EDITED BY
SUNIL SAVUR
School of Management, University of South
Australia,
Adelaide, Australia
SUKHBIR SANDHU
School of Management, University of South
Australia,
Adelaide, Australia
United Kingdom – North America – Japan
India – Malaysia – China
Emerald Publishing Limited
Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2017

Copyright © 2017 Emerald Publishing Limited

Reprints and permissions service

Contact: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any
form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without
either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying
issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright
Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst
Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald
makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application
and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-78714-416-3 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-78714-415-6 (Online)
ISBN: 978-1-78714-927-4 (Epub)

ISSN: 1529-2096 (Series)

CONTENTS

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

EDITORIAL BOARD

RESPONSIBLE LEADERSHIP AND ETHICAL

DECISION-MAKING: WHY DOES IT MATTER?

MINDFULNESS, REPERCEIVING, AND ETHICAL

DECISION MAKING: A NEUROLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
Nicola Pless, Filomena Sabatella and Thomas
Maak

ROLE OF EXEMPLARS IN ETHICAL DECISION-

MAKING IN SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES
(SMEs)
Sunil Savur

MILITARY ETHICS AND RESPONSIBLE LEADERSHIP:

THE ENDURING CONTRIBUTION OF GUILLAUME-
HENRI DUFOUR
Roderick O’Brien
EFFECTIVE USE OF REFLECTION AND RESEARCH
ACTIVITIES IN TEACHING BUSINESS ETHICS
Howard Harris and Sukhbir Sandhu

SPIRITUALITY AND ITS ROLE IN RESPONSIBLE

LEADERSHIP AND DECISION-MAKING
Lubna Asrar Siddiqi, Helen Chick and Mark
Dibben

WOULD A HIPPOCRATIC OATH OF BUSINESS

ENCOURAGE BUSINESS LEADERS TO MAKE ETHICAL
DECISIONS? A STUDY INTO WHAT BUSINESS
STUDENTS LEARN IN BUSINESS ETHICS CLASS
Sven Erlic

ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION
Stephen Kemp

THE ETHICAL AND LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES

POSED BY THE ROYAL COMMISSION’S
REVELATIONS OF SEXUAL ABUSE AT A SATYANANDA
YOGA ASHRAM IN AUSTRALIA
Josna Pankhania

ARBITRARY POWER, ARBITRARY INTERFERENCE

AND THE ABUSE OF POWER: CORRUPTION,
NATURAL RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Hugh Breakey
MIXING THE SEXES IN NEW SOUTH WALES
HOSPITALS – A 15-YEAR SAGA
Judith Kennedy and Michael Kennedy

INDEX
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Hugh Law Futures Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane,

Breakey Australia
Helen Chick Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Hobart,
Australia
Mark Dibben Tasmanian School of Business and Economics,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
Sven Erlic Anaximander Holdings Pty Ltd, Braddon, Australia
Howard School of Management, University of South Australia,
Harris Adelaide, Australia
Stephen School of Historical & Philosophical Inquiry, University
Kemp of Queensland, Birkdale, Australia
Judith Manly Non-Invasive Cardiac Laboratory, Manly,
Kennedy Australia
Michael Consultant Physician, University of New South Wales,
Kennedy Manly, Australia
Thomas School of Management, University of South Australia,
Maak Adelaide, Australia
Roderick School of Management, University of South Australia,
O’Brien Adelaide, Australia
Josna Counsellor/Psychotherapist, Sydney Australia,
Pankhania Registered Member of Australian Counselling
Association, Registered Member of British Association
for Counselling & Psychotherapy, (Accredited)
Nicola Pless School of Management, University of South Australia,
Adelaide, Australia
Filomena Department of Applied Psychology, Zurich University
Sabatella of Applied Science, Zurich, Switzerland
Sukhbir School of Management, University of South Australia,
Sandhu Adelaide, Australia
Sunil Savur School of Management, University of South Australia,
Adelaide, Australia
Lubna Asrar Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Hobart,
Siddiqi Australia
EDITORIAL BOARD

Joseph L. Badaracco, Jr.

Harvard University, USA

Ida Berger
Harvard Business School, USA

Norman Bowie
University of Minnesota, USA

M. Neil Browne
Bowling Green State University, USA

Debra R. Comer
Hofstra University New York, USA

Wesley Cragg
York University, Canada

Ron Duska
The American College, USA

Georges Enderle
University of Notre Dame, France

Edwin Epstein
University of California at Berkeley, USA
Amitai Etzioni
George Washington University, USA

William Frederick
University of Pittsburg, USA

Al Gini
Loyola University Chicago, USA

Kenneth E. Goodpaster
University of St. Thomas, USA

Ellen McCorkle Harshman

St. Louis University, USA

Laura Pincus Hartman

Boston University, USA

Daryl Koehn
DePaul University, USA

Kimball P. Marshall
Alcom State University, USA

E. Sharon Mason
Brock University, Canada

Douglas McCabe
Georgetown University, USA

Alex Michalos
University of Northern British Columbia, Canada

Barry Mitnick
University of Pittsburg, USA
Moses Pava
Yeshiva University, USA

Mark S. Schwartz
York University, Canada

Meir Tamari
Jerusalem Institute of Technology

Steven Wartick
University of Northern Iowa, USA
RESPONSIBLE LEADERSHIP AND
ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING: WHY
DOES IT MATTER?

Balancing economic, environmental, social and ethical responsibilities

presents one of the most significant challenges confronting
businesses and societies today. Driven by stakeholder pressures 95
per cent of the CEOs surveyed by KPMG now consider sustainability
and ethics as a key strategic area (KPMG, 2013). Not surprisingly,
sustainability and ethical challenges are increasingly being labelled
as ‘grand challenges’ of our times (Howard-Grenville, Buckle,
Hoskins, & George, 2014). Unfortunately, traditional ‘academic
research is not moving far enough, fast enough’ in addressing these
grand challenges (Bansal, Good, & Sharma, 2016, p. 3).
Responsible leadership is critical to address the sustainability and
ethical challenges confronting organisations and societies (Meyer &
Kirby, 2012). The three theatres of corporate social responsibility
proposed by Rangan, Chase, and Karim (2015) – focusing on (1)
philanthropic activities; (2) improving operational effectiveness and
(3) transforming the business model – all call for responsible
leadership at the helm of organisations, societies and governments.
Similarly, research by Sandhu, Smallman, Ozanne, and Cullen (2012)
highlights that responsible leadership is critical for organisations to
achieve deep and meaningful engagement with sustainability. In
their research organisations which demonstrated a higher level of
environmental and social responsiveness had a long history of
responsible and ethical leadership.
 Not surprisingly then Kanter (2010) sends out an unambiguous
message to managers to be prepared to lead responsibly and
ethically:
Are you ready for the new era of end-to-end responsibility? It’s no longer good
enough to do your job well, satisfy customers, and generate financial returns. In
the future you will be held accountable for the supplies you use and where they
came from, what your customers do with their purchase and whether it improves
their lives, and the costs and benefits to the countries and communities touched
along the way. (p. 42)

In this special issue, we have 10 carefully selected papers. The

concepts and ideas in these papers were presented by the authors
at the recently held conference of the Australian Association of
Applied and Professional Ethics (AAPAE) in June 2016 at the
University of South Australia in Adelaide, South Australia. Each of
them explores responsible leadership and ethical decision-making
through distinct lenses and across multiple levels. The first three
papers in the special issue set the scene; they collectively define and
extend the field of responsible leadership and ethical decision-
making. The paper by Pless, Sabatella and Maak (Mindfulness,
Reperceiving and Ethical Decision Making: A Neurological
Perspective) explores how the practice of mindfulness can have
significant positive effects on ethical decision-making in
organisations. They provide an overview of mindfulness research in
ethical decision-making and explore areas in which neuroscience
research may inform business ethics. While they caution that
mindfulness alone is not sufficient for ethical decision-making, their
paper extends the field through bringing together neuroscience and
mindfulness in understanding ethical decision-making.
The paper by Savur (Role of Exemplars in Ethical Decision-
Making in Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)) extends the
examination of responsible leadership and ethical decision-making
through focusing on the role of exemplars in ethical decision-making
for managers in small and medium enterprises (SMEs). This paper
employs an empirical examination (semi-structured interviews) with
owners and senior managers of SMEs in Australia. Savur concludes
that while the managers in SMEs are more likely to use individual
exemplars, they also rely on multiple exemplars to learn moral
behaviours, develop their ethical decision-making skills and to get
inspired.
The paper by O’Brien (Military Ethics and Responsible Leadership:
The Enduring Contribution of Guillaume-Henri Dufour) turns the
attention on responsible leadership and ethics in the military. The
paper uses the case study of Guillaume-Henri Dufour (a much
decorated Soldier serving in Switzerland) to discuss the growing
importance of military ethics and responsible leadership. In
particular, two specific occasions, the Sonderbund war and the
agreement for the Geneva Convention are explored to enable
systematic education of military leaders to lead responsibly and
ethically.
The second set of topics explored in this special issue consists of
four articles that collectively focus on the role of academic
institutions in promoting responsible leadership and ethical decision-
making. The paper by Harris and Sandhu (Effective Use of Reflection
and Research Activities in Teaching Business Ethics) discusses how
reflection and research activities can be used as a transformative
experience to teach business ethics. They leverage their experience
of developing and teaching ‘Business and Society’, a compulsory
first-year subject for all undergraduate students in an Australian
business school, to discuss the pedagogical mechanisms through
which they developed ethical decision-making skills of the students.
The paper by Siddiqi, Chick and Dibben (Spirituality and Its Role
in Responsible Leadership and Decision-Making) discusses how
organisations are now looking to employ well-rounded professionals
who can lead with ‘both their heart and soul’. Siddiqi explores how
spirituality can be incorporated within the higher education sector.
Her results indicate a support for the inclusion of spirituality, but also
caution that this inclusion demands careful programme design.
The next paper by Erlic (Would a Hippocratic Oath of Business
Encourage Business Leaders to Make Ethical Decisions? A Study into
What Business Students Learn in Business Ethics Class) empirically
investigates what future business leaders learn in business school
ethics classes. Erlic surveyed 128 academics who teach ethics to
business students in 29 Australian universities. The study found that
there are no uniform universal standards regarding what is taught in
business ethics courses. The paper argues for the establishment of a
universal standard in business ethics education to ensure that future
leaders are equipped for responsible and ethical decision-making.
The next paper in this set is by Kemp (Ethical Decision-Making in
Early Childhood Education). This paper examines the question of
parents’ rights to make choices regarding the education and
upbringing of their children. Kemp argues that parents have rights to
make choices about the care and education of the children. But just
having the freedom to choose from alternative schooling or caring
options may not be enough. Kemp calls for responsible leadership
and ethical decision-making by the state and early childhood
education service providers and stresses on the need for them to
engage in consultation with the parents, so that a participative
approach can be used to determine the nature and content of
educational and development programmes for children.
The last set of concerns explored in this special issue consist of
three papers that explore the ‘dark-side’ and the negative
consequences when individuals, organisations and societies fail to
put in systematic measures to ensure responsible leadership and
ethical decision-making. The paper by Pankhania (The Ethical and
Leadership Challenges Posed by the Royal Commission’s Revelations
of Sexual Abuse at a Satyananda Yoga Ashram in Australia)
examines the ethical and leadership challenges which arose from
revelations of child sexual abuse at an Australian yoga ashram. The
paper presents implications of ethical and leadership failures at both
organisational and societal levels. Pankhania’s research aims to lead
yoga academics and regulatory agencies to re-evaluate practices and
values that have been used to justify abuse.
The paper by Breakey (Arbitrary Power, Arbitrary Interference
and the Abuse of Power: Corruption, Natural Rights and Human
Rights) explores the relationship between human rights and
corruption. Breakey argues that there are strong thematic links
between systematic corruption and violation of human rights. The
paper concludes with reflections on ‘the human right to freedom
from corruption’.
Judith Kennedy and Michael Kennedy’s (Mixing the Sexes in New
South Wales Hospitals – A 15-Year Saga) paper focuses on the
ethical failure of the hospital practice of placing male and female
patients in the same room in general wards. They argue that despite
the ‘normalization’ of this practice over the last 15 years, it is a
fundamental violation of patient dignity.
Together these 10 papers, collectively support the call for
responsible and ethical leadership to prevent the damaging and
perhaps irreversible effects of ‘runaway capitalism’ (Meyer & Kirby,
2012). As Kanter (2010) writes the time is ripe ‘to take full
responsibility’ (p. 42). We hope that readers will enjoy reading
through these papers and some may consider furthering these
concepts and ideas into future research and papers.
Sunil Savur
Sukhbir Sandhu
Editors

REFERENCES
Bansal, P., Good, J., & Sharma, G. (2016). Business challenges for sustainability: Inspiring
new research and innovating new solutions. Retrieved from http://nbs.net/wp-
content/uploads/2016-LC-Design-Challenges.pdf
Howard-Grenville, J., Buckle, S. J., Hoskins, B. J., & George, G. (2014). From the editors:
Climate change and management. Academy of Management Journal, 57, 615–623.
Kanter, R. M. (2010). It’s time to take full responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 88, 42.
KPMG. (2013). KPMG international survey of corporate responsibility reporting. Retreived
from
http://www.kpmg.com/au/en/issuesandinsights/articlespublications/pages/corporate-
responsibility-reporting-survey-2013.aspx
Meyer, C., & Kirby, J. (2012). Runaway capitalism. Harvard Business Review, 90, 66–75.
Rangan, K., Chase, L., & Karim, S. (2015). The truth about CSR. Harvard Business Review,
93, 40–49.
Sandhu, S., Smallman, C., Ozanne, L. K., & Cullen, R. (2012). Corporate environmental
responsiveness in India: Lessons from a developing country. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 35, 203–213.
MINDFULNESS, REPERCEIVING, AND
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING: A
NEUROLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Nicola Pless, Filomena Sabatella and Thomas Maak

ABSTRACT
Recent years have brought significant advances in research
on behavioral ethics. However, research on ethical decision
making is still in a nascent stage. Our objective in this paper
is twofold: First, we argue that the practice of mindfulness
may have significant positive effects on ethical decision
making in organizations. More specifically, we will discuss the
benefits of “reperceiving” – a meta-mechanism in the practice
of mindfulness for ethical decision making and we provide an
overview of mindfulness research pertaining to ethical
decision making. Subsequently, we explore areas in which
neuroscience research may inform research on ethics in
organizations. We conclude that both neuroscience and
mindfulness offer considerable promise to the field of ethical
decision making.

Keywords: Mindfulness; ethical decision making;

neuroscience; brain structures; business ethics; reperceiving
 INTRODUCTION
In today’s complex stakeholder environment managers and leaders
need to make decisions that go beyond economic considerations and
often have an ethical dimension, such as child labor or labor
conditions in the supply chain. Decision making frequently occurs
under time pressure, which can result in suboptimal outcomes. This
is neither desirable from an economic point of view, as it puts
organizational reputation and viability at risk, nor from a social
perspective, especially when decisions invoke a high risk for the life
and well-being of stakeholders – the Union Carbide disaster in
Bhophal or the infant formula case Sanlu Fonterra come to mind – or
generate other negative and irreversible effects on human beings
and the environment (Tchernobyl, Fukushima).
Research in decision sciences has shown that decision making
processes are not purely rational (bounded rationality), but
influenced by unconscious processes including intuition (Kahneman,
2002) and emotions (Kirk et al., 2016). Moreover, neuroscientific
efforts in recent years have led to a better understanding of
neuropsychological constructs underpinning morality in decision
making, stressing the importance of empathy (Oliveira-Souza, Zahn,
& Moll, 2015). However, Haidt and Joseph (2007) have shown that
moral behavior may also occur independently from empathy. The
latter type of decision making is viewed as being a rather effortless
type of judgment that relies on moral intuition. The second, more
complex type of moral reasoning is elicited by moral dilemmas, both
hypothetical and in real life, for which no readymade solution exists
and where a more complex interplay of basal forebrain
macrosystems is at play (Oliveira-Souza et al., 2015). Indeed, recent
neuroscientific evidence suggests that morality is subject to
modification by cognitive-emotional representations and contextual
influences and that it is neither monolithic nor purely rational or
limited to basic moral intuition.
Accordingly, it is not only important to understand how emotions
influence moral decision making but also to investigate how they
interact with cognition and thus how the interplay of subordinate
neuropsychological constructs influences decision-making outcomes
(Oliveira-Souza et al., 2015). We know that ethical issues can evoke
considerable emotions, which in turn can lead to suboptimal
judgments in ethical decision making (Waldman, Wang, Hannah, &
Balthazard, 2016). However, we also know that specific emotions
such as empathy and indignation may be instrumental in achieving
the “right” outcomes, specifically when faced with more complex
challenges.
Lately, the concept of mindfulness has been discussed as a
precondition for complex problem-resolution and better decision
making, also under pressure (Eisenbeiss, Maak, & Pless, 2014;
Hunter & Chaskalson, 2013; Karelaia & Reb, 2014). Mindfulness is an
established concept that has been studied empirically over decades
in medical and health sciences and has only recently attracted
attention in management studies (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005; Thomas
& Inkson, 2009; Weick & Sutcliffe, 2006). Mindfulness is defined as
the practice of paying attention to the present moment without
judgment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Thus, mindfulness requires a bivalent
attitude of paying attention to the present moment, and the
challenges at hand, while adopting reflective distance and a
nonjudgmental attitude.
Research has found that mindfulness has a number of beneficial
effects, including stress reduction (Creswell & Lindsay, 2014) and
improved well-being (Reb, Narayanan, & Chaturvedi, 2014),
enhanced focus and attention (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015)
increased working-memory capacity (Roeser et al., 2013; Stanley &
Jha, 2009), and emotional regulation (Glomb, Duffy, Bono, & Yang,
2011) – all which are considered relevant for effective decision
making. Management researchers also highlight a positive link
between mindfulness and improved moral reasoning in decision
making (Karelaia & Reb, 2014). For example, focus attention as a
way to become aware of unconscious processes (e.g., emotions),
and to help monitor and control them, is seen as being of particular
relevance for ethical decision making (Trammel, 2015).
 While there is a growing awareness among management scholars
that mindfulness has implications for ethical behavior (Dane, 2011),
few authors have examined the interface of mindfulness and
managerial decision making (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014; Good et al.,
2015; Karelaia & Reb, 2014; Kirk et al., 2016; Ruedy & Schweitzer,
2010; Shapiro, Jazaieri, & Goldin, 2012). An ABI/INFO database
research on peer reviewed journal articles applying the keywords of
“mindfulness” and “decision making” resulted in only four hits
relevant for managerial decision making (Good et al., 2015; Kirk et
al., 2016; Ruedy & Schweitzer, 2010; Shapiro et al., 2012), only two
of them with a particular focus on ethical decision making.
Our objective in this paper is to shed light on the underlying
neuropsychological links of ethical decision making and how the
practice of mindfulness may support better outcomes. We contribute
to the newly emerging discussion on neuroscience in business ethics
(Robertson, Voegtlin, & Maak, 2016) and on the role of mindfulness
in ethical decision making with a particular focus on the meta-
mechanism of “reperceiving” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Shapiro, Carlson,
Astin, & Freedman, 2006). Eisenbeiss et al. (2014) and Karelaia &
Reb (2014) point out that mindfulness is an essential precondition
for ethical decision making and complex problem solving due to its
potential to fundamentally shift the perspective, thereby allowing
decision makers to witness oneself and occurring events impartially
and with more distance, clarity, objectivity, and flexibility. This
process of decentering is also called reperceiving. More specifically,
given that morality is not a monolithic concept and as indicated
above subject to modification by contextual challenges, individual
neural structures, and cognitive-emotional representations, we
suggest that the mechanism of reperceiving may be instrumental in
the neurosystemic interplay of emotions and cognition when faced
with more complex decisions.
In light of the growing interest to incorporate neuroscience
methods in organizational and ethical research (Robertson et al.,
2016; Waldman, Wang, & Fenters, 2016), it is our goal in this paper
to enrich the discussion on ethical decision making, mindfulness, and
reperceiving by providing insights from neuroscientific studies.
 Our paper is organized as follows: We start by defining the
concept of mindfulness and providing an overview of the discussion
on mindfulness and ethical decision making. We then turn our focus
to the meta-mechanism of reperceiving and related neuroscientific
evidence. To understand how mindfulness might affect ethical
decision making, we proceed by examining two domains of human
functioning – emotions and cognitions – both relevant for ethical
decision making. We conclude with a discussion of the
neuroscientific findings in light of ethical decision making.

MINDFULNESS AND DECISION MAKING

The Concept of Mindfulness

The term mindfulness comes from the Pali word “sati” and means
having awareness, being attentive, and remembering (Bodhi, 2000).
While the concept of mindfulness is most deeply rooted in Buddhism,
akin ideas can also be found in other philosophical and spiritual
traditions, including ancient Greek philosophy, Christianity or
transcendentalism (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). However, the
cultivation of mindfulness is a primary Buddhist practice. In the
Western world, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
developed by Kabat-Zinn has become a popular mindfulness practice
that is based on Vipassana meditation and that follows the rhythmic
motion of the breath with a nonjudgmental, open awareness (cf.
Kabat-Zinn, 1990).
In clinical psychology literature, mindfulness is defined as “a
receptive attention to and awareness of present events and
experience” (Brown & Ryan, 2003), “a state of psychological
freedom that occurs when attention remains quiet and limber,
without attachment to any particular point of view” (Martin, 1997) or
as “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present
moment, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, 2005). For the
purpose of this paper, we refer to the approach of Kabat-Zinn (1994,
2005) and understand mindfulness as a state of being in the present
moment with a non-judgmental, acceptive attitude.
Mindfulness is understood as a state of consciousness (cf. Brown
& Ryan, 2003) referring to two basic activities: awareness and
attention. While awareness is our immediate contact with the events
in a certain moment and refers to the conscious registration of
external and internal stimuli, attention is like a zoom lens turning
toward a specific stimuli, which is sufficiently strong (Brown et al.,
2007). Usually, after a stimulus has achieved focal attention,
perceptual reactions follow quickly, involving an evaluation (e.g.,
“good” or “bad”). In contrast, mindfulness implies a bare receptive
registration of phenomena as they are, undisturbed by conditional or
habitual filters of processing (past experience, judgment). Hence,
stimuli are perceived with greater objectivity that allows more
flexible, original responses (Brown et al., 2007). This reduction of
habitual and reactive responses enables choicefulness and more
effective regulation and therefore holds great potential for improved
judgment and ethical decision making (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014, p.
197).

Mindfulness and Decision Making

Research on mindfulness and decision making is still in a nascent

state. More specifically, Karelaia and Reb (2014) propose that
mindfulness matters in four decision-making stages: (1) Framing the
decision: this includes for instance to see a decision opportunity and
to generate options. (2) Gathering information: relevant aspects for
decision making are, for example, the quantity and quality of
information being collected and processed. (3) Coming to
conclusions: this involves reconciling analysis and intuition, making
trade-offs, and implementing decisions. And (4) Learning from
feedback (e.g., openness to feedback, self-serving attributions),
which is important for refining future decisions. With regard to
decision framing, for instance, they suggest that mindfulness may
help individuals to recognize ethical challenges and become aware of
ethical decision implications.
Empirical research on mindfulness and ethical behavior is rare
and results therefore are anecdotal at best. In a lab study with 135
participants & Schweitzer (2010) found that mindfulness (measured
with the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, MAAS) influenced the
magnitude of unethical behavior and reduced the amount of
cheating. However, no support was gained for the hypothesis that
mindfulness is associated with lower incidents of unethical behavior.
Shapiro et al. (2012) examined the effect of a mindfulness training
program (MBSR) on moral reasoning and decision making. Their
single-group design study with 25 participants revealed no
immediate impact of the MBSR on moral reasoning, but a significant
increase in a two-month follow-up. It is suggested that this shift may
be due to continued personal practice. However, since continued
practice was not measured and controlled this remains hypothetical.
Shapiro et al. stress that “changes in mindfulness were not related
to the changes seen on moral reasoning at two-month follow-up”
(2012, p. 510) and suggest further research, specifically with regard
to the association between mindfulness practice and improvements
on outcome measures.
While these two behavioral studies provide no evidence of a
direct link between mindfulness and ethical decision making this may
be a result of the fact that moral decisions when ordinary and
“automated” responses – for example, as a result of effortless
judgment about right and wrong – may not be prone to ad hoc
mindfulness interventions. Moreover, given neuroscientific evidence
of a more complex interplay of neuropsychological constructs
changes in decision-making patterns may take time. The changes in
patterns of moral reasoning after two months seem to point in this
direction. Accordingly, Eisenbeiss et al. (2014) and Good et al.
(2015) point out that to understand how mindfulness may affect
ethical decision making it is essential to consider its full-on effects on
human functioning, including its temporal dimensions.
 Mindfulness, Reperceiving, and Human Functioning

Attention is a defining aspect of mindfulness. However, latest

research shows that attention as such is not related to ethical
behavior. On the contrary, Noval (2016) showed that excessive
attention and focus for instance on monetary or career rewards can
result in unethical and selfish behavior. Good et al. (2015) pointed
out that attention needs to be coupled with meta-awareness (“an
apprehension of the current state of the mind that monitors that
focused attentiveness” (ibid., 117)) to become mindful. Eisenbeiss et
al. (2014) suggested that to understand how mindfulness might
affect ethical decision making it is important to examine this
relationship through the meta-mechanism of reperceiving (Kabat-
Zinn, 1990; Shapiro et al., 2006). Reperceiving or decentering
implies the “ability to take a step back and to see oneself from a
‘balcony’ – that is, the ability to maintain a certain distance from
one’s own thoughts and emotions and witness them impartially,
without being fully absorbed by them” (Karelaia & Reb, 2014). As
such it is a mode of processing that involves attention to and
processing of internal (e.g., emotion or thought) or external
experiences (Good et al., 2015). Eisenbeiss et al. (2014) introduced
a tripartite structure of reperceiving encompassing the human
functions of (1) emotions (compassion and interbeing), (2) cognition
(cognitive flexibility and insight), and (3) regulation (integrated
functioning).
More specifically, by drawing on the Levi Strauss child labor case
(Pless & Maak, 2011), they argue that the process of reperceiving
supports leaders in developing innovative, values-based and
stakeholder-oriented solutions when faced with complex moral
dilemmas. Due to the fact that the consequences of such decisions
often have a broader impact on society, this process of reperceiving
becomes of particular interest for decision-making research and
management practice. Since reperceiving is a complex process, more
insight into the different domains of human functioning is required to
understand how mindfulness can affect ethical decision making via
this meta-mechanism. In the following we will review neuroscientific
studies that provide supporting insights into the elements of the
process of reperceiving.

Cognition

Different authors (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014; Good et al., 2015;

Smallwood & Schooler, 2015) associate mindfulness and attentional
qualities with cognitive performance. Cognitive flexibility is
understood as the ability to respond in a non-habitual fashion
(Moore & Malinowski, 2009) and to switch attention and see a
broader range of options which is important for informed decision
making. Cognitive flexibility has been studied in neuroscience in
task-switching studies examining how people disengage from one
task in order to undertake another.
fMRI studies of task-switching have identified a distributed and
often left-lateralized network of frontoparietal brain areas that
contribute to task-switching, including dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
(DLPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), frontopolar cortex
(FPC), pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), and posterior
parietal cortex (PPC) (Braver, Reynolds, & Donaldson, 2003). The
involvement of these brain regions were confirmed in lesion studies.
A study of patients with unilateral PFC damage demonstrated that
the greater the damage, the longer it took the patients to switch
between tasks (Aron, Monsell, Sahakian, & Robbins, 2004).
With regard to problem solving neuroscience research (Heeren,
Van Broeck, & Philippot, 2009) provides evidence for a positive link
between mindfulness and cognitive flexibility, specifically in regard to
cognitive processing and the creation of alternative options. Good et
al. (2015) cite a study by Ding et al. (2015) who used a brief
mindfulness intervention that showed that the randomly assigned
participants “were more likely to search for alternative perspectives
when faced with a problem, “and their neural patterns suggested
that cognitive flexibility was due to greater attentional control”
(Good et al., 2015, p.120).
 In a multi-stakeholder environment managers are often
confronted with complex decisions or moral dilemmas that require
the ability to see situations from various perspectives and to develop
solutions that synthesize the demands of different stakeholders.
Eisenbeiss et al. (2014) stress that mindfulness induced cognitive
flexibility is relevant for coping with such situations helping decision
makers to disengage from automatic responses and to combine
information in new ways relevant to stimulate moral imagination
(Werhane, 1999) and resolve complex dilemmas.
However, neuroscience research shows that ethical decision
making does not only involve cognitive processes, but also
subconscious and intuitive processes, which will be discussed in the
following.

Emotion

Emotions such as joy, happiness, empathy, sadness, and fear play an

important role in organizational life in general (Molinsky, Grant, &
Margolis, 2012) and in decision making in particular (Eisenbeiss et
al., 2014; Mencl & May, 2009; Robertson et al., 2016). According to
neuroscientific findings (Burns & Bechara, 2007) individuals’ decision
making is greatly influenced by implicit, unconscious processes in
the brain. Some authors discuss the disruptive effect of negative
emotions like guilt and anger (Hofmann & Baumert, 2010) for ethical
decision making; others focus on the role of positive emotions, such
as empathy and compassion. Positive emotions such as empathy and
compassion are seen as being of particular relevance with regard to
mindfulness and ethical decision making (Eisenbeiss et al., 2014).
Mencl and May (2009) understand empathy – the ability to
understand the emotional experiences of others (e.g., happiness or
sadness) and feel with them – as a “moral emotion” and suggest
that higher levels of empathy potentially lead to greater awareness
of negative decision making consequences for stakeholders.
Neuroscience research therefore provides useful insights into the
neurobiological foundations of emotions in ethical decision making
processes. The clinical case of Phineas Gage case had a pioneering
role (Damasio, 1994). Phineas Gage was a man who survived a
traumatic brain injury (frontal lobotomy, which is a damage to the
prefrontal cortex) caused by a dynamite tramping iron penetrating
his skull. He survived and the neurological brain functions and
intellectual faculties (logical thinking and solving abstract problems)
remained intact. However, his ability to process and regulate
emotions (such as empathy) and to make ethical decisions in social
life was compromised (Damasio, 1994). These and similar
neuroscience studies (see Robertson et al., 2016) suggest that
empathy plays a crucial role in ethical decision making.
More specifically, Eisenbeiss et al. (2014) argue that empathy and
compassion are important emotions required for ethical decision
making, in particular for developing compassionate solutions to
moral dilemmas. In analyzing a child labor case they demonstrate
how the manager’s ability to tune into the specific conditions of, and
indeed to feel with, the affected stakeholders, that is to say, the
working children and their families, enabled him to come up with a
sustainable and compassionate solution.
Mindfulness seems to influence emotions via attention (Good et
al., 2015) and is discussed as an effective practice for emotional
regulation. Empirical studies (Keng, Robins, Smoski, Dagenbach, &
Leary, 2013) provide evidence that mindfulness influences reactivity
to emotional stimuli and shortens the lifecycle of emotional reactions
– “reducing the time to reach peak emotional arousal and return to
baseline” (Good et al., 2015, p. 120). Studies on both positive and
negative emotions show that mindfulness training can dampen
reactions to positive and negative stimuli, thereby providing a
possibility for psychological distance and more neutral evaluations.
This is of particular relevance for coping with complex ethical
situations, which often involve conflicting interests going along with
high emotions of different stakeholders.
Arguably, one of the most intriguing findings in the case of
Phineas Gage is that it shows how fundamental emotions are for
decision making. His case also demonstrated that cognitive and
ethical decision making are connected but distinct processes located
in the brain. More recent case reports indicate that damages to the
ventral and medial prefrontal cortex lead to deficits in social and
moral decision making (Anderson, Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, &
Damasio, 1999; Bechara, Damasio, & Damasio, 2000). The results
from these lesions studies were endorsed and used in experimental
settings.
To study moral cognition Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley,
and Cohen (2001) scanned the brains of subjects faced with
different dilemmas, varying from non-moral dilemmas to multiple
variations of the “trolley dilemma.” In the trolley-dilemma subjects
have to decide if they are willing to sacrifice the life of one person to
save five people from being run over by a trolley. The scenario
variations differed in the degree of personal involvement. In the
option with the highest personal involvement subjects had to decide
if, to save the five persons, they would push a person in front of the
trolley. The experiment revealed that moral decisions with high
personal involvement are processed in areas of the brain pertaining
to emotions, like the medial frontal gyrus, posterior cingulate gyrus,
and angular gyrus. Areas associated to cognition were significantly
less active during the personal condition (Greene et al., 2001). This
study demonstrates that both cognition and emotions are involved in
moral decision making and different regions of the brain and need to
be integrated. Hence, the regulation of thoughts and emotions is
seen as being important for effective ethical decision making
(Waldman et al., 2016).
According to Eisenbeiss et al. (2014, p. 199) the “mechanism of
reperceiving allows freedom from following one’s immediate and
automatic cognitive, affective or behavioral impulses, and yet
enables to put everything in perspective in a calm and serene
manner, and ultimately to recognize the bigger picture.” Thereby,
creating a state of mind that may lead to more effective and moral
decision making. However, further research is needed to understand
the interplay and regulation mechanisms of emotions and cognitions
for effective ethical decision making. In the following, we provide
further insights into brain regions involved in emotion, cognition, and
integration of the two in regards to ethical decision making.
 Important Brain Areas for Ethical Decision Making

Traditional theories of moral psychology emphasize the role of

“higher cognition” in moral judgment (Kohlberg, 1969). The
importance of emotions in ethical decisions has been recognized only
recently. Cognition is still considered essential when it comes to
ethical decision making, but new research streams suggests a need
for synthesis of the two perspectives. We will focus on cognitive and
emotional brain regions active during ethical decision making.
Most of the anatomical structures involved in ethical decision
making are located in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The PFC is located
in the very front of the brain just behind the forehead and is
responsible for the majority of our higher cognitive functions.
Different theories exist about how to categorize the parts of the
prefrontal cortex. One popular categorization breaks the prefrontal
cortex into dorsolateral, ventrolateral and orbitofrontal. The
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) lies just on top of the eyes and is decisive
when decisions require the ability to retrieve consequences when
they are only partially observable. The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
(VPFC) lies on the side of the forehead and is connected with brain
areas related to emotion. Finally, the dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC)
is located more on the top of the prefrontal cortex and connects with
brain areas related to attention and cognition. Additionally, the
hippocampus is involved in ethical decision making. It is part of the
limbic system has a seahorse-shaped form and is located inside the
temple on each side of the brain. It is a brain structure important for
emotion and memory processes.
The brain is a complex organ, responsible for different tasks and
consisting of many structures working together. These collaborations
are responsible for highly demanding skills like thoughts, feelings
and ethical decisions. Hence, there is not a single brain area
responsible for a specific mental process, but a networking of
different brain areas required. Accordingly, future research studied
will have to focus on elements of interaction of brain regions and
specific forms of integrations. To inform more multidisciplinary
research on neuroscience and ethical decision making, we provide
an overview of brain areas associated with important facets of
ethical decision making.

Cognition
When evaluating a decision, cognition plays a crucial role. A decisive
area for the cognitive part of decision making is the dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). This area of the prefrontal cortex is active
when we consider multiple sources of information to make a
decision. When decisions have to be made under uncertain
conditions especially the right side of the DLPFC is important. In an
experiment, Goel and Dolan (2000) advised participants to classify
drawings of novel animals either based on a given rule or through
induction of a rule. The authors found that the right DLPFC was
more active during the rule induction condition and less active when
a rule was given. These findings imply that the left DLPFC may play
a privileged role in decisions that are better constrained and with
fewer options. This outcome might be partially connected to the fact
that the DLPFC is responsible for maintaining and manipulating
information in working memory. The working memory is an
executive function responsible for holding, processing, and for the
manipulation of information. These skills are needed for decision
making and many other daily tasks.

Empathy
The philosophical argument whether ethical judgments are based on
reason or on emotion is almost as old as the discipline itself.
However, it were the philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment,
Hume (2012) and in particular Smith (1759), who argued that ethical
judgment is based on “moral sentiments,” feelings as it were and
thus other directed emotions or sympathy. Contemporary
psychologists use the term “empathic concern.” Sympathy and
empathic concern can be seen as the emotional response associated
with empathy. The insula, anterior cingulated cortex (ACC), and
amygdala are three key brain regions active in emotional aspects of
empathy (Decety & Lamm, 2006). While the insula is part of the
cerebral cortex, the ACC and the amygdala belong to the limbic
system. The ACC lies in a unique position in the brain – deep inside
the forehead and behind the brain’s frontal lobe. It has connections
to limbic system and the cognitive center (prefrontal cortex). Beside
its involvement in emotion, it is important in reward anticipation,
impulse control and decision making. The amygdala is an almond-
shaped set of neurons located deep in the brain. It is traditionally
associated with processing emotionally arousing stimuli and with
sharing others’ emotions (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, & Damasio,
1994).
Recent advances in neuroscience have addressed the role of the
insula in the processing of emotion and empathy (Frith & Singer,
2008; Lamm & Singer, 2010). The insula is crucial for the generation
and mediation of feelings in response to environmental stimuli and
affective states (Dolan, 2002; Phillips, Drevets, Rauch, & Lane,
2003). In empathy-related processes, the insula is involved in the
recognition of emotions (Phillips et al., 2003), but it is also essential
in information integration.
In most studies, the insula and the ACC are jointly activated,
consistent with the idea that they serve as a complementary limbic
sensory that works together (Craig, 2009). The insula and the ACC
have a dual function: the formation of subjective feelings with
respect to the self and the understanding of others’ emotional
states. For example, Singer et al. (2004) undertook an fMRI study
that involved couples who received painful stimuli. The researchers
compared the brain signals of the person that physically received the
painful stimulus with the brain signals of the partner who was
informed that their loved one had received a painful stimulus. The
fMRI showed that in both cases the same affective brain circuits
were active. Accordingly, these brain areas are of particular interest
when studying the role of empathy in decision making.

Integration
Decision making requires explicit deliberation and integration of
diverse sources of information. It can be understood as a complex
behavioral phenomenon that involves different brain regions.
Research has started to bring different facets of this complex
process to our attention, especially the involved brain regions and
their functions. Particularly within the prefrontal cortex these
functions can be identified and assigned to different areas. Moreover,
the amygdala, the insula, and other brain regions are involved in the
emotional processing of decisions. Thus, for a more complete the
picture of decision making we will now look on how this different
information is integrated in the brain.
A recent review of the literature on this topic found that the part
of the prefrontal cortex located right above our eyes (OFC) is critical
in integrating affective information received from limbic areas. In
Wallis’ (2007) model the OFC receives sensory, affective and
motivational information from other brain areas. The OFC than
integrates this information and uses it to determine how valuable the
outcome will be. This evaluation is then passed to other areas of the
prefrontal cortex. When we integrate cognition and emotion, other
frontal brain areas involved are the vMPFC and the ACC (Decety &
Svetlova, 2012).
In different scenarios, the insula has been discussed as the
neural correlate of the integration of information from different
functional systems in the brain. In fMRI studies the state of the
insula at rest was recorded. The findings suggest that the insula has
an important role in integrating interceptive and affective information
(Critchley, Wiens, Rotshtein, Ohman, & Dolan, 2004). Its role in
integrative processes might come from its position at the interface of
the temporal, frontal, and parietal lobe, three of the four major lobes
in the human brain. A recent fMRI study compared the activity in the
insula during interoceptive, exteroceptive, and affective processes
(Simmons et al., 2013). Subjects underwent three different task
conditions: During the interoceptive condition subjects had to pay
attention to their visceral sensations. In the exteroceptive condition
visual targets were presented, forcing the subjects to focus on
external stimuli. In the last condition, subjects had to think about
apprehensive life events. Additionally, the functional connectivity of
the insula was tested. Functional connectivity is the connectivity
between spatially separated brain regions with similar functional
properties. The results confirmed the existence of a functional
topography across the insular cortex: different regions are selectively
activated during the different tasks. Overall, functional connectivity
of such regions is consistent, thereby reflecting the insula’s role as a
region for relaying and integrating information.
Recent neuroscience research in ethical leadership also works
with brain network framework building on Lindquist, Wager, Kober,
Bliss-Moreau, and Barrett’s (2012) psychological constructionist
approaches to neuroscience. Waldman et al. (2016) suggest that
multiple brain regions are involved and interact in complex
phenomena like moral judgment and ethical decision making. In
their recent study they focus on neurological antecedents of ethical
leadership and studied the relationship between the brain’s default
mode network and ethical leadership. Their findings indicate that
“the interaction of leader relativism and idealism partially mediates
the effects of the brain’s default mode network (DMN) in the
prediction of ethical leadership.” The DMN represents a network of
brain regions. It can reflect meaningful individual differences when
the brain is in an awake, but at-rest state and may be predictive of
cognitive qualities or behavior (ibid., 2016). Such a network
approach may also be useful for the study of the meta-mechanism of
reperceiving. As Waldman et al. (2016) point out, the right
hemispheric connectivity in the DMN is likely to contribute to
perspective taking and to insight (Kounios et al., 2008) – both
associated with the cognitive side of the reperceiving. It has been
associated with moral and social awareness (Boyatzis, Rochford &
Jack, 2014) and is connected to the regulative side of reperceiving,
in particular to effective regulation of emotions, including emotions
such as guilt or shame.

CONCLUSION
As indicated at the outset of this paper, the effects of mindfulness on
ethical decision making using neuroscience as a research method
have yet to be studied in detail. Researchers have started to use
neuroscience to investigate research questions in management in
general (Lee & Senior, 2012) and in business ethics in particular
(Robertson et al., 2016). The recent work of Hannah, Balthazard,
Waldman, Jennings, and Thatcher (2013) provides an example of
how neuroscience can further inform leadership research. The goal
of their study was to better understand how leader qualities might
predict adaptive decision making. Leader complexity, the main
predictor was operationalized psychometrically using leader self-
complexity. Additionally, they used qEEG to look for a neurological
basis of leader complexity. They found a moderate correlation
between the psychometric and the neurological measure.
Furthermore, in the prediction of adaptive decision making, the
neural-metric measure added unique variance. This study shows
how an understanding of an important construct (i.e., leader
complexity) can be enhanced by neurological considerations;
specifically, the measurement of the construct was broadened and
the prediction of an important outcome (i.e., adaptive decision
making) was enhanced. We believe that similar work can illuminate
the influence of mindfulness on ethical decision making.
The utility of employing neuroscience in leadership and decision
making research helps to develop a deeper understanding of
managers’ brain activity and therefore the “black box” of what is
going on in executives’ minds (Senior, Lee, & Butler, 2011). This
interdisciplinary approach is facilitated by the development of user-
friendly technology, affordable, and practical for organizational
researchers, leading to new disciplines like Neuroeconomics or
Organizational Cognitive Neuroscience.
Through the additional assessment of the brain, we can also
increase external validity. Brain activity cannot be manipulated by
the subject, it is not prone to social desirability or to other biases.
And while there are limitations when applying neuroscience as a
research method, putting people in a scanner or asking them to put
on an EEG headset, recent technological development makes the use
of technology much less obtrusive. Accordingly, we argue that
neuroscientific research may help us to better understand the
mechanisms of mindfulness in ethical decision making.
Concomitantly, we would stress some limitations in regards to the
complexity involved in this line of research. Kirk, Downar, and
Montague (2011) conducted an fMRI neuroscience study
investigating emotional regulation processes and social
considerations in experienced Buddhist meditators applying the
ultimatum game – a game used in economic experiments to study
rational decision making. In the ultimatum game the first player (the
proposer) receives a sum of money and proposes how to divide the
sum between the proposer and the other player. The second player
(the responder) chooses to either accept or reject this proposal. If
the second player accepts, the money is split according to the
proposal. If the second player rejects, neither player receives any
money. The game is typically played only once so that reciprocation
is not an issue. Following the rational choice approach (Kahneman &
Tversky, 1979), the responder should accept any offer, since this
choice would always represent a gain. In practice however, offers
seen as unfair are often rejected. To test their hypothesis, Kirk et al.
recruited a group of experienced mindfulness meditators and a
control group of non-meditators and exposed them to the ultimatum
game while undergoing fMRI. The study showed that the meditators
in comparison to the control group were better able to control their
emotions and demonstrated more rational, utility-maximizing
decision making. They played the ultimatum game more like homo
economicus, that is, they maximized personal gain and put aside
fairness considerations. In more than half of the trials the mediators
were willing to accept the most asymmetrical “unfair” offers,
whereas the control group only accepted the asymmetrical offers in
one-quarter of the trials (Kirk et al., 2011).
The fMRI data showed that during the decision making process
the control subjects activated an already known network of brain
areas: the medial prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex,
and the superior temporal sulcus. In previous neuroimaging studies
of the Ultimatum Game, and other tasks involving social cognition
and theory of mind (Adolphs, 2009; Sanfey, Cohen, Rilling, Aronson,
& Nystrom, 2003) the same network activation had been found. In
contrast, meditators showed activity in a different network which
comprised primarily the mid- and posterior insula and ventral
posterior thalamus. These areas are more typically associated with a
function called interoception: the representation of the body’s
internal state (Craig, 2003).
While these findings indicate a positive relationship between
mindfulness practice and decision making, they raise questions from
an ethical point of view and indicate that some caution needs to be
applied regarding an unreflective approach and unrealistic
expectations of mindfulness practice. To begin with, the Ultimatum
Game showed that better emotional regulation associated with
mindfulness can have a positive effect on “rational” decision making.
However, research has shown that rational decision making can
impair ethical decisions (Zhong, 2011) and that it is related to
unreflective management theory and bad management practice
(Ghoshal, 2005; Pless, Maak, & Waldman, 2012). What happens in
the brain when “rational” decision making occurs? Neurologically it
can be observed that meditators and the control group activated
different networks of brain areas. During unfair offers mediators
activated the posterior insular cortex, associated with interoception
and showed reduced activity in the anterior insular cortex compared
with the control group. This enabled meditators to uncouple
negative emotional reactions from their action leading to increased
rational decision making. However, at the same time also positive
emotions seem to have been deactivated. As discussed, positive
emotions like empathy play an important role in ethical decision
making. In other words, in this particular experiment the act of
being present in the moment and adopting a nonjudgmental attitude
led to a neutralization of positive emotions.
Accordingly, further research is required to study the role of
mindfulness in ethical decision making and particularly the
functioning of the regulation of positive and negative emotions for
ethical decision making. While empathy and compassion are
associated with mindfulness (Birnie, Speca, & Carlson, 2010; Hollis-
Walker & Colosimo, 2011) and play a crucial role in social and ethical
decision making, we still know very little about the role and
functioning of the regulation of positive and negative emotions in
ethical decision making and how brain activity may lead to
unintended consequences (or unforeseen consequences such as the
reactions of Buddhist meditators).
In essence, the results of this study suggest that the capacity for
better emotional regulation does not automatically lead to better
ethical decision making. On the contrary, in the study it seemed to
foster an attitude of personal interest maximization and neglect of
fairness considerations. Responsible business practice is in contrast
concerned with taming excessive self-interest due to the well-known
consequences in light of numerous business scandals. While
mindfulness involves a non-judgmental attitude, ethical decision
making requires moral judgment. In the Ultimatum Game the
practice of meditation seems to have reduced the ability to make
moral and principled judgments and led to a relativistic outcome.
While Karelaia and Reb (2014) argue that mindfulness could be
associated with a heightened awareness of values, it seems that the
relationship with ethical decision making is not that clear. There may
be an underlying conflict between a non-judgmental attitude on the
one hand and moral judgment on the other hand, which requires
further attention and research with regard to ethical decision
making.
Moreover, while the outcomes of the meditator study may
represent isolated findings, they support the argument that human
decision makers possess different neuropathways to moral decision
making. As highlighted in the beginning of this paper, Oliveira-Souza
et al. (2015) stress that ordinary, effortless moral judgments are
driven by intuitions – quasi-automatic, rational responses to “simple”
questions about right or wrong. For more complex moral challenges
and dilemmas however we (our brain that is…) engage in more
laborious deliberations resulting in a unique interplay of emotions,
cognition, contextual factors, and personality structure. As a
consequence, ethical decision making becomes a dynamic concept
and is shaped and adjusted over time. To investigate how that
interplay and more specifically how the integration of subordinate
neural networks in regards to ethical decision-making works is
arguably the most promising pathway for future neuroscientific
inquiry. Until then, we have to acknowledge that our insights into the
“black box” of morality remain limited, and that at times research
studies such as the one discussed above may produce
counterintuitive findings.
Thus, while meditation and mindfulness can have a positive
impact on rational decision making or problem solving, it may not
produce the intended consequences if emotions are neutralized. In
other words, as envisioned by Adam Smith, our moral emotions –
whether positive (empathy, compassion), or negative (guilt, shame)
– play an instrumental role in ethical decision making and future
research should explore the boundaries of “nonjudgementalness”
and reflective and informed moral judgment and their neural
correlates. Dual processing-models of ethical decision making
(Reynolds, 2006) focusing on the interplay of non-conscious
responses to environmental stimuli and conscious reflection cycles
offer a promising starting point. Accordingly, further research is
required to understand the full potential of mindfulness for ethical
decision making and specific attention should be paid to the
interface of nonjudgmentalness, reperceiving and moral emotions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Nicola Pless acknowledges the financial support by an internal grant
of the University of South Australia for the project “Unlocking the
potential of mindfulness for responsible leadership: An investigation
into decision making, well-being and cognitive function outcomes”
(0000035244).

DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Fornander
collection of Hawaiian antiquities and folk-lore,
Volume 1 (of 3)
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this eBook.

Title: Fornander collection of Hawaiian antiquities and folk-lore, Volume 1

(of 3)
The Hawaiians' account of the formation of their islands and
origin of their race, with the traditions of their migrations, etc., as
gathered from original sources

Compiler: Abraham Fornander

Editor: Thomas G. Thrum

Release date: January 11, 2024 [eBook #72686]

Language: English

Original publication: Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1917

Credits: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORNANDER

COLLECTION OF HAWAIIAN ANTIQUITIES AND FOLK-LORE, VOLUME 1
(OF 3) ***
[Contents]

[Contents]

MEMOIRS
OF THE
BERNICE PAUAHI BISHOP
MUSEUM
 OF
POLYNESIAN ETHNOLOGY AND NATURAL
HISTORY

VOLUME IV

HONOLULU, H. I.
Bishop Museum Press
1916–1917

[Contents]
[Contents]
 FORNANDER COLLECTION
OF
HAWAIIAN ANTIQUITIES AND
FOLK-LORE

THE HAWAIIANS’ ACCOUNT OF THE

FORMATION OF THEIR ISLANDS AND
ORIGIN OF THEIR RACE, WITH THE
TRADITIONS OF THEIR MIGRATIONS, Etc.,
AS GATHERED FROM ORIGINAL SOURCES

BY
ABRAHAM FORNANDER
Author of “An Account of the Polynesian Race”
 WITH TRANSLATIONS EDITED AND
ILLUSTRATED WITH NOTES BY
THOMAS G. THRUM

FIRST SERIES

Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop

Museum

Volume IV

HONOLULU, H. I.
Bishop Museum Press
1916–1917

[iii]
[Contents]
 CONTENTS

PART I.

Preface.

Story of Islands’ Formation and Origin of Race.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Prefatory Remarks 2
II. Birth of the Islands 6
III. About Wakea 12
IV. Genealogy of the Islands of Hawaii 16
V. Story of Opuukahonua 20
VI. Genealogy of Opuukahonua 24
VII. First Sight of Foreigners 28

Legend of Aukelenuiaiku.

I. Aukele and His Unkind Brethren 32

II. How Aukele Fell into the Pit of Kamooinanea and Profited Thereby 38
III. Return of Aukele and the Benefits He Received in Facing Death 42
IV. How Aukele Sailed with His Brothers in Search of Land 46
V. Battle Fought by the Brothers of Aukele and Their Death 52
VI. How Aukele Got Out of Trouble and Was Rewarded 56
VII. How Aukele Became the Husband of Namakaokahai 62
VIII. How Aukele was Carried off to the Cliff by Halulu 64
IX. How Aukele and Namakaokahai Showed Their Useful Things 68
X. How the Brothers-in-law of Aukele Taught Him to Fly 72
XI. How Namakaokahai Gave Everything to Aukele, and the Battle
Between Kuwahailo and Aukele 74
XII. Relating to Kaumaiilunaoholaniku 80
XIII. How Aukele Went in Search of the Water of Life of Kane 82
XIV. How Aukele Brought Back to Life His Nephew and Brothers 96
XV. How Namakaokahai Quarreled With Her Cousins Pele and Hiiaka 102
XVI. Aukele’s Trip to Kuaihelani 108

History of Moikeha.

I. Moikeha, After a Sojourn in Tahiti, Returns to Hawaii 112

II. Moikeha’s Residence on Kauai 118
III. Prophecy in the Presence of Kila, and How Laamaikahiki Could Be
Found 126
IV. Reign of Kila and Jealousy of His Brothers 128
V. How Kila Was Left at Waipio and His Life There 132
VI. Kaialea’s Trip to Waipio and His Meeting with Kila 136
VII. Meeting Between Kaialea and Messengers from His Mother
Hooipoikamalanai 142
VIII. Kila Makes Himself Known to His Relatives 148
IX. Hooipoikamalanai and Sister at Waipio and Their Return to Kauai 152
X. Story of Olopana and His Wife 154

Legend of Kila.

The Moikeha Family—Kila, the Youngest Son, Favored—Is Sent to Tahiti

to Slay Moikeha’s Enemies—Meets Them and Avenges His Father’s
Wrongs—Succumbs to Luukia 160

PART II.

Story of Umi.

I. Ancestry of Umi 178

II. Birth of Umi 180
III. How Umi Lived in Humble Circumstances 186
IV. Relating to Nunu and Kakohe 190
V. How Umi Became King of Hawaii 204
VI. Relating to the Trip of Umi and His Chiefs Around Hawaii 210
VII. How Umi and Piikea, the Daughter of Piilani of Maui, Became United 214
VIII. Succession of Umi 218
IX. Battle Between Umi and the Chiefs of Hilo—His Victory and the
Joining of Hilo 222
 X. Umi Conquers Other Districts 226
XI. The Family of Umi—His Beneficent Reign 228
XII. Death of Umi—His Body Taken and Secreted by Koi 232

[iv]

Kihapiilani.

I. The Piilani Family—Chant of the Maui Chiefs 236

II. Relating to Kihapiilani 242
III. How Umi Made War on Piilani, King of Maui 246
IV. Umi’s Generals, Omaokamau, Koi, Piimaiwaa 248

Story of Lonoikamakahiki.

I. His Early Training 256

II. How Lonoikamakahiki Searched into the Most Useful Things 262
III. When Lono. First Took Charge of the Government 268
IV. Sailing of Lono. to Oahu—Arrival of Ohaikawiliula—Lono.’s Contest
with Kakuhihewa 274
V. Wager Made by Kakuhihewa Against Lono. 280
VI. Second to Fifth Contests and Arrival of Kaikilani 290
VII. Dispute Between Kakuhihewa and Lono. About Hauna 308
VIII. How Lono Revealed the Bones of Chiefs Slain by Keawenuiaumi 314
IX. The Battles of Lono. 322
X. Defeat of Kanaloakuakawaiea and Rebels: Lono.’s Victory 326
XI. Departure of Lono. for Maui to Visit Kamalalawalu 330
XII. Return of Kauhipaewa to Hawaii—Kamalalawalu Sails for Hawaii 338
XIII. Battle at Waimea—Conquest by Lono.—Defeat and Death of
Kamalalawalu 342
XIV. Reformation of Government—Lono. Sails for Kauai and Is Deserted 350
XV. Kapaihiahilina Appointed Premier—Intrigue for His Downfall—His
Affectionate Farewell 354
XVI. Departure of Kapaihiahilina—Lono. Seeks, Finds and Reinstates
Him—Destruction of Conspirators 358

History of Kualii.
 I. Kualii’s Character and Doings 364
II. Song of Kualii, the Chant as Repeated by Kapaahulani 370
Supplementary Chant for Kualii 394
III. Kapaahulani and His Brother Kamakaaulani 402
IV. Genealogical Tree of Kualii from Kane to Wakea 404
V. Battles of Kualii and the Battle Grounds 406
VI. Relating to Kualii’s Trip to Hawaii 416
VII. Kualii’s Return to Oahu from Molokai 422
VIII. Battle Fought by Kualii at Kalakoa 426
IX. Supplementary 432

PART III.

Legend of Kana and Niheu 436

Kaumaielieli, Double Canoe of Kana 438
Dream of Moi, the Priest 442
Niheu and the Haupu Hill 446
Story of Pikoiakaalala 450
Legend of Kalelealuaka and Keinohoomanawanui 464
How they were sent for and taken to King Kakuhihewa 466
Legend of Pumaia 470
Legend of Hanaaumoe 476
Legend of Eleio 482
Relating to Kaululaau 486
Legend of Nihooleki 488
Legend of Kepakailiula 498
Legend of Wahanui 516
Legend of Kaulu 522
Legend of Hoamakeikikula 532
Legend of Kapuaokaoheloai 540
Legend of Kalanimanuia 548
Legend of Kawaunuiaola 552
Legend of Aiai 554
Legend of Pupualenalena 558
Legend of Kaulanapokii 560
Legend of Pupuhuluena 570
Legend of Kaipalaoa, the Hoopapa Youngster 574
Commencement of Contest of Wits 576
Legend of Laukiamanuikahiki 596
 [Contents]

FORNANDER COLLECTION
OF
HAWAIIAN ANTIQUITIES
AND FOLK-LORE
 THE HAWAIIAN ACCOUNT OF THE
FORMATION OF THEIR ISLANDS AND
ORIGIN OF THEIR RACE WITH THE
TRADITIONS OF THEIR MIGRATIONS,
ETC., AS GATHERED FROM ORIGINAL
SOURCES

BY
ABRAHAM FORNANDER
Author of “An Account of the
Polynesian Race”
With Translations Revised and
Illustrated with Notes
BY
THOMAS G. THRUM

Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop

Museum
 Volume IV—Part I

HONOLULU, H. I.
Bishop Museum Press
1916

[Contents]