Psychology in Modern India Historical

Methodological and Future

Perspectives 1st Edition Girishwar
Misra Nilanjana Sanyal Sonali De
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/psychology-in-modern-india-historical-methodological-
and-future-perspectives-1st-edition-girishwar-misra-nilanjana-sanyal-sonali-de/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Psychology in Modern India Historical Methodological

and Future Perspectives 1st Edition Girishwar Misra
Nilanjana Sanyal Sonali De

https://ebookmeta.com/product/psychology-in-modern-india-
historical-methodological-and-future-perspectives-1st-edition-
girishwar-misra-nilanjana-sanyal-sonali-de/

Historical Perspectives in Industrial and

Organizational Psychology 2nd Edition Laura Leigh
Koppes

https://ebookmeta.com/product/historical-perspectives-in-
industrial-and-organizational-psychology-2nd-edition-laura-leigh-
koppes/

Development and Economic Growth in India 1st Edition

Biswa Swarup Misra

https://ebookmeta.com/product/development-and-economic-growth-in-
india-1st-edition-biswa-swarup-misra/

Putting Psychology in Its Place Critical Historical

Perspectives 4th Edition Graham Richards

https://ebookmeta.com/product/putting-psychology-in-its-place-
critical-historical-perspectives-4th-edition-graham-richards/
Putting Psychology in Its Place Critical Historical
Perspectives 4th Edition Graham Richards

https://ebookmeta.com/product/putting-psychology-in-its-place-
critical-historical-perspectives-4th-edition-graham-richards-2/

Criminalization of Activism Historical Present and

Future Perspectives 1st Edition Valeria Vegh Weis
Editor

https://ebookmeta.com/product/criminalization-of-activism-
historical-present-and-future-perspectives-1st-edition-valeria-
vegh-weis-editor/

Technological Change in Modern Surgery: Historical

Perspectives on Innovation 1st Edition Thomas Schlich
(Editor)

https://ebookmeta.com/product/technological-change-in-modern-
surgery-historical-perspectives-on-innovation-1st-edition-thomas-
schlich-editor/

The Challenges of Cultural Psychology Historical

Legacies and Future Responsibilities 1st Edition
Gordana Jovanovi■ (Editor)

https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-challenges-of-cultural-
psychology-historical-legacies-and-future-responsibilities-1st-
edition-gordana-jovanovic-editor/

Social Functions in Philosophy Metaphysical Normative

and Methodological Perspectives 1st Edition Rebekka
Hufendiek (Editor)

https://ebookmeta.com/product/social-functions-in-philosophy-
metaphysical-normative-and-methodological-perspectives-1st-
edition-rebekka-hufendiek-editor/
Girishwar Misra
Nilanjana Sanyal
Sonali De Editors

Psychology
in Modern
India
Historical, Methodological, and Future
Perspectives
Psychology in Modern India
“Psychology in Modern India is a remarkable breakthrough in the analysis of ideas in psychology
where the colonial efforts of the Occident have attempted to subordinate the psychologies of the
Orient over the past century. This careful survey of how psychology has developed in India since
1915 is particularly important as it shows new pathways for leaving Euro-American traditions in
psychology behind and showing how innovations in psychology are possible on the basis of both
the ancient and the contemporary ideas that have grown in the Indian societies.”
—Jaan Valsiner, Ph.D., Professor of Cultural Psychology, Aalborg University, Editor-in-Chief ,
Culture & Psychology (Sage), Foreign Member, Estonian Academy of Sciences

“It is for the first time to my knowledge that a comprehensive statement about the need for a serious
look at Indian perspectives in psychology has been made. Psychology in Modern India: Historical,
Methodological and Future Perspectives draws attention to the gross error in following blindly the
Western concepts and methodologies. Alternatives are suggested. It was easy to tread the path of
Western psychologists. Exploring formulating, teaching, and researching Indian perspective is far
more difficult. The book makes this easier to undertake”.
—Madan N. Palsane, Ph.D., Former Professor and Head, Psychology Department,
Pune University, Pune

“This edited volume, as its title promises, is a comprehensive book in its scope and delivers a
fresh, succinct, and an updated perspective on nearly every covered topic. The volume is well-
organized both between chapters and within chapters, and these are well-referenced, with rela-
tively updated references. Throughout the book, the significance of socio-cultural and historical
underpinnings is constantly reinforced with suitable examples—both from theoretical and applied
settings. The volume is a valuable resource for the beginners as well as the experienced interested
in ‘indigenization from within’.”
—Sagar Sharma, Ph.D. FNA Psy., Former Professor and Head Department of Psychology and
Dean Faculty of Arts/Social Sciences, H. P. University, Shimla

“As a scientific discipline, psychology in India has been largely influenced by the Western theories
and methods and flourished mostly as a borrowed discipline from the West with narrow focus
and thus unable to explicate the complexities of the cultural diversity and context. This volume
provides a fresh perspective to appreciate the context and the challenges faced by the discipline
of psychology in its journey in India. It not only showcases scholarship in the field through a
historical and contextual lens, but also throws light on how psychologists can contribute towards
doing meaningful research as well as solving problems focussing on the diversity and dynamics of
Indian society.”
—Purnima Singh, Professor of Psychology, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences‚
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

“Psychology in Modern India outlines how teaching and research in psychology in India are
impacted by Euro-American tradition with utter neglect to our indigenous knowledge. It further
emphasizes that there is need to develop a decolonized mind set. Editors have exhorted that we
need to develop the spirit of swaraj in our mindset/thought process and develop self-confidence in
indigenous knowledge and commitment to apply them in the service of humanity. The book is a
must read for students and scholars interested in the history of psychology in India.”
—Shailendra Singh, Ph.D., Director, Indian Institute of Management Ranchi, Ranchi
Girishwar Misra · Nilanjana Sanyal · Sonali De
Editors

Psychology in Modern India

Historical, Methodological, and Future
Perspectives
Editors
Girishwar Misra Nilanjana Sanyal
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
University of Delhi University of Calcutta
Delhi, Delhi, India Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Sonali De
Department of Psychology
University of Calcutta
Kolkata, West Bengal, India

ISBN 978-981-16-4704-8 ISBN 978-981-16-4705-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4705-5

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Dedicated with gratitude to
the memory of pioneers of psychology
in modern India
M. Adisheshiah, Anwar Ansari,
S. Anandalakshmy, H. S. Asthana,
B. L. Atreya, C. M. Bhatia, G. D. Boaz,
Girindrasekhar Bose, Sudhir K. Bose,
Maya Deb, Harish C. Ganguli, E. I. George,
V. Gopalswamy, P. S. Hundal, Indrasen,
M. C. Joshi, Jamuna Prasad, Kali Prasad,
V. K. Kothurkar, B. Krishnan,
B. Kuppuswamy, S. C. Mitra, S. K. Mitra,
S. M. Mohsin, E. G. Parameshwaran,
Udai Pareek, G. G. Prabhu, P. H. Prabhu,
Radha Nath Rath, Rajnarain, N. N. Sengupta,
A. K. P. Sinha, D. Sinha, M. M. Sinha,
T. E. Shanmugam, Amar Kumar Singh,
S. D. Singh, and L. B. Tripathi
Foreword

It is a pleasure to write a foreword for this excellent volume on psychology in modern

India. The editors wisely chose authors who could provide knowledge and insight into
the development and contemporary state of psychology in one of the world’s oldest
civilizational and intellectual traditions. As wisely, the volume does not concen-
trate only on contemporary understandings or applications of Western or hegemonic
psychological science and professional practice. Rather, the essays cover the rich
philosophical, spiritual, and practical traditions that have shaped Indian thought and
practice for thousands of years. Psychology in this volume is placed in the contexts
of the entirety of human life—the spiritual, philosophical, developmental, and prac-
tical contexts that we all live in—and thus, the psychological aspects of life are seen
in the truer light provided by these contexts, rather than the shadows and obscurity
generated by reliance on sterile, artificial laboratory experiments.
I am heartened by the editors’ decision to treat indigenous knowledge and
psychologies as natural expressions of Indian thought so that they represent an “of
course” fact of Indian psychology, rather than “an also” add on or adjunct. I am
reminded here of the words of the Indian expatriate psychologist and thinker, Sunil
Bhatia, in his 2019 article:
Modern forms of indigenous psychology (IP) around the world have evolved, to a large
extent, in response to the dominant Euro-American psychological perspectives. Indigenous
psychology has mounted a resistance to the various hydra-headed tentacles of psychology,
but much of its energy has been spent countering and aligning with the dominant frameworks
of psychological science (Misra, 2003; Nandy, 1974; Priya, 2015). IP’s voice, status, and
ability to speak and engage has mostly occurred within the terms and rules set by the colonial
powers (Bhatia, 2002; Macleod & Bhatia, 2008; Yeh & Sundararajan, 2015). A decolonizing
perspective would begin by charting the entire history of indigenous psychology in the modern
and ancient era to show its various manifestations from precolonial to colonial times, and
from the time of enlightenment to the present-day conditions of neoliberal globalization.
(Bhatia, 2019, p. 111, emphasis added)

I draw your attention to Bhatia’s statement that indigenous psychology’s “voice,

status, and ability to speak and engage has mostly occurred within the terms and rules
set by the colonial powers” (Bhatia, 2019, p. 111). If we simply add that it is not only

vii
viii Foreword

indigenous psychologies that have suffered in this manner, but any psychology that
arises outside the Euro-American hegemon, then we can see that any effort to develop
a psychology that is true to India’s culture and history will be considered suspect
by the Euro-American psychological complex. Such psychologies have historically
been measured according to how well they accord with hegemonic psychology;
that is, they are that which needs to be explained (Hegarty & Pratto, 2001). It is
ironic, if not outright maddening, that Euro-American psychology claims that it is
universal and owes little to any pre-scientific tradition, except perhaps for a few
Greek philosophers. On this basis, it asserts that its findings are true of all people
(and even animals), everywhere, at all times (Bhatia, 2019), despite the reality that its
claims are based primarily on studies of undergraduates in privileged situations who
represent less than 5% of the world’s population (Arnett, 2008; Henrich, Heine, &
Norenzayan, 2010). The stance of hegemonic psychological science obscures that
it, too, has a foundation built on spiritual ideas, religion, mind science, custom,
commerce, and, in the case of the USA, intense individualism, as has been copiously
documented (e.g. Albanese, 2007; Fuller, 1982; Harrington, 2008; Schmit, 2005,
2010; Taves, 1999; Taylor, 1999). Perhaps, this occlusion of hegemonic psychology’s
mythic/religious/commercial past is an example of what Santos calls a sociology of
absences (2014).
The authors in this volume document how this process of finding a psychology
true to India has developed over several decades. What is different here, as the editors
carefully lay out, is that Indian psychologies (surely there are multiple expressions),
whether labelled indigenous or not, form a natural part of psychology in India.
As in other countries and other cultures, especially those where there was a strong
colonial presence, psychology that was representative of hegemonic psychology also
developed and continues to have a major presence in India.
The volume’s division of contents into historical aspects, disciplinary and subdis-
ciplinary developments, and closing with critique and prospective futures allows for a
robust presentation of the complexity of psychology in India. I was quite taken by the
editors’ statement in the introduction that “the story of psychology in India unfolds
much before the launch of teaching and research in modern academia” (Misra,
Sanyal, & De, this volume). As the editors note, much of what modern disciplinary
psychology, especially the Euro-American mainstream, counts as core psycholog-
ical topics, such as mental states, cognition, consciousness, sociality, health, and
well-being were also core topics in the Indian philosophical, medical, and intellec-
tual traditions. In fact, they still are major topics. As a person who counts himself
as functioning in a contemporary version of the Vānaprastha ashram, I understand
and accept these spiritual/intellectual approaches from the Vedic traditions as impor-
tant psychological insights about human development that can sustain us throughout
our lifespans. The editors are insightful here, in that they rightly, in my estima-
tion, critique the stance that claims that such approaches are no more than out-dated
philosophy. They are right to point to colonial domination of India by the British
as bearing the fault for such stances. We are all aware that even after political and
military colonization ends, as it did in India in 1947, coloniality endures. To follow
Foreword ix

through briefly on the problematic of enduring coloniality, I offer a quote from the
Latin-American theorist, Nelson Maldonado-Torres:
Coloniality…refers to long-standing patterns of power that emerged as a result of colo-
nialism, but that define culture, labor, intersubjective relations, and knowledge production
well beyond the strict limits of colonial administrations. Thus, coloniality survives colo-
nialism. It is maintained alive in books, in the criteria for academic performance, in cultural
patterns, in common sense, in the self-image of peoples, in aspirations of self, and so many
other aspects of our modern experience. In a way, as modern subjects we breathe coloniality
all the time and everyday (2007, p. 242).

Maldonado-Torres goes further and argues that the effect of coloniality extends to a
coloniality of being and a coloniality of knowing. Thus, unless we become aware of
these enduring effects, we develop educational practices, scientific disciplines, arts,
and humanities in a coloniality mode. One can also find these and similar concepts,
stated differently perhaps, in post-colonial thinkers such as Homi Bhabha, Dipesh
Chakrabarty, Gayatri Spivak, Ashis Nandy, and Sunil Bhatia (Bhabha, 1994; Bhatia,
2018; Chakrabarty, 2000; Nandy, 1989; Spivak, 1988).
In the presence of a continuing coloniality of being and knowledge in India, then,
I find the present volume remarkable. Due is given to hegemonic psychology. It
has a presence, an important one, in India. But, this volume is persuasive evidence
that psychologists and scholars have not been silent on the continuing presence and
viability of older traditions, as well as developing new approaches that draw on both
to meet the current needs of India. This is what Durganand Sinha began to do very
early in his career (e.g. Sinha, 1965). Sinha recognized that Indian psychologists
needed to find Indian solutions to the problems facing the country. He did not reject
American or Western psychology, as much as simply finding that is approach alone
was not an adequate match for the country’s needs. He argued that India needed a
problem-oriented approach to address both macro- and microlevel problems in the
country (Sinha, 1986). Sinha later described the psychology that he and his colleagues
developed as a dual process: indigenization from within and indigenization from
without. The indigenization from within meant a looking back to the rich cultural,
intellectual, spiritual, philosophically oriented psychological thought found in the
Vedas and Upanishads for insights into Indian lives. Sinha argued that these tradi-
tions provided a firm foundation for a nuanced and subtle psychology more suitable
for understanding Indian life than the imported Western psychology. He argued for a
number of years, in numerous publications, that in India, meaningfulness is inextri-
cably linked to relationships with others and that the goal of life is to find harmony
with both nature and society (D. Sinha, 1998). For psychology to have relevance
in India, he pointed out, it must take into account this fundamental fact of Indian
existence. There is a richness in Indian life, as Sinha and many others pointed out,
that is not readily apparent to outsiders. To be effective, psychology must originate
from this basic, taken-for-granted, truth of Indian life. To do so, Sinha and others
argued, is what makes psychology Indian, not just reliance on an imported set of
methods, principles, and practices. This approach has been carried on by Girishwar
Misra and many others (e.g. Misra, 2006).
x Foreword

Complementary to this was the process of indigenization from without, which

meant that psychological theory and methods learned in American, British, or Euro-
pean graduate programmes had to be reevaluated and modified to fit the Indian
context. The changes that he and other like-minded colleagues developed were
central to the emergence of the complex, multi-layered psychology that is taught
and practised in much of India today. The editors acknowledge that much of the
work represented here is drawn from Kolkata and its broader region; it is still the
case that this volume is representative of the rich insights stemming from psycho-
logical research, writing, and practice in contemporary India. The scholarship of the
editors and authors have provincialized the Euro-American psychology hegemon,
to use Chakrabarty’s term (2000). They provide us with an in-depth look into what
happens when a culture or nation embraces its own psychological heritage and places
it on equal footing with what has touted itself as a universal science and profession.
We are all the richer for their deeds and their insights.
Wade E. Pickren, Ph.D.
Independent Scholar: Psychologies Otherwise/Earthwise
Co-editor, Review of General Psychology
Editor-in-Chief, Oxford Encyclopaedia of the History of Psychology
https://oxfordre.com/psychology/page/psych-history/the-oxford-encyclopedia-of-
the-history-of-psychology
Co-editor, Our Present Crises: Climate Change, Biodiversity Loss, and Social
Inequality (A special issue of the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences )
Author: Psychology and Health: Culture, Place, History. Routledge: 2020

References
Albanese, C. L. (2007). A republic of mind and spirit: A cultural history of American metaphysical
religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Arnett, J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to be less American.
American Psychologist, 63, 602–614.
Bhahba, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. New York, NY: Routledge.
Bhatia, S. (2018). Decolonizing psychology: Globalization, social justice and Indian youth
identities. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Bhatia, S. (2019). Searching for justice in an unequal world: Reframing indigenous psychology as
a cultural and political project. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 39, 107–
114.
Chakrabarty, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial thought and historical difference.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fuller, R. C. (1982). Mesmerism and the American cure of souls. Philadelphia, PA: University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Harrington, A. (2008). The cure within: A history of mind-body medicine. New York: Norton.
Hegarty, P. & Pratto, F. (2001). The effects of social category norms and stereotypes on explanations
for intergroup differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 723–735.
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? The Behavioral
and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83.
Maldonado-Torres, N. (2007). On the coloniality of being. Cultural Studies, 21, 240–270.
Misra, G. (2006). Psychology and societal development: Paradigmatic and social concerns. New
Dehli, Delhi, India: Concept Publishing.
Foreword xi

Nandy, A. (1989). The intimate enemy: Loss and recovery of self under colonialism. Calcutta, India:
Oxford University Press.
Santos, B. d. S. (2014). Epistemologies of the South: Justice against epistemicide. New York:
Routledge.
Schmit, D. (2005). Re-visioning American antebellum psychology: The dissemination of
mesmerism, 1836–1854. History of Psychology, 8, 403–434.
Sinha, D. (1965). Integration of modern psychology with Indian thought. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 5, 6–17.
Sinha, D. (1986). Psychology in a third world country: The Indian experience. New Delhi, Delhi,
India: Sage.
Sinha, D. (1998). Changing perspectives in social psychology in India: A journey towards
indigenization. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 17–31.
Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? In G. C. Spivak, C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.),
Marxism and the interpretation of culture (pp. 271–313). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois
Press.
Taves, A. (1999). Fits, trances, and visions: Experiencing religion and explaining experience from
Wesley to James. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Taylor, E. (1999). Shadow culture: Psychology and spirituality in America. Washington, DC:
Counterpoint.
Preface

The study of the history of any discipline can be undertaken from different perspec-
tives since narratives are created by historians themselves. Indeed, while making
sense of history, one must engage with a stream of events associated with different
and shifting centres of gravity followed by interpretations from one’s own position
about the historians themselves. Given the fact that theories are profoundly impacted
by the context and experiences of the theorists themselves, such analyses form a crit-
ical aspect of examining history. Psychology as a field of study is relatively new but
has become large and complex in its scope. However, considering the vast historical,
economic, ecological, and cultural diversity, Psychology’s origins are narrow and the
assumptions predominantly unicultural. Several recent analyses have provided robust
evidence for the fact that, over the course of its history, Psychology has successfully
imposed and advanced a circumscribed view of person and society emerging out of
Euro-American ideals on the rest of the world. Although the pre-eminence of Euro-
American thought in Psychology is fathomable, it is no longer justifiable. After half
a century of political decolonization, such domination is no longer acceptable.
Because of political and economic dominance, the Euro-American version of
psychological science has earned pan-human legitimacy. Its hegemonic construc-
tions were transported to the different parts of the globe. The decontextualized,
individual-centric view of human beings dominated by the ideas of physicalism,
objectivity, and linear mechanism, ignores, suppresses, and even replaces disparate
traditions through academic advancement and strategic promotions. Such an epis-
temic imposition offers a pseudo-understanding of what psychology is, whom, what
and why it studies and how, and even more importantly, this has debilitating conse-
quences by the inherent misconstrual, devaluation, even deprecation of native views,
beliefs, and practices. Owing to various historical circumstances, to raise intellec-
tual status and gain international recognition, Indian academia often maintained a
distance with its cultural heritage, sometimes even presenting a suspicious attitude
towards it. Consequently, the identities, symbolic resources, conceptual repertoires,
and behavioural options of non-Western communities become marginal, personal,

xiii
xiv Preface

and even irrelevant for academic study. Such a separation of the personal–familial
processes from the formal–public domain was an important strategy for survival in
colonial times. Attitudes towards personal experiences in educational settings are one
such functional schism that people living in the colonies had to develop to survive.
Cultural difference was never a central concern to psychologists. The colonial incur-
sion was so devastating that while Western concepts were almost blindly accepted
and welcomed without any scrutiny, indigenous concepts and theories were fore-
closed. It is a matter of great astonishment that despite colonisation, cultures have
survived and even thrived in personal lives and collective expressions through sheer
persistence and preference. However, in the field of academic psychology, indige-
nous knowledge systems have always lingered in the margins to be used as exotic
illustrations as a token mention of human diversity.
Primarily based on the knowledge and practices drawn from the Western tradition,
psychology as developed in modern India, therefore, started its journey in subordina-
tion. The celebration of the centenary (1915–2015) of the first academic institution of
higher learning, the Department of Psychology, Calcutta University, was an occasion
for a critical appraisal of the advancement of psychology in India. With this in view,
this volume presents an account of the foundation and stages of development and
subsequent differentiation of the discipline in recent times. Attention is also placed
on the rich indigenous intellectual traditions related to the nature of the mind and
its functions that have been ignored. In a broad sense, there is an attempt to address
the question of how psychology in India has organized itself and what directions
lie ahead. The historical trajectory of the discipline is traced to discern the lessons,
lapses, and lacunae in its voyage. This is followed by a thematic analysis of concerns
that demand greater engagement and suggest culturally meaningful linkages with
intellectual traditions from around the world, especially in critical psychology as
the efforts are on to internationalize the discipline. To move forward, it is essential
for psychology to advance in culturally inclusive ways of examining phenomena
while building a general paradigm. The knowledge and progress of the history of
psychology is a key exercise to fully understand the challenges and opportunities for
the future, where people are not distanced from their personal lives and experiences,
but where they find meaningful mention and favourable understanding, worthy of
academic attention. Additionally, there is a strong practical aspect of psychological
theory and method with the objective of understanding, predicting, and providing
knowledge for human advancement. In this construction, the imagination cannot
be limited to a singular version of optimal development, personally, socially, and
ecologically. More than even before, we have learnt how fragile the human condition
can be. It has taken a pandemic for us to come down on our knees and realize the
true impact of unsustainable policies and global expansion of commerce. This is a
valuable pause in the unbridled advancement of a narrow version of progress and one
that must be taken seriously in every discipline. Psychology is no exception. Making
place for people in non-Western cultures to join the centre table of the discipline is
the need of the hour.
Preface xv

Psychology’s curriculum is not simply "out there" to be discovered. It is being

created and constructed by researchers, practitioners, and lay people who are its
consumers. The variety in psychological thoughts, therefore, is overwhelming. Its
plurality can be understood by the changing politico-economic conditions, techno-
logical developments, and the priorities of an increasingly industrializing world.
Within the discipline of psychology, the emphasis on the inner (mind) and outer
(body/or world) has been continually shifting. Today, it is generally held to be a "mind
and behaviour science", with recent advances reaching further into innermost neural
activity as evidence of thought. Thus, it encompasses all the layers of human engage-
ment, from neurological to cognitive to individuals, groups, and nations at large. The
mind-boggling plurality and multivocality present in today’s psychological pursuits
potentially results in uncertainty and confusion. For instance, the same phenomenon
may be explained through behavioural or cognitive or psychodynamic or socio-
cultural formulations. Self-contained individualism and reductionism have become
core concerns. Recent advances are becoming cross-/multi-/transdisciplinary. As a
result, a certain degree of doubt about its progress and integration across different
domains and levels is at stake. Many Indian scholars have voiced concerns regarding
the viability of the mainstream or the received model of psychology. At this juncture,
some observations on the general scenario are in order.
With the establishment of the academic discipline in India, experimental, psycho-
metric, and psychoanalytic traditions started receiving the primary attention of Indian
scholars. Its growth as a discipline and profession was slow during the colonial period
but gradually gained popularity since the empirical approach offered an easy way
to move forward. After gaining independence in 1947, changes started taking place
and marked growth in research publications, which was registered in the growth
of knowledge after 1970. Also, the British influence became replaced by the North
American influence. Psychology did not grow as an integral part of some evolu-
tionary process. The culturally blind approach and positivist spirit provided the false
impression of contribution. The Western lens rendered cultural variations as method-
ological artefacts and deviations. Accordingly, attempts were made to preserve the
scientific nature of the discipline by rejecting the genuineness of cultural influences.
The paradigm in vogue was non-reflexive and could not appreciate the differences
between the native knowledge system and Western categories. They were uncritically
treated as speculative and objective, respectively. The scenario started changing in the
1970s when some Indian psychologists started noticing the inadequacies of Western
concepts, methods, and theories. The mounting disillusionment led to reorient the
scholarly engagement with a cultural sensibility. This was also promoted by inter-
actions with cross-cultural researchers and the fact that non-positivist paradigms
implicated the idea that the knowledge claims in human domains are relative to the
setting in which they are grounded. Within this context, the questioning of Western
concepts and exploring the indigenous concepts has started. Unfortunately, disci-
plinary training has not changed much and its products and by-products continue
xvi Preface

to promote the received paradigm. In general, the confidence in the use of indige-
nous concepts and theories is weak and researchers do not find themselves encour-
aged enough to substantially invest in such explorations. The recent advancement of
administrative procedures to include stringent criteria for ethics also derive largely
from international standards and practices in science. This further places constraints
on cultural perspectives and practices.
Historically, the concepts, theories, and practices of mental functions in various
contexts have developed over thousands of years within the Indian subcontinent.
Experiential and first-person perspectives frequently dominate these discourses. They
offer a plethora of discussions on suffering, self-realization, social conduct, and affec-
tive and cognitive processes. They propose a harmonious fusion of the functioning of
mind, body, and spirit. A meta-theory, epistemology, and phenomenology, different
from the Western perspectives, were in place. A strong urge for transcendence was
central in its articulation of social life and personal beliefs. These indigenous ideas
seem to have the potential to contribute to the global civilization. In this scheme,
body, mind, and consciousness are integrated. Facilitating individual and collective
harmony was the key. Sat-chit-anand: existence–consciousness–bliss were inter-
related. The current resurgence of interest in meditation, yoga, on the one hand,
and growing interest in positive psychology and neuropsychology on the other is
indicative of a global shift towards such an interrelated philosophy.
In the changing scenario, a move to seriously pursue Indian psychology has been
encouraged. Reflecting a tradition rooted in Indian ethos, thought, and practices, it
proposes that movement from subjective consciousness to unmediated conscious-
ness is the way to overcome suffering. By assuming spirituality of human nature,
it strives to realize a link between apparent diversity and multiplicity. It offers a
broad theoretical foundation to explore human consciousness. The applications of
yoga, meditation, and Ayurveda are being widely recognized. An attempt is made
to assimilate the different strands of work, and a pertinent response to culturally
relevant questions and critical forays may emerge.
A sense of the history of a discipline is necessary for its identity which is often
missing in the psychology fraternity in the country. More importantly, deploying
critical historiography to examine the development in the discipline offers an oppor-
tunity to recognize its unrealized potentials and avoidable pitfalls. This volume seeks
to address an important gap in psychological literature and will be useful for students,
teachers, and practitioners. Further, the volume invites for a critical engagement with
the issues that are important in making the discipline vibrant.
With this background, this volume aims to showcase the developments in historical
context and to present the problems, positions, and possibilities for psychology in
India. It also identifies the gaps and persisting limitations of the research process
regarding conceptual and methodological issues. In this way, the volume attends
to critical concerns that are central to epistemic practices of psychology in India.
Extending the reflective scholarship will inevitably impact the future course of the
discipline. The goal of this book is to combine material from different fields of
Preface xvii

knowledge creation and profession engagement. Each of the chapters in this volume
has something valuable to offer in the advancement of psychology in India. Finally,
the volume also presents a critical analysis of historical events and advancements.
The purpose of this exercise was to learn from the past, how psychology can become
a vibrant field of scholarship and meaningfully contribute towards solving problems
associated with the dynamics of Indian society.

Delhi, India Girishwar Misra

Kolkata, India Nilanjana Sanyal
Kolkata, India Sonali De
Acknowledgments

The idea to publish a volume on History of Psychology in Modern India was

conceived during a seminar organized by the Department of Psychology, Univer-
sity of Calcutta, in 2015 to initiate the celebration of 100 years of its establishment.
This department was the first University Department in the Indian subcontinent,
where post-graduate teaching of psychology was initiated in 1915. It is here that
psychology started the formal journey as a modern academic discipline in India.
The celebration of the Centenary Year of the Department of Psychology, Univer-
sity of Calcutta, started with the inauguration of the new N. N. Sengupta Block and
Girindrasekhar Bose Auditorium on the 3rd Floor, Palit Building, and Rashbehari
Siksha Prangan, followed by a National Seminar on “History of Psychology in India”,
held on 18–19 March 2015, at the Shivananda Hall, Ramkrishna Mission Institute
of Culture, Southern Avenue Road, Golpark, Calcutta. The programme was coordi-
nated by Dr. Sonali De, the then Head of the Department of Psychology, along with
Professors Nilanjana Sanyal and Mallika Banerjee. Stalwarts of psychology from
different parts of India participated and exchanged views on the developments in
different fields within psychology. The inaugural speech of the seminar was deliv-
ered by Professor DhruboJyoti Chattopadhyay, Pro-Vice-Chancellor (Academic) of
the University of Calcutta. Spread over two days, the marathon seminar engaged
with a variety of themes including the history of the Calcutta University across the
century, eminent teachers of department of psychology of University of Calcutta,
Girindrasekhar Bose and the vernacularization of psychiatry in Bengal, the evolu-
tion of psychology in India, mental health, and healing in India, psychology in South
India: weaving the strands, and development of psychology in North East India. The
speakers included Professors Girishwar Misra, Somnath Bhattacharya, Nilanjana
Sanyal, Ajit Kumar Dalal, Prakash Padakannaya, Indranee Phookan Borooah, and Dr.
Amit Ranjan Basu. Day two of the seminar was dedicated to lectures titled: A hundred
years of social psychology in India, Development of research methodology in India,
A paradigm shift in social science research, The emergence of quantum mechanics
derived uncertainty: human mind–happiness–and national well-being, Perspectives

xix
xx Acknowledgments

of military psychology, History of psychology in Bangladesh, History of Organiza-

tional Behaviour in India, Calcutta, and Pursuit of excellence. The speakers included
Professors. Janak Pandey, Damodar Suar, Anand Prakash, Jagadindra Mondal, Manas
Kumar Mandal, Hamida Akhtar Begum, R. C. Tripathi, and Jitendra Mohan. The
seminar was successful in creating a need for undertaking a historical exercise of
introspection into the developments of psychology in India.
Of particular significance are two other events organized as a part of centenary
celebrations. A conference on Spirituality and Psychology: Emerging Perspectives
was organized on October 9–11, 2015. The papers presented at the conference, with
some additional inclusions, are published in a special issue of Psychological Studies
guest-edited by Doug Oman, Chetna Duggal, and Girishwar Misra (April–June 2018
issue, Volume 63. Number 2). Also, a seminar on “Culture and Psychology: Revis-
iting Baul Philosophy” was held on 27 September 2016. The invited speakers for
this special event included Professor Shaktinath Jha, Retired Professor, Berhampur
Krishnath College, and eminent Researcher on Baul, Prof. (Dr.) Sudipta Chatterjee,
Professor of Department of Cultural Studies, Center for Studies in Social Sciences,
Kolkata. On this occasion, Sri Amanot Fakir Baul discussed Baul practice and
performed the Baul music.
The work on this project has been extensive and time-consuming. Despite the
inherent challenges of such large collaborative efforts, we have been fortunate to
have the cooperation of the contributors whose chapters have greatly benefitted from
comments and feedback of an excellent review committee that has resulted in a
volume of current relevance for the discipline, nationally as well as internationally.
The growth of psychology in India has significant themes and messages for the
development of the discipline, as these chapters demonstrate.
The editors are grateful to Professor Wade Pickren for presenting the foreword to
this volume. He has provided the necessary perspectives to emphasize and anchor
the reader in the significance of the historical project. Professor Ajit K. Mohanty has
offered a post-script to the volume. His critical analysis and articulation of the issues
pertaining to historiography of psychology in the Indian context provide insights
for future work. The editors are indebted to him for this favour. We have endeav-
oured to cover diverse aspects of psychology teaching and research in India, but it
is important for us to maintain humility in reaching the vast corners of the country
where psychology is being taught and practised. We can only hope that the issues
raised bear resemblance and relevance for our colleagues around the country and in
different parts of the world. We sincerely hope this volume gives the readers new
ways of thinking about the long journey behind us and engage with the exciting
opportunities ahead for the discipline.

Girishwar Misra
Nilanjana Sanyal
Sonali De
Contents

1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India . . . . . . . . 1

Girishwar Misra, Nilanjana Sanyal, and Sonali De

Part I Historical Perspectives

2 Modern Psychology in India: Reminiscences and Reflections . . . . . . 27
H. S. Asthana
3 History of Psychology at Calcutta University Across
the Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Nilanjana Sanyal
4 Applied Psychology at the University of Calcutta: Heritage
and State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Jayanti Basu and N. K. Bhattacharyya
5 Eminent Teachers of the Department of Psychology
at Calcutta University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Somnath Bhattacharya
6 Shall the Twain Ever Meet? The Cultural Politics
of Psychoanalysis in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Arvind Kumar Mishra
7 History of the Development of Psychology in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . 119
Hamida Akhtar Begum
8 Development of Psychology in North East India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Indranee Phookan Borooah
9 Psychology in the North India: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Akbar Husain

xxi
xxii Contents

Part II Disciplinary Perspectives

10 Re-envisioning Psychology: A Critical History of Psychology
in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Arvind Kumar Mishra and Divya Padalia
11 Indian Psychology in Prospect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
K. Ramakrishna Rao
12 Thematic and Theoretical Moves in Psychology in Modern
India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Girishwar Misra and Anand C. Paranjpe
13 Past and Present Research Methodologies in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Damodar Suar

Part III Developments in Sub-fields of Psychology

14 Assessment of Individual Differences in India: Historical
Roots, Current Status, and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Jitendra K. Singh and Indiwar Misra
15 Human Development Research in India: A Historical Overview . . . 281
Rachana Bhangaokar and Shagufa Kapadia
16 Hundred Years of Social Psychology in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Janak Pandey
17 Understanding Organizational Behavior in India:
An Indigenous Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Anand Prakash and Alka Bajpai
18 Mental Health and Healing in India: A Retrospect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Ajit K. Dalal
19 Clinical Psychology in the Contemporary Indian Context . . . . . . . . . 361
Vishnu Sharan and Ravikesh Tripathi
20 Holistic and Holigrative Approaches to Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
V. George Mathew
21 Perspectives on Educational Psychology in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Ashok K. Srivastava
22 Emergence of Quantum Mechanics, Human Mind,
and Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Jagadindra Mandal

Part IV Critical Appraisal and Future Perspectives

23 Psychology in India: A Discipline in Search of Its Identity . . . . . . . . . 417
Parul Bansal
Contents xxiii

24 Psychology in India: A Glance on Paradigmatic

and Methodological Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Raghubir Singh Pirta and Girishwar Misra
25 Toward a Culturally Grounded Human Science: Prospects
of Psychology for India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Nandita Chaudhary and Sujata Sriram
26 Situating Systems of Psychology Within the Traditional
Indian and Modern Western Knowledge Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Anand C. Paranjpe
27 Reflections on Nurturing the Tree of Psychology in India . . . . . . . . . . 503
Girishwar Misra, Shivantika Sharad, Nivida Chandra,
and Indiwar Misra
28 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Ajit K. Mohanty
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Girishwar Misra, Ph.D. served as Professor of Psychology at the University of

Delhi for two decades. He also served as Vice Chancellor of Mahatma Gandhi Antar-
rashtriya Hindi Vishvavidyalaya, Wardha. Dr. Misra’s research is focused on social,
developmental, health, and cultural psychology. He has published journal articles on
these topics, many in top tier peer-reviewed journals such as American Psycholo-
gist, International Journal of Psychology, Psychology and Developing Societies, and
International Journal of Behavioural Development. He has served as the President of
the National Academy of Psychology (NAOP), India, and edited the journal Psycho-
logical Studies (Springer) for 16 years. He was Fulbright Senior Scholar at Swarth-
more College and Michigan University, An Arbor. He is a recipient of the Jawaharlal
Nehru National Award by the Government of Madhya Pradesh, National Fellowship
of the Indian Council of Social Science Research, Fellowship of the NAOP, India,
Fulbright Nehru Fellowship and S.C. Mitra Memorial Award by Asiatic Society.
His recent works include Psychosocial Interventions for Health and Well-Being
(Springer, 2018) and Surveys and Explorations in Psychology (Oxford, 2019).

Nilanjana Sanyal, Ph.D. served as Professor at the Department of Psychology,

University of Calcutta, Kolkata. She has 35 years of teaching experience. She has
authored a book, co-authored two books, edited two books and is a co-author of
the Indian adaptation of a Test Manual. She has over 180 international and national
publications including 32 book chapters to her credit till date. Her research inter-
ests include psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy, clinical psychology,
gerontology, spiritual and positive psychology. She is also a practicing psychoanalyst
for the last 38 years.

Sonali De, Ph.D. is a Professor at the Department of Psychology, University of

Calcutta, Kolkata. She has 23 years of teaching experience and has written more than
30 journal articles. Her research interests include social psychology, the psychology

xxv
xxvi Editors and Contributors

of gender, and media psychology. She has contributed a review chapter to the 6th
ICSSR Survey of Psychology. She is serving NAOP, India as its Secretary General.

Contributors

H. S. Asthana, Ph.D. (1922–2019) was Professor and first Head of Psychology

Department at Doctor Hari Singh Gaur University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India,
1963. He also served as Vice Chancellor of Sagar University. He earned Ph.D. from
Lucknow University on Indian Typological Theories: An Historical and Experi-
mental Approach to Personality in 1950. He started his career as lecturer in the depart-
ment of philosophy at Lucknow University, and later, he moved to psychology depart-
ment. He was a postdoctoral fellow at Chicago University (1950–1951), research
associate at Harvard University (1965), and a visiting professor at Washington
University (1966) and Professor of Psychology at Gorakhpur University (1967).
He served as the convener of the UGC panel of psychology for a long period. He
was UGC National Lecturer in 1976. He received Platinum Jubilee Lectureship
award by the Indian Science Congress Association 1990, Fellowship of National
Academy of Psychology (1994), and S. C. Mitra Memorial Award by Asiatic Society
in 2004. His areas of interest included Rorschach studies, counselling, and exper-
imental psychology. He was an erudite scholar with passion for reading, research,
teaching, and motivating students.
Alka Bajpai, D.Phil. is Assistant Professor of Psychology at University of Delhi.
Her teaching and research interests are in the field of organizational behaviour and
the psychology of intergroup relations. She has completed research projects which
are in the areas of positive youth development and diversity and inclusion of students
in educational settings and on school effectiveness. She has also published papers
on emotional climate of organizations and vulnerabilities around caste stigma.
Parul Bansal, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lady Shri Ram College
for Women, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. Her doctoral work was a psycho-
analytically informed research exploring identity issues of autonomy and ideology
amongst urban Indian young men and women. Her academic interests include
social and cultural psychology, history of psychology, critical psychology, quali-
tative research methods, and psychoanalysis. She has authored Youth in Contempo-
rary India: Images of Identity and Social Change (Springer, 2013) and Psychology:
Debates and Controversies (Sage, 2019) in addition to several journal articles and
book chapters.
Jayanti Basu, Ph.D. is Professor of Applied Psychology, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata, with about 35 years of experience. She is also a registered psychoanalyst.
She is past Editor of the Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. She
has more than 100 published papers and book and edited volumes. She has authored
Reconstructing the Bengal Partition: The Psyche under a Different Violence. She
Editors and Contributors xxvii

is also the co-author of a Bengali book based on a detailed interview with Ashis
Nandy. Some of her earlier research works are on ego functions, gender issues,
and relationships. Her present research interests are moral psychology, political and
cultural psychology, psychotherapeutic processes, Indian and spiritual psychology.
Hamida Akhtar Begum, Ph.D. is former Professor of psychology, University of
Dhaka. She obtained her Masters (1969) and Ph.D. (1973) degrees from the Univer-
sity of Manitoba, Canada. Currently, she is serving as Pro-Vice Chancellor of Inter-
national University of Business, Agriculture and Technology (IUBAT). Her research
interest includes methodological issues and psycho-social problems such as mental
health, gender, environment, and development. Some of her publications are Modern
Social Psychology (in Bengali, 1987), A Dictionary of Psychological Terms ( Bengali,
1986), Explaining Mental Disorders in Bangladesh (2005) and Introduction to Envi-
ronmental Psychology (2020). She is currently the Chief Editor of Bangladesh
Psychological Studies, Empowerment and Khamatayan. She has been actively asso-
ciated with Bangladesh Psychological Association, Bangladesh Clinical Psychology
Association, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, and Centre for Psycho-Social Research
and Training.
Rachana Bhangaokar, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Human Development and
Family Studies, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India. Her research
interests include cultural psychology, Indian perspectives on moral development
including concepts of Dharma, Karma Yoga and Shraddha, youth civic engagement,
and Gandhian philosophy. Two of her recent cross-cultural projects are about tradi-
tional and modern eating patterns and work-life balance. She has been the recipient
of the Fulbright Junior Research Fellowship at the University of Chicago, USA
(2004–2005), and has participated in the Fulbright-Nehru International Education
Administration Seminar (2015).
Somnath Bhattacharya, Ph.D. (1930–2019) was Professor of Psychology at the
University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India. He was also a reputed practicing training
analyst associated with the Indian Psychoanalytical Society. Throughout his life, he
wanted to understand psychology embedded in Indian philosophical systems and
was well versed in Samkhya and Yoga-Darshana. He is the author of Psychology:
East and West published from Ebang Mushayera. His other interests were cognitive
psychology and psychoanalysis. He has published research articles in the domains
of ego functions, creativity, and philosophical–spiritual psychology. He was also a
musician with expertise in sitar recital. He was known for his depth of understanding
and integration of different knowledge systems.
N. K. Bhattacharyya, Ph.D. is former Professor of Applied Psychology, University
of Calcutta, Kolkata, India. During his carrier, he supervised doctoral works of more
than 25 scholars. He specializes in clinical psychology and published more than
30 papers in National and International Journals. He was associated with various
academic bodies and participated key roles in science popularization programmes.
xxviii Editors and Contributors

Nivida Chandra, Ph.D. has completed research on The Phenomenon of Parentifi-

cation Narratives from Urban India at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New
Delhi. She was awarded Fulbright Nehru Doctoral Research Fellowship to work at
Silver School of Social Work, New York University. Her area of interest is qualitative
methods, mental health promotions, and social interventions.
Nandita Chaudhary, Ph.D. is former Associate Professor, of Human Development
and Family Studies, Lady Irwin College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India.
Currently she teaches Developmental Psychology as a adjunct faculty at Ahmedabad
University, runs a blog and takes on freelance work in publishing, research and
lectures in the field of Cultural Psychology, Child Development and Family Studies.
She has been Fulbright Scholar at Clark University, USA, (1993–1994), and Senior
Fellow of ICSSR (2012–2014). She is the author of Listening to Culture (2004, Sage),
co-edited five volumes, authored several chapters in books and journals, and serves
as associate editor for several leading journals.
Ajit K. Dalal, Ph.D. (1950–2019) was Professor of Psychology, University of Alla-
habad, Allahabad, India. He completed his Ph.D. from IIT Kanpur, and he had a
long inning at Allahabad University and contributed significantly in many ways. He
was a recipient of Fulbright Senior Fellow at University of California, Los Angles,
and at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. A recipient of the UGC Career
Award, Rockefeller Foundation Award, and ICSSR Senior Fellowship; he was a
visiting faculty at several institutes. His areas of interest included Indian psychology,
health psychology, methodological issues, and disability. He served as Editor of
Psychology and Developing Societies (2001–2011). His publications include Mind
Matters, Attribution: Theory and Research, New Directions in Indian Psychology:
Social Psychology (with G. Misra), Social Dimensions of Health, Health Beliefs
and Coping with Chronic Diseases, New Directions in Health Psychology (with G.
Misra), Cultural Psychology of Health in India, Qualitative Research on Wellbeing
and Self-growth (with Kumar Ravi Priya), Psychology for India: A Collection of
Essays by D. Sinha (with G. Misra) and Rehabilitation and Social Work.
Akbar Husain, D.Litt. is Professor of Psychology at Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, India. He also served as Professor at University of Malaya, Malaysia (2005–
2009). He has authored and edited 40 books and contributed over 200 research
papers and book chapters including Psychological Perspectives in Islam and Sufism,
Spirituality in Practice, Applied Positive Psychology, New Directions in Spiritual
Psychology, Applied Spirituality: Theory, research and practice. He is recipient of
Sir Syed Innovation Award (2018). He served as the editor of the Journal of Indian
Academy of Applied Psychology (2002–2005). He is currently engaged in research
on idyllic personality, social support, and religious/spiritual coping and building a
centre for spiritual psychology and meditation.
Shagufa Kapadia, Ph.D. is Professor of Human Development and Family Studies
at the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India. Her research specializa-
tions include cultural issues in human development with focus on adolescence and
emerging adulthood, self, morality, parenting and socialization, and gender and
Editors and Contributors xxix

women’s issues. She has authored Adolescence in Urban India: Cultural Construc-
tion in a Society in Transition (Springer, 2017) which offers a culturally and contex-
tually grounded understanding of adolescence in urban India. She is on the editorial
boards of Psychological Studies and Culture and Psychology. She is the recipient of
Fulbright Senior Research Fellowship and Shastri Indo-Canadian Faculty Research
Award; she is the India coordinator of the International Society for the Study of
Behavioral Development. She is also on the Advisory Board of the International
Beliefs and Values Institute Western Washington University, Bellingham, USA.
Jagadindra Mandal, Ph.D. is former Professor of Applied Psychology, Calcutta
University, Kolkata, India. He also served as Dean, PG Studies in Science Calcutta
University, Kolkata. He has authored 16 books on psychological issues in English
and Bengali. He has conducted several Research Projects on Substance Abuse and
Rehabilitation, Women Empowerment, Creativity, Psychology of the Visually Chal-
lenged sponsored by U.G.C., N.C.E.R.T., Social Welfare Department and Depart-
ment of Science & Technology, Government of West Bengal. He was invited by West
Virginia University, USA, to deliver lectures on substance abuse and rehabilitation.
The U.S.-Asia Foundation of Washington D.C. gave an Award of Distinction for
introducing rehabilitation psychology at Calcutta University. He was on Advisory
Board of the Research Journal Disabilities and Impairment.
V. George Mathew, Ph.D. is former Professor of Psychology, University of Kerala,
Trivandrum, India. He served there from 1969 to 2002. He has supervised 10 Ph.D.
students. He has authored 16 psychological tests of which the IAS rating scale, test
of mental abilities and the materialism-spiritualism scale are well known. He has
published 26 research papers and over 200 popular articles. He has presented papers
in around 100 seminars. He has given numerous popular talks and made videos on
various topics in psychology. He has created a new system of Holigrative Psychology
combining Eastern and Western approaches to psycholohy (http://www.psycholog
y4all.com).
Arvind Kumar Mishra, Ph.D. teaches Social Psychology at Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi, India. He has co-edited Interrogating Development: Insights
from the Margins; School Education, Pluralism and Marginality: Comparative
Perspective; Dynamics of Inclusive Classroom: Social Diversity, Inequality and
School Education in India, and The Marginalized Self: Tales of Resistance of a
Community. He has published in American Journal of Orthopsychiatry and Journal
of Social and Political Psychology and contributed a review chapter to the 5th ICSSR
survey of psychology. He has jointly completed an ICSSR research programme on
“Shared Spaces: Boundaries, Barriers, and Bridges” and a UKIERI research project
“Social Identity, Well-Being, and Civic Participation among Social and Ethnic groups
in India”. His research interest includes academic experiences of disadvantaged
students, self- and identity processes among marginalized communities, resistance
to modernity, and philosophy of social research.
Indiwar Misra, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Psychology, B. R. Ambedkar
College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. His areas of interest include human
laterality, emotions, volunteering, and impact of media. He has published research
xxx Editors and Contributors

papers in Laterality, International Journal of Psychology, Psychology and Devel-

oping Societies, and International Journal of Neuroscience. He has co-authored
a chapter in International Handbook of Creativity (Cambridge) and International
Handbook of Positive Psychology (Springer). He has completed ICSSR research
project on Volunteerism. He is currently working in areas of identity, and cultural
context of emotions and has supervised four doctoral students.
Ajit K. Mohanty, Ph.D. is former Professor and ICSSR National Fellow, Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi, India. He is founder Director and Senior Adviser to
the “National Multilingual Education Resource Consortium” (NMRC) at JNU. He
was a Fulbright Visiting Professor (Columbia University), Fulbright Senior Scholar
(University of Wisconsin), Killam Scholar (University of Alberta), and Visiting
Professor in Western University, Canada. His publications include The Multilingual
Reality: Living with Languages (2019, Multilingual Matters, UK/USA) and nine
books and over 185 papers. He is Fellow of the Association of Psychological Science,
USA, and Fellow and Past-President of the National Academy of Psychology, India.
He developed Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education Policy for Nepal (with
Tove Skutnabb-Kangas) and Odisha (India). He writes weekly columns in Odia
newspapers and has published books in Odia.
Divya Padalia, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of psychology at Kamala Nehru College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. She is interested in examining experiences
around marginality and stereotyping and understanding group members’ responses
to marginalization. In studying these issues, she has employed both qualitative and
quantitative methods. She has been part of Supreme Court’s Project on Ragging in
Educational Institutions (UGC Funded) and has participated in several national and
international conferences including a meeting of the European Association of Social
Psychology (EASP) in 2018.
Janak Pandey, Ph.D. served at the Psychology Department, University of Alla-
habad (1978–2010) and the Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur (1974–1978), and at the Universities of Ranchi and Patna. He was Visiting
Professor at the Manitoba University (1994) and Wake Forest University (1986–
1987). He was founder Vice Chancellor (2009–2014) of the Central University of
Bihar, and Director (1996–2002), GB Pant Institute of Social Sciences, Allahabad.
He has been also a National Fellow, ICSSR, Fellow of the International Associa-
tion of Applied Psychology, President, International Association for Cross-Cultural
Psychology, and Fellow of the National Academy of Psychology, India. He has publi-
cations in social influence, environmental stressors and contemporary social issues,
3rd and 4th ICSSR surveys of psychological research and Perspectives on Exper-
imental Social Psychology in India and Social Reality: Perspectives and Under-
standing. He is currently completing a volume on Understanding Social Influence in
Context.
Anand C. Paranjpe, Ph.D. is Emeritus Professor of Psychology and Humanities
at Simon Fraser University in Canada. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University
of Poona in India, did postdoctoral work as Smith-Mundt and Fulbright Scholar at
Editors and Contributors xxxi

Harvard University under Erik Erikson, and taught at Simon Fraser University from
1967 to 2001. He was invited by the Indian Council of Philosophical Research as
National Visiting Professor in 2010–2011. His major publications include Theoret-
ical psychology: The meeting of East and West and Self and Identity in Modern
Psychology and Indian Thought. He has co-edited with Profs. K. R. Rao and Ajit
Dalal the Handbook of Indian Psychology and co-authored Psychology in the Indian
Tradition with K. R. Rao. He was elected Fellow of Canadian Psychological Asso-
ciation in 2004. In 2021, the National Academy of Psychology, India, has conferred
Distinguished Psychologist Award to him. He is currently working on a psychological
study of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras.
Indranee Phookan Borooah, Ph.D. is Professor of Psychology Assam Univer-
sity, Guwahati, India. Her current focus in research is positive psychology. She
has supervised doctoral research of 15 students on loneliness, resilience, creativity,
moral reasoning, emotional intelligence, character strengths, well-being, and spiri-
tual intelligence. She is a master trainer in HIV/AIDS. She is a recipient of the School
Psychology Best Performance Award and the Ugadi Puraskaram State Award. She has
edited the first text book of psychology in Assamese, written chapters in books and
published 50 papers in research journals. She has jointly edited School Psychology:
Enhancing Psychological Competencies and published papers on faith healers of
Assam and Bhaona, the traditional theatre form of Assam. She is currently exploring
psychological aspects of the mystical and esoteric experiences in the context of the
cultures of North East India.
Raghubir Singh Pirta, Ph.D. is former Professor of Psychology, Himachal Pradesh
University, Shimla, India. He began his research with ethological studies on the
social life of monkeys under natural and semi natural conditions. He received special
training in experimental psychology and neurological bases of behaviour. His inter-
actions at the Center for Ecological Sciences, IISc Bangalore, influences his thoughts.
However, it is with the Chipko activities in the Himalayas that he imbibed the humane
spirit abut nature. His research publications in the area of animal behaviour and
ecology also include to volumes Ecology and human well-being; nature and society
in Himachal Pradesh, Pastorization and the tribesman of mountain: Arung zet sa
of Kanaor. He has been exploring the institution of local deities in the Western
Himalayas. He has contributed review chapters to 5th and 6th ICSSR Surveys of
Psychology.
Anand Prakash, D.Phil. is Professor of Psychology, University of Delhi, New Delhi,
India. Earlier, he has taught at the Allahabad University and the Banaras Hindu
University. He is the recipient of UGC Career Award. He served as Dean International
Relations (Humanities & Social Sciences) of Delhi University (2011–2015). He had
completed an ICSSR project on Growth of Psychology in India with Jai B. P. Sinha
(1993), guest-edited special issues of Psychological Studies on Qualitative Methods
(2001) and Social Constructionism (2012), and contributed a chapter on qualitative
methods to the 5th ICSSR Survey of Psychology. He served as President of NAOP
India (2008). He was awarded Educational Administrative Seminar Fellowship by
xxxii Editors and Contributors

USEFI(2013). His research interest includes organizational socialization and diver-

sity management. He has supervised doctoral research and published extensively in
these areas. Currently, he is editing a volume on Qualitative Psychological Research
in India.
K. Ramakrishna Rao, D.Litt. is Chancellor, University of GITAM, Vishakhap-
atnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. His previous assignments include Chairman, ICPR
(2006–2012), President, Institute of Human Science and Service (1998–), Vice
Chancellor, Andhra University (1984–1987), Director, Institute for Parapsychology,
Durham, NC, 1976–1984, and Professor of Psychology, Andhra University 1968–
1982. He was the president of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. He is the
recipient of Padmsri. He has published 20 books and over two hundred research
papers. His major books include Cognitive Anomalies, Consciousness and Yoga,
Gandhi and Applied Spirituality, Consciousness Studies Cross-cultural Perspectives,
Gandhi and Pragmatism and Experimental Parapsychology.
Shivantika Sharad, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor, Applied Psychology, Vivekanand
College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India. Her doctoral research has been on
exploring the construct of authenticity. She has published several papers and book
chapters on the meaning and experience of authenticity and its outcomes. Her area
of interest includes self and identity, pedagogy, cultural psychology, marginalizatin,
and east west studies.
Vishnu Sharan, M.Phil. is Assistant Professor of Psychology, in the Department of
Higher Education, Uttar Pradesh, India. He has completed his professional education,
M.Phil. in Clinical Psychology, from NIMHANS, Bangalore. He took tenures as
consultant clinical psychologist for four years. Subsequently, he joined as Assistant
Professor of Psychology and Child Development and taught for seven years at the
Centre for Teacher Education, Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies-Sarnath,
Varanasi, India. His areas of interest include cognitive neuroscience, process issues
in psychological interventions and rehabilitation, health psychology, professional
education in clinical psychology and inclusive education.
Jitendra K. Singh, Ph.D. is Scientist (Psychologist) in Defence Institute of Psycho-
logical Research (DIPR) DRDO, New Delhi, India. His areas of interest are culture
and personality, collective identity, conflict studies, and qualitative research method.
He has contributed a chapter to the 6th ICSSR research survey of psychology. His
work on Triguna Personality has been published in European Journal of Personality
and International Journal of Personality.
Sujata Sriram, Ph.D. is Professor, at the School of Human Ecology (SHE), Tata
Institute of Social Sciences, (TISS) Mumbai, India. Earlier she taught at Delhi Univer-
sity. She was awarded the Fulbright Nehru Senior Research Fellowship, 2010–2011,
at the Department of Anthropology at the University of California San Diego. Her
areas of research interest are many—families, childcare, and parenting; marriage
and divorce; mental health and wellbeing; meaning making of identity, religion, and
spirituality.
Editors and Contributors xxxiii

Ashok K. Srivastava, Ph.D. is Professor of Educational Psychology and Dean

(Research) and Head of the Division of Educational Research at the National Council
of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, India. During his academic
career spanning over more than three decades, he has contributed several research
papers/articles to national/international journals and books. His publications include
Basics in Education and Rethinking Intelligence: Conceptualizing Human Compe-
tence in Cultural Context. He is Academic Editor of Indian Educational Review.
His contributions have appeared in Encyclopaedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
Psychology in India: Vol II Social and Organisational Processes, Emotional Intel-
ligence: Theoretical and Cultural Perspectives, The International Handbook of
Creativity Educational Research for Policy and Practice, International Handbook
of Educational Research in the Asia-Pacific Region, and New Directions in Cross-
Cultural Psychology. He has published papers in Psychology and Developing Soci-
eties, Roeper Review, and International Journal of Group Tensions. His research
interest includes human strengths and virtues and school processes in cultural
contexts.
Damodar Suar, Ph.D., superannuated as Higher Academic Grade Professor from
IIT Kharagpur (India) in 2019; he was the Head of the Department of Humanities
and Social Sciences in the same Institute (2007–2010). Currently, he is Chairperson,
Social Science Research, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology Bhubaneswar,
Odisha. He is Fellow of the National Academy of Psychology (FNAPsy), India, and
was Editor-in-Chief, Psychological Studies, from 2016 to 2020. His research focuses
on contemporary social issues, business ethics, leadership, cognition, and trauma.
He has authored 153 scientific/professional articles including 20 book chapters, one
book, and co-edited three books, handled 43 research and consultancy projects,
coordinated 34 training programmes, and supervised 35 doctoral students. His
publications of books include Psychological Aspects of Polarization Phenomenon,
Management Through Interpersonal Relationships, Psychology Matters: Develop-
ment, Health, and Organization, and Time in India Culture: Diverse Perspectives,
and his recent articles have appeared in Voluntas, World Development Perspectives,
Journal of Public Affairs, Journal of Constructivist Psychology and International
Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction.
Ravikesh Tripathi, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychology, Gujrat
Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. He has completed his
M.Phil. and Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at the National Institute of Mental Health
and Neurosciences, Bangalore. He served as a clinical psychologist and subse-
quently as a research staff in the same institute for a total period of about four
years. He subsequently joined Narayana Health City and served there as a clinical
psychology consultant for three years. He has authored and co-authored research
papers in the field of positive psychology and neuropsychology. His areas of interest
include neuropsychology, psychometrics, and positive psychology.
Chapter 1
Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology
in Modern India

Girishwar Misra, Nilanjana Sanyal, and Sonali De

Abstract During the past century, the modern psychology, originating in the Euro-
American region, was transplanted in India during the British colonial period. With
the expansion of higher education in the country, psychology has grown and diversi-
fied as an academic discipline and profession. The expansion, however, has primarily
followed the paradigm and practices of the Western academic ethos and the pre-
modern roots of rich psychological science in India remained neglected. The atten-
tion to social problems faced by the country and disillusionment with Western-centric
understanding has led to realizing the need to develop relevant knowledge resource,
decolonization of the mind-set, and creative use of indigenous knowledge. This has
led to move toward broadening of academic engagements in terms of methodology
and building Indian psychology rooted in classical Indian thought systems. In general,
a culturally contextualized approach toward the discipline is being promoted. To this
end, concerted effort and systemic changes are required.

This volume aims at providing a critical perspective on the conceptual, theoretical,

and methodological developments in key areas of psychology in modern India. The
teaching–learning of modern psychology formally started at Calcutta University in
the early part of the twentieth century in 1915–16. Since then, many developments
have taken place in terms of institutional expansion, the creation of psycholog-
ical knowledge, disciplinary differentiation, and professionalization. Over the past
decades, psychology has grown both as an academic discipline, as well as a profes-
sion to fulfill societal obligations in several areas such as health, education, training,
community development, organizational functioning, and intergroup relationship.
With a century of growth and diversification to reflect upon, it is now imperative to
take stock of the situation, consolidate the progress made, and articulate its future. The
present volume has contributions about the development of academic psychology,
particularly at Calcutta University and its neighboring regions, a survey of theoretical

G. Misra (B)
Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi, Delhi, India
N. Sanyal · S. De
Department of Psychology, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

G. Misra et al. (eds.), Psychology in Modern India,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4705-5_1
2 G. Misra et al.

and methodological progress made in the discipline, and an assessment of the accom-
plishments in the major areas of application and its paradigmatic challenges. This
introductory chapter situates the volume in the historical and conceptual-theoretical
context of psychology in India. It is organized into three sections. The first section
begins with a brief portrayal of the historical context. Section two presents the plan
of the volume, and section three raises some of the issues about an agenda for the
future.

Psychology in the Pre-modern Era

The story of psychology in India unfolds much before the launch of teaching and
research in modern academia. The insights about mind, consciousness, health, values,
social conduct, and well-being are present in abundance in the traditional disciplines.
Reflecting on pre-modern psychology, Paranjpe (2006) and Paranjpe and Misra
(2012) note that the tendency to treat pre-modern psychology as philosophy coupled
with colonial influence has led to ignorance about the salient Indian contributions.
The ancient Vedic and Upanishadic texts are storehouses of ideas and insights about
mind, behavior, and human nature. The various schools of Indian thought have exten-
sively deliberated many issues about the mind and mental functions. However, there
was no distinct discipline of psychology in the modern sense. Rather, it formed an
integral part of philosophical, religious, ethical, moral, artistic, and spiritual pursuits.
It must be noted that the four life goals or Purus.ārthas (Dharma, Artha, Kāma
and Moks.a), stations in life or Āśrama (Brahmacharya, Gr.hashta, Vānaprastha, and
Sannyāsa), the notion of Yajñas, the concept of Ātman, Dharma, Saṁskāra, R.n.as,
Rasa, and Kala (time) provide a distinct perspective for psychology. One’s whole life
was attended to within a framework of R.ta (dynamic order) and Satya (existence).
The texts comprising Saṁhitās, Brāhman.as, Āran.yakas, Upanis.ads, Smr.tis, Purān.as,
and the epics of Mahābhārata and Rāmāyan.a, Vedāṁgas including Āyurveda, Yoga,
Nāt.yaŚāstra, KāmaŚāstra, ArthaŚāstra, and Dharma Śāstra provide rich and prolific
psychological material rooted in reflection and practice. Similarly, the orthodox
(Āstika) schools of Indian philosophy consisting of Vedānta, Mı̄māṁsā, Sāṁkhya,
and Nyāya systems and non-orthodox systems of Buddha, Chārvāka (Lokāyata), and
Jaina schools offer serious discourses on the issues about mind and life. They have
been attended to by scholars of different streams. Social and cultural anthropologists,
sociologists, historians, orientalists, and Indologists have tried to interpret them for
modern readers.
The distinctive contributions of psychology in pre-modern India include a study
of the psychology of consciousness, the discovery of an unchanging true self in the
fourth state of consciousness and nature of the self, the stream of consciousness and
its control in the Dhyāna Yoga of Patañjali, cognition and the path of knowledge Jñān
Yoga, volition and the path of Karma Yoga, emotion and the path of devotion Bhakti
Yoga. Attention to interpret and present these ideas has been given in early years
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 3

(Akhilanand, 1948, 1952; Das, 1908; David, 1914, 1936; Dravida, 1964; Hiriyanna,
1932; Rao, 1962; Safaya, 1975; Sinha, 1933, 1965).
Unfortunately, the study of these indigenous ideas has been attempted by psychol-
ogists in a very limited way. The most significant block toward these efforts is one
of orientation and attitude toward such indigenous knowledge repertoires. Within a
postcolonial scenario, original texts which are written in Sanskrit or other classical
languages are left unexamined because mainstream academia is dominated by Anglo-
Saxon views and the English language. Relatedly, the studies about Indian religions,
social institutions, education, etc. have been approached by lenses developed and
propagated by Western scholars (see Said, 1978).

Psychology in Modern India

The new scheme of education transplanted by the British pursued the agenda of intro-
ducing new learning to suit their goal of colonization, claiming the Indian knowledge
systems as non-scientific and otherworldly. The universities which were established
in 1857 at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were initially only examining bodies and
the actual teaching was being done at different colleges. Psychology was also a
component of the courses in teachers’ training institutions. It is also important to
note that disciplines like sociology and anthropology were relevant to the admin-
istration, unlike psychology, which was thus not given prominence by the British
government.
It may be noted that the modern discipline of psychology in the European context
did not exist before the mid-to-late nineteenth century. It emerged from four strands
of thought and practice belonging to philosophy, physiology, evolutionary theory,
and psychological sensibility through the everyday practices in the early modern
period in England and other countries of Europe. The industrial revolution and the
Protestant religious beliefs and practices provided the key impetus for the formation
of psychology. Psychology emerged from the ways of living in that part of the
globe. In particular, the emergence of commercial society placed many new demands
on people’s lives and reconfigured relationships and obligations as social beings.
England in the mid-eighteenth century became the primary location for psychological
scholarship (Mandler, 2007; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010; Valsiner, 2012).
At the time of India’s independence in 1947, Calcutta, Mysore, Patna, and Madras
were the only four universities in the country with departments of psychology. By
the end of the 1960s, 30 more universities had established psychology departments.
Lucknow University, Banaras Hindu University, Aligarh Muslim University, Madras
University, Sagar University, Gorakhpur University, Allahabad University, Delhi
University, and Utkal University at Bhubaneshwar became leading centers of learning
in psychology. The University of Allahabad under the leadership of Professor D.
Sinha achieved the status of center for advanced studies where vibrant programs of
research in the fields of social psychology, cross-cultural psychology, human develop-
ment, poverty, and organizational psychology were undertaken (see Akabar Husain in
4 G. Misra et al.

this volume). Similarly, the Utkal University under the leadership of Professor R. N.
Rath had center for advanced studies in psychology where educational psychology,
the study of the problems of tribal people, animal behavior, psychological assessment,
and social disadvantage received special attention (Mohanty & Mohanty, 2017). In
addition, several departments received UGC recognition for the grant of Special
Assistance Program and Departmental Research Support (e.g., Gorakhpur, Tirupati,
Delhi, Aligarh, Calcutta, Lucknow, Banaras Hindu University). It may be noted
that most of the early academic leaders in psychology had higher education and
training in the emerging discipline at the universities in Britain, Canada, and the
USA. They imbibed the Euro-American framework of doing psychology and upon
return to Indian universities and other institutions of higher learning, continued in
the same spirit in the choice of courses, textbooks, and methodology. The same was
transferred to the newer entrants to the discipline. In this way, the hegemony of the
Euro-American perspective was maintained and it continued as the reference point
for advancing scholarship. The cannon exported from the West and imported without
question remained central to the academic practice.
The expansion of psychology departments in higher education continued in the
1970s. Several institutions were established which attended to the applications
of psychology in the areas of management, rural development, education, family
planning, and human resource development. Looking at the current situation, one
finds that a large number of teaching and research institutions offer a variety of
psychology courses. By a rough estimate, around a thousand institutions currently
impart psychology education. Correspondingly, the number of psychology graduates
with postgraduate degrees and higher will be around one hundred thousand.

An Overview of Documented Historical Accounts

The historical analyses of the disciplinary developments in psychology have been

attempted by several scholars. The monograph entitled Psychology in a Third World
Country: An Indian Experience by Sinha (1986) describes the growth of modern
psychology in India. He identified four phases of the development of psychology in
India. (i) the pre-independence phase, (ii) the postindependence phase of expansion,
(iii) the phase of problem-oriented research, and (iv) the phase of indigenization.
His work provides a comprehensive picture of the growth of psychology in India
up till the early 1980s. He also published an elaborate history of social psychology
in India (Sinha, 1998) and a major chapter on indigenizing psychology appeared in
the second edition of the Handbook of Cross-cultural Psychology (Sinha, 1997). He
pleaded for culturally rooted psychology for India (Sinha, 1996b). He was one of the
main voices and architects of modern psychology in India (see Misra & Dalal, 2015).
He noted that indigenous religio-philosophical ideas were rejected by psychologists
in India who were trained in the empirical tradition. The resistance was mainly due
to the negative attitude inherited from the colonial past and adherence to a scientific
worldview rooted in positivism. Dalal (1990, 1996, 2011), Dalal and Misra (2010)
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 5

have been pursuing the analysis of historical trends in the journey of psychology in
India. They have observed that the rich Indian thought systems had little bearing on
the formal academic psychology implanted as a Western science during the colonial
period. As a result, the enthusiasm to build science following the positivist mode
remained a major concern for psychologists. They separated academics from real life
and remained unaffected by the happenings in the country. The postcolonial scenario
changed marginally. The liberal Indian mind-set to allow diverse traditions led to
the adoption of three streams, i.e., experimental psychology, psychoanalysis, and
intelligence testing. They were viewed as culture-free. After gaining independence,
the awareness of lack of social relevance led to the reorientation of psychological
research. The process of consolidation of research continued. The discipline faced a
crisis of identity and a move toward indigenization took place. In his recent appraisal
of the situation, Dalal (2014) held that “the newly emerging science of Indian origin
calls for a paradigm shift in psychological research” (p. 34).
The volume edited by Joshi and Cornelissen (2004) has documented a rich analysis
of the Indian tradition of Yoga and consciousness. The Handbook of Psychology in
India edited by Misra (2011) presents a thematic overview of contemporary develop-
ments in select areas of psychology. The contributions to this volume depict endeavors
to connect with indigenous thought, critical understanding of issues, and expanding
the methodological repertoire by incorporating qualitative methods. The volume enti-
tled Psychology and Psychoanalysis (Misra, 2013) offers rich sources on psycho-
logical contributions from Indian and Western perspectives. Salgame (2008, 2011)
has presented a comprehensive account of the developments in Indian indigenous
concepts. He noted that the majority of Indian psychologists share a perspective
on life that is not congruent with the beliefs and values of a professional psychol-
ogist. This situation has led to a split in the personality of Indian psychologists.
It is also noted that some researchers have been engaged in attempts to recover
the psychological concepts of Indian origin (e.g., Anasakyi, Ahamkar, Santosh,
Lajja, Triguna, Karma, Swadhyaya, Yama, Niyama, Samadhi, Purushartha) and
rethinking the issues of personality, self, health, emotion, therapy, peace, well-being,
intelligence, consciousness and relating them to contemporary context.
A recent publication by Bhushan (2017) under the title Eminent Indian Psychol-
ogists: 100 Years of Psychology in India provides biographical accounts of Indian
psychologists. The volume presents biographical sketches of fifty-eight early Indian
psychologists. It offers the struggles, influences, and modalities of academic and
professional engagements. A sizeable number of them had received higher educa-
tion in foreign universities and remained confined to Western concepts, theories, and
methods. Very few of them took interest in using indigenous thought and building
on that. Many of them showed interest to apply psychological knowledge to solve
problems experienced in the Indian context. There were very few who had an interest
in the Indian and Western perspectives. In general, the dominance of the Western
perspective is clearly evident in the life and work of these scholars.
A major source for the history of psychology in India is now available by the
Heritage Papers of Early Leading Indian Psychologists published by the Asiatic
Society under the editorship of Deb et al. (2017a, b). Published in two volumes,
6 G. Misra et al.

this publication offers access to selected works of leading Indian scholars. The
first volume presents papers published from 1916 to 1940 and the second volume
provides papers published between 1941 and 1965. These papers suggest the range
of concerns and ways of handling them as academic challenges. The thematic anal-
ysis reveals interesting historical trends. During the half-century covered in this
volume social psychology, followed by personality, experimental psychology and
abnormal psychology gained increasing importance. Industrial psychology, military
psychology, counseling/guidance, psychometrics, and comparative psychology were
emerging fields. Finally, psychoanalysis, which had a substantial contribution during
the early years, gradually diminished and had a symbolic presence only. The editors of
the volume concluded that psychology is moving closer to objective sciences showing
its increasing utility—either as behavioral science or social science—sensitive to the
ever-changing demands of the individual and society.
There have been several efforts to document the historical development of the
discipline at different points in time (Akhtar, 2005; Barnett, 1955; Basu, 2013;
Bhatia, 2002; Deb, 2002; Ganguli, 1971; Hartnack, 2001; Jain, 2005; Krishnan,
1961; Mallick, 1980; Menon, 1961; Mitra, 1937, 1972; Mitra & Mukhopadhyaya,
1958; Mukherjee, 1961; Pandey, 1969, 1988, 2004; Prabhu, 1963; Prasad, 1950; Rao,
1962; Sastry, 1932, 1955; Sengupta, 1926; Sinha, 1958, 1963). These publications
provide summaries of the trends of researches undertaken by the Indian psycholo-
gists at different time points. A close perusal of these publications indicates that the
majority of Indian psychologists had sought and explored the themes and methods
borrowed from the Euro-American psychological discourses. A concern for attaining
and defending scientific status remained at the center of the academic ethos. Thus,
getting acceptance in mainstream psychology which subscribes to the psychic unity
of humankind dominated the academic enterprise. Concomitant to this position, the
theoretical constructs and methodological strategies were drawn from mainstream
psychology.
In addition to these sources which offer summaries of the trends of psychological
research, there has also been a growth of scholarship in critically reflecting on the
discipline of psychology in general as well as the developments in specific areas of
research and application. There has been growing acknowledgment of the centrality
of culture for understanding psychological processes (Bansal, 2016; Gergen et al.,
1996; Marsella, 1998; Misra, 2003; Misra & Gergen, 1993; Sinha, 1976, 1996a,
2002a; Sinha & Sinha, 1997), the value of societal relevance of the discipline (Misra,
2006; Pareek, 1981; Sinha, 1993, 1997b), indigenization (Adair et al., 1993, 1995;
Bhawuk, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2017; Dalal, 2011; Dalal & Misra, 2010; Danziger, 2006;
Misra & Mohanty, 2002; Misra, 2003, 2013; Pandey, 2004; Paranjpe, 2013; Pickren,
2009; Sinha, 1981, 1988; 1994, 1997a, 2002b), the methodological plurality (see Suar
this volume), and awareness of professional issues (Dalal, 2014; Pandey, 2004). At
the same time, efforts have been made to consolidate the development of tools and
measures (Pareek & Rao, 1992; Pestonjee, 1997). The ICSSR survey volumes (see
Mishra and Padalia this volume) have led to thematic integration of research in the
various subfields of psychology and identification of research priorities in different
areas of psychology.
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 7

The explorations in history depend upon the availability of evidence and perspec-
tive adopted by the historian. Recent analyses of historical material tend to suggest
that the early pioneers were cognizant of the cultural roots of the discipline in India
and had access to those resources (Asthana, 2017; Basu, 2013; Kapila, 2007). In
a recent analysis, Laskin (2013) has examined the charge of blind appropriation
of European concepts by early Indian psychologists. Analyzing within the context
of network of ideas and institutional and civil environment in which it grew, it is
noted that early Indian psychologists developed their discipline within simultane-
ously transnational and nationalistic context, in which European ideas overlapped
with ancient texts, crafting a deliberately Indian brand of psychology.

The Professional Landscape

The diversification of the discipline is also reflected in the growth of professional

bodies. Some of the prominent bodies of psychologists in India include the Indian
Psychoanalytic Society (1922), Indian Psychological Association (1926), Indian
Academy of Applied Psychology (1962), Indian Association of Clinical Psychology
(1968), Community Psychology Association of India (1987), National Academy of
Psychology (1989), Indian Academy of Health Psychology (2015), National Associ-
ation of Psychological Science (2010), Association of Health Psychologists (2015),
Indian Cyber-Psychology Association (2017), Bharatiya Counseling Psychology
Association (2017), Indian Association of Positive Psychology (2019), and All India
Psychological Association (2019). As early as 1924, the discipline was also asso-
ciated with the Indian Science Congress Association and became a section of the
Congress. Many of the professional bodies are publishing journals and hold annual
meetings and organize seminars. Besides, there are many regional associations of
psychology. The contribution of the Madras Psychology Society has been immense
in promoting psychological research in India. Under the leadership of Professor T.
E. Shanmugam, several research journals were published. The National Academy
of Psychology (NAOP) is currently representing India on the International Union of
Psychological Science (IUPsyS). It is also elected on its executive board.
The registration and licensing of clinical and rehabilitation psychologists are
managed by the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI). The teaching of introduc-
tory psychology starts during the higher secondary stage of education. The under-
graduate, postgraduate, and Ph.D. courses are designed and conducted at the univer-
sity level. The University Grants Commission (UGC) makes an effort to provide
model courses, yet the universities are free to develop their courses of study. The
most recent exercise by the UGC to revamp the courses was in 2016. UGC has
made an effort to provide a learning outcome-based curricular framework (LOCF)
for undergraduate psychology courses. A perusal of the courses offered indicates
considerable variation in the choice of contents and their organization. It is reflected
in the nomenclature used in naming the programs. The two broad identities used
include psychology and applied psychology. The more specialized concentrations
8 G. Misra et al.

include organizational psychology, counseling and guidance, clinical psychology,

developmental psychology, educational psychology, health psychology, and rehabil-
itation psychology. Master-level courses and postgraduate diplomas are offered at
various institutions depending upon the availability of faculty and resources. The
move toward the inclusion of courses on qualitative methods and Indian psychology
along with the provision of field training and use of computer-assisted learning is
adding quality to the teaching–learning process.

Salient Trends in Research and Education in Modern

Psychology

The institutional processes and general ethos prevailing in the academic ecology
have had a significant impact on the research and teaching orientation across the
country. These are evidenced by continuities and changes in the content, themes,
issues in pedagogical practices, and research initiatives. Beginning with the tradition
at Calcutta University, the salient trends in the academic orientation of psychology
in India are briefly summarized here.
1. The spirit of positivism and empiricism imbibed from the European roots of
modern psychology continues since the inception of the first department of
psychology at Calcutta University. Professor Brajendra Nath Seal, King George
V Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy, created the first syllabus of exper-
imental psychology in 1905 following the courses of studies in Universities of
Europe and America (Mitra, 1937). In its early phase under the leadership of
Professor N. N. Sengupta, who returned to India after five years of training in
experimental psychology under Hugo Munsterberg at Harvard University, the
department placed distinct emphasis on experimental work in line with clas-
sical studies by Wundt, Kulpe, Fechner, Ebbinghaus and such others (Bose,
1979). As a result, the empirical curiosity to observe, measure, and capture
psychological phenomena in various subfields such as psychophysics, sensory-
motor functioning, reaction time, perceptual processes, personality, intelligence,
and attitude led to the development of tools. Comparing different segments of
the population became an established academic pursuit. Further, a content anal-
ysis of the available published papers between 1926 and 1929 shows that out
of 62 research papers, 15 were in Wundtian tradition (Bose & Deb, 1979).This
experiment-oriented research trend gradually declined.
It needs a special mention here that during the tenure of G. S. Bose, Indian
Psychology was offered as a special paper for the first time in the department of
psychology at the University of Calcutta. Additionally, during his tenure, studies on
psychoanalysis employing free association and hypnosis were initiated. Research
foci became more diversified, and studies were taken up in the areas of emotion,
speech, language, aesthetics, sex, etc. However, in the times to come, even though the
Department of Experimental Psychology at Calcutta University was renamed as the
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 9

Department of Psychology in 1938, despite the growing transition in the research

orientation, experimental psychology, and emphasis on quantification continued to
serve as the backbone of research. The emphasis continued to be on the reliable and
valid mapping of phenomena, and such studies were often done cross-sectionally and
offered diagnostic information. Commenting on the research trends Basu (2013) has
noted the “early scholars were stimulated and excited with new ideas that came from
the West but were not completely uncritical, they marked differences with their own
observations and inferences. The desire to create a universal modern theory made
them aware at each step that indigenous knowledge and their culture is an important
resource to compare and assess the received knowledge” (p. 110).
2. With differentiation and specialization, the fields of experimental, develop-
mental, industrial, social, and clinical psychology emerged. Personality and
individual differences received attention in teaching programs and research. A
clear preference for applied research is evident in the research publications.
Hence, the stream of research exploring concepts from philosophical traditions
and various Indian thought systems gradually faded away.
3. Special mention needs to be made of explorations in the field of psychoanal-
ysis. Following the lead by Dr. Girindrasekhar Bose, research, training, appli-
cation, and publication in this area received considerable attention. He has been
recognized even by Sigmund Freud as the Father of Psychoanalysis in India.
In his practice and theorization of psychoanalysis, he foregrounded the Indian
cultural mind-set, which is evident in his doctoral thesis “Concept of Repres-
sion” (published in 1920), in his theory of dreams, and in many of his writ-
ings in Bengali vernacular focusing on analyses of indigenous concepts that
were published in local magazines intended to popularize the application of
psychology in the community. Bose analyzed Patanjali Yoga Sutras and is also
known for an elaborate commentary on Srimad Bhagvad Gita, and his clas-
sical work on Puranpravesa, an interpretation of Indian mythology. He had
been recognized for his efforts to understand the “cryptic,” the “mystical,” the
“esoteric,” and the so-called bizarre of our scriptures (Bhattacharyya, 2004,
p. 12).
While Bose is known in academia for his work on psychoanalysis, a lesser-
known fact is that he also pioneered social psychological and experimental research.
His layout of the laboratory experiments was structuralist in approach, while the
introspective data were psychoanalyzed. Bose (1979) noted that long before the
study of Bruner and Goodman (1947) on Value and Need as Organizing Factors in
Perception or Vroom’s experiments on Design and Estimated Size of Coin (Vroom,
1957) Bose planned two studies shortly before the World War II. One was related to
prejudice and stereotype, and the other, involved experiments where subjects were
to judge stimuli differences (in coin series) when value changed concurrently with
the physical magnitude of the coins. The procedure was almost the same as followed
in the PV series and PG series studies of Vroom. Carl Spearman in his book on the
history of psychology (1937) quoted from Bose’s paper “Is perception an illusion?”
The idea of sharing these advances is not to establish the prominence or prescient
10 G. Misra et al.

knowledge of Indian psychologists concerning Euro-American bigwigs. Instead, it

is to highlight how notable and prolific work existed in our landscape but was lost
in the colonial pursuits of who and what to study. Students would not come to learn
these names or learn from these experiments in favor of the very names that may
well have quoted such Indian psychologists as Bose.
4. The early research trends oriented toward experimental, psychophysics, and
fundamental psychology gradually waned with the departure of stalwart figures
like N. N. Sengupta, G. S. Bose, S. C. Mitra, S. K. Bose, and S. K. Mitra. Subse-
quently, for a considerable period, research followed the behaviorist traditions,
focusing on clinical issues, disability, and psychophysiological measurement-
based studies. Emotion and facial expression-based studies following the
paradigm of Paul Ekman also received considerable research attention.
5. The latest additions to the research agenda have been cognitive and neuropsy-
chological processes for different psychiatric illnesses, personality disorders,
geriatric issues, learning disabilities, juvenile delinquency, gender and sexu-
ality, women’s studies, media psychology including new media, organizational
psychology, health psychology, human cognition, political psychology, life span
development, and ethnographic research on tribal cultures. There has also been
a continuation of studies on personality, self-identity, and relationships, clinical
assessment of and intervention for different psychiatric groups, drug addiction,
child psychiatric issues, and health psychology (see for details Misra & Paranjpe
in this volume).
6. However, the realization of limitations in theorization and application of the
findings has led to rethinking. The colonial impact and paradigmatic limitations
called for critique and repositioning of the discipline (see Bhatia, 2002, 2018;
Bhatia & Ravi Priya, 2018; Dalal, 2002; Kakar, 1997; Kumar, 2006; Misra &
Kumar, 2011; Mitra, 1955; Mukherjee, 1980; Nandy, 1975; Pareek, 1981; Sinha,
1976, 1981, 1994, 2001; Vahali, 2002). There has been a growing awareness
that the cultural context plays a key role in the growth of psychology (see Brock,
2006; Danziger, 1990, 1997; Marsella, 1998). This has led to the establishment
of three related trends—indigenization, development of indigenous psychology,
and Indian psychology. The concepts, theories, and methods are being explored
in different domains, and several important developments have taken place in
different areas (see chapter by Misra & Paranjpe in this volume). In particular,
efforts have been made to build Indian psychology based on the Indian knowl-
edge system is noteworthy (e.g., Bhawuk, 2011; Cornelissen et al., 2014; Dalal,
2001; Dalal & Misra, 2010; Joshi & Cornelissen, 2004; Misra, 2011, 2013; Misra
& Mohanty, 2002; Paranjpe, 1984, 1998; Paranjpe et al., 1988; Rao, 2011; Rao
& Marwah, 2005; Rao et al., 2008; Rao & Paranjpe, 2016; Sen, 1986; Salgame,
2011; Sundarrajan & Raina, 2015) and integrate this indigenous knowledge
with modern theories. A strong move to build Indian psychology as an area of
study with an alternative paradigm is also being undertaken. This emphasis is
reflected in the thematic issues of Indian journals. Thus, Psychology and Devel-
oping Societies has brought special issues on theory, method, and practice of
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 11

Indian psychology (March 2010 Vol. 22, No. 1) and Indian cultural concepts
(2013, Vol. 25, No. 1) and Psychological Studies have brought special issues
on Self and Identity (2011, Vol. 56, No. 1), positive psychology (2014, Vol.
59, No. 2), spirituality, and psychology (2018, Vol. 63, No. 2), rethinking self
and identity in changing world (2019, Vol. 64, No. 3). Research and curricular
engagements have seen an expansion of methodological perspectives to encom-
pass qualitative ways of knowing, including but not limited to ethnographic and
participatory research strategies.
7. Another voice talks about decolonizing psychology. The issues of power to
construct and disseminate knowledge and recognition are voiced. The syllabus
is frozen, and textbooks authored by British and American authors are used. The
disconnect between what is given in the textbook and what is observed in reality
is experienced. Layers of cultural meanings and practices are not noticed. The
cultural differences are treated as deficient and relegated to margins. The realities
of the people forming the majority were missing. Caste and religion are often
ignored in the studies of social processes. Some efforts were made to indigenize
it, give it an Indian flavor, but the core thinking, the empirical structures, and
positivist ideas were never disturbed. The existential experiences of living in
India are not brought into the knowledge production process.
Despite these diverse advances, developments, and moves, the overall growth of
the discipline has been less than satisfactory. Dalal (2014) has identified the factors
responsible for interrupted growth of the discipline. The first is a lack of supportive
intellectual climate in the country due to inadequate resources, lack of funding, and
poor professional support. The second factor is excessive conformity to the empiri-
cist, positivist methodologies and relatedly confining one’s research to microlevel
problems. The third factor relates to the personal and professional backgrounds of
Indian psychologists. Early psychologists were products of the colonial domination
of Indian society, greatly influenced by Western scholarly tradition. Additionally,
the first generation of Indian psychologists after India’s independence was predomi-
nantly converted from a philosophical background. “This combined with their elitist-
urban background, fewer job openings, and self-serving research orientation gave
Indian psychologists an identity distinct from those who belonged to other sister
disciplines” (Dalal, 2014, p. 19). Indeed, there is a need to attend to the societal
problems (e.g., poverty reduction, mental ill-health, imparting quality education,
reducing inequalities and ensuring social justice, handling prejudices and conflicts)
and improving the quality of life of the masses, and actively forming the future. These
require research, critical reflection, and soul searching by Indian psychologists.

Outline of the Present Volume

The contributions included in this volume are organized into four sections. The first
part focuses on tracing the history of modern psychology in undivided India as it
12 G. Misra et al.

was launched at Calcutta University and extended to the neighboring regions of

North India, North Eastern states of India, and Bangladesh. Part two deals with key
epistemological issues and critical assessment of the developments in the discipline.
The third part tries to capture the growth of the discipline in key areas of psychology.
Finally, part four deliberates about the future of psychology in India and attends to
macro-level issues faced in its growth.

Part One

In the second chapter the doyen of modern psychology, late Professor H. S. Asthana
provides a lucid account of the diverse spheres of interest shown by early psycholo-
gists at various universities in India. Being a student of the first Indian psychologist
N. N. Sen Gupta and having been engaged in teaching and research for a very long
period, Asthana witnessed the growth of the discipline from very close quarters.
Sharing his reminiscences and reflections, he highlights the contributions of early
scholars in the field. His brief survey of the works of early Indian psychologists shows
that they were drawn chiefly from the disciplines of philosophy and education. There
were no narrow specializations as seen today; they worked and researched in various
fields of psychology at different times. He concludes with the hope that the recent
efforts to retrieve the study of consciousness and indigenization will hold potential
for a non-positivistic mode of psychological understanding.
In the third chapter, Nilanjana Sanyal traces the history of psychology at Calcutta
University. She describes in detail the sequence of events that led to the launching
of the teaching of psychology at Calcutta University in 1915. This is followed by
documentation of the growth of the department as an institution of higher learning.
It is noted that the teaching program offered and the researches undertaken at the
department were initially articulated within the Euro-American framework. This
trend has continued for a long time. Recent years, however, have witnessed a move
toward the incorporation of applied issues and the use of qualitative methods.
In the next chapter, Jayanti Basu and N. K. Bhattacharya offer a brief history of the
Department of Applied Psychology at Calcutta University, underscoring its heritage
from the Department of Psychology, the signature characteristics of the faculty,
and the major programs of the department from its inception till 2015. The various
contributions of the department to the discipline have been highlighted. A record of
the research contributions of the scholars is described. The chapter concludes with a
critical evaluation of the journey of the academic activities of the department.
In the fifth chapter, the late Somnath Bhattacharya recollects the rich tradition of
teaching at the Psychology Department of the University of Calcutta. During 1950–
60, the training imparted in the department was primarily in the field of experimental
psychology. He notes how the warmth and concern for students shown by faculty
members such as professors S. C. Mitra and Sudhir Kumar Bose were truly exemplary.
Such distinguished scholars were endowed with wisdom as well as commitment for
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 13

teaching, along with space for humor. The hallowed teachers may no longer be phys-
ically present but their memories embody the spirit of the department, mentorship,
and scholarship.
In chapter six, Arvind K. Mishra focuses on the developments in psychoanalysis in
India. He notes that although the personal initiatives of Grindrasekhar Bose were very
crucial in the institutionalization of psychoanalysis in India, the role of psychological
principles embedded in the Hindu religious-philosophical systems cannot be under-
mined for this achievement. Despite being an admirer of Sigmund Freud’s theory of
mind, Bose, based on his understanding of sacred Hindu texts and his experiences
with the Indian clients, did differ from Freud on some basic tenets of psychoanalysis.
Though Freud appreciated Bose’s ideas, he did not include them as part of his theory.
It may be hypothesized that Freud showed interest in helping and encouraging Bose
in founding the Indian Psychoanalytical Society because the former thought that the
latter’s role would be instrumental for the victory of psychoanalysis in a non-Western
country and Freud never treated Bose as equal. After the demise of Bose, the influ-
ence of psychoanalysis has declined significantly and the presence of psychoanalysis
in mainstream psychology has become marginal. The contributions of contemporary
psychoanalytic scholars like Ashis Nandy and Sudhir Kakar are well received by
scholars from other social sciences. Mishra hopes that the understanding of human
subjectivities would be enhanced with mutual and collaborative engagement on the
part of psychologists and psychoanalysts.
Next, Hamida Akhtar Begum traces the history of the development of psychology
as a scientific discipline in Bangladesh. This history of psychology goes back to its
inception during the British rule in the Indian subcontinent through to the Pakistan
regime (1947–1971) to Bangladesh as an independent country since 1971 and thus
shares its origins and growth trajectory with India and Pakistan. For instance, the anal-
ysis presented shows that the framework of psychology as practiced in Bangladesh,
much like what has been observed in the Indian context, also derives its concepts
and tools from the standard Euro-American academic resources. The author also
notes how change is occurring and an awareness of the limitations of this approach
is gradually taking effect.
Indranee Phookan Borooah reports the development of psychology in North East
India, a region characterized by distinct cultural, social, and ecological features. The
discipline and profession of psychology made their first presence in this region with
the setting up of the Tezpur Lunatic Asylum during the British rule in April 1876.
However, the teaching of psychology started only in 1962 at Maharaja Bir Bikram
College, Agartala, affiliated with Calcutta University. In June 2007, the asylum was
converted into Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi Regional Institute of Mental Health. The
universities of Dibrugarh, Sikkim, Nagaland, and Tripura have only started teaching
psychology between 2009 and 2012, and the Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi Regional
Institute of Mental Health began to offer an M. Phil. in Clinical Psychology just in
2011. The author reflects on these positive changes set against the unique social and
political challenges faced in the North Eastern region.
In the next chapter, Akbar Husain presents an overall account of psychology
in Uttar Pradesh. He briefly explores the changes taking place within the field of
14 G. Misra et al.

psychology in select institutions and notes the phenomenal growth and achieve-
ments. He also acknowledges the vision and dedication of the pioneers in the field
who labored to nurture this field of modern knowledge system. He enumerates how
psychology has greatly expanded in scope to include the study of not only academ-
ically stimulating problems related to cognitive processes, well-being, and human
development, but also to social issues such as poverty, prejudice and discrimina-
tion, intergroup relations, organizational change, and development, gender-related
problems, leadership style, stress-related disorders, suicide, terrorism, and spiritual
health and healing. In doing so, the readers get a fair view of the major thrusts of
psychology in Uttar Pradesh.

Part Two

Having surveyed the growth of the discipline of psychology in various specific regions
and universities, the readers are now led to the more fundamental epistemological
issues plaguing the research efforts. The analyses presented in the chapters included
in section two will highlight from various angles how the postcolonial mind-set,
which seeped into the everyday workings of most psychologists are now being met
with a critical reflection about one’s field and a reach for indigenous paradigms for
approaches and methods. This is leading to a shift in the very aims of psychological
research from individualistic and behavioral-cognitive agendas to an expanded scope
of more community-based, interpersonal interpretations of phenomena as well as the
incorporation of the study of classical texts, the meaning of mind and consciousness.
Such gains from a turn to Indian psychology are discussed.
Arvind Kumar Mishra and Divya Padalia examine the issues related to the histori-
ography of psychology. The trajectory of psychological research in India shows that
adopting the model of natural science to conduct psychological investigations was
accorded greater importance than making it socially responsive, especially during
the colonial and early postcolonial periods. The ICSSR surveys of psychology have
expressed similar concerns about the discipline but have also noted that there are
visible changes in the discipline toward making it culturally sensible. They suggest
that a sound grounding in the philosophy and history of science and the politics of
knowledge is needed to develop critical consciousness among psychologists to fulfill
the expectations of the people, especially those who have been forced to remain at
the margins of society.
In his chapter, R. K. Rao clarifies the meaning, substance, and relevance of Indian
psychology (IP), the points of confluence, and the sources of variance between it
and positive psychology. He emphasizes that IP is psychology in the making that has
enormous implications for broadening the scope of the field. Importantly, he suggests
that humans are not merely biologically driven machines but are also consciousness
manifesting beings. As such, they need to be studied not only as neurophysiological
functioning but also relate to the perspective of consciousness. Rao argues that such
1 Introduction: Perspectives on Psychology in Modern India 15

a perspective holds the possibility to unlock human potential toward their own as
well as collective happiness.
In the chapter, Thematic and Theoretical Moves in Psychology in Modern India,
Girishwar Misra, and Anand C. Paranjpe trace the development of psychological
thought in the Indian subcontinent. They highlight some of the major developments
in psychological research in the Indian context during the last few decades. They
continue to reflect on the state of affairs, where they too find that the concep-
tual and methodological positioning of the majority of the research continues to
be aligned with the Euro-American tradition of psychological science. In recent
years, however, reflective endeavors have started to find ways to contextualize the
discipline in the Indian cultural matrix. Such struggles, the authors note, have led
to many exciting proposals that honor indigenization and actively work toward the
building or rediscovering of Indian psychology rooted in locally located knowledge
systems.
Damodar Suar focuses on the historical development of research methodologies
in psychology in India. He begins his trace in the 1970s era of positive psycholog-
ical sciences, where a dis-ease had settled in with the given Western approaches.
Accordingly, anti-positivist, qualitative methods evolved and adapted which have
been growing over these past many years. However, the author cautions that to
ensure the quality of research, we need to shift from methodological monism to
pluralism and from socially irrelevant to socially relevant contextualized measures.
He also feels that the field will benefit from and contribute more by shifting from
urban-centric to rural-centric research.

Part Three

In the next set of chapters, the reader will find detailed accounts of the state of the
field in specialized domains of psychological scholarship. These are the areas of
individual differences, human development, social psychology, and organizational
psychology. The chapters after that focus on the terrains of mental health, healing,
and clinical psychology in India. Next, the fields of educational psychology and
positive psychology are addressed, giving way to the discussion of more macro-level
issues and laying a path for the future thereafter.
Jitendra K Singh and Indiwar Misra provide an assessment of the developments
in the particular area of individual differences. This field has immensely broadened
the scope of psychology as a science as well as an applied enterprise. Its beginning
can be noticed in the attempts to address institutional requirements during the first
half of the twentieth century. Psychologists trained in British and American traditions
pursued test development for personnel selection, training, guidance, and counseling
in educational, industrial, and military settings. The psychometric approach was
extended to map personality traits, motives, aptitudes, values, interests, abilities, and
other such facets of individuals. The authors note how, more recently, even some
private agencies and publication houses have entered the arena of test development.
16 G. Misra et al.

They reflect on the changing field of individual differences with the advent of data
analysis software and caution against the capricious development of tests due to
lack of any official agency which can monitor the quality and standardization of
psychological tests.
In the next chapter, Rachana Bhangaokar and Shagufa Kapadia focus on human
development research in India. They provide an overview of the interface and evolu-
tion of the fields of human development and developmental psychology in India.
They examine the developments against national and global demographic realities.
Important research and outreach initiatives that impacted national policies on early
childhood, youth, old age, and research-informed recommendations for issues of
gender, provisions for child care, and the like are also addressed. Elucidating current
research in the field, the shifting focus on different life stages (infancy, adolescence,
and emerging adulthood) and Indian theoretical concepts is highlighted. Illustrating
unique features of human development embedded in the Indian cultural context,
future directions for research in the field are discussed vis-à-vis opportunities in a
globalized, technologically connected world.
Janak Pandey assesses the field of social psychology in India. He notes that the
practical knowledge related to social behaviors can be traced in the rich Indian intel-
lectual traditions of philosophy, religious texts, social–political treaties, and narra-
tives of reform movements. He too laments the colonial influences over this field but
reports that by the late 1960s, social psychology in India acquired a level of maturity
in terms of selection of subject, method, and quality of publications, and the blind
imitation of Western approaches was questioned. In fact, during the period between
1970 and 1990, social psychological research improved significantly not only in
quantity but also in quality. Interest shifted toward applied social psychology which
set the agenda for the new role of social psychology to research for the solution of
social problems related to change and development. By the turn of the century, the
practice of foregrounding the inclusion of contextual and cultural variables became
prevalent. The author concludes by reflecting on how the discipline has certainly
progressed through stages but has still not reached autochthonization.
Anand Prakash and Alka Bajpai provide an account of the field of organizational
behavior in India. Their writing analyzes how this field has changed in the context
of various intrinsic and extraneous considerations. They argue that the indigeniza-
tion agenda has the potential to creatively orchestrate the seemingly continuous as
well as not so continuous aspects of the evolving reality of Indian organizations in
the emerging global scenario. The natural evolution of organizations and how inter-
personal relating among their employees feel is well accommodated by indigenous
theories.
In the next chapter, Ajit K Dalal traces the history of health and healing and
the way that mental health challenges have been addressed since ancient times.
He argues that health was viewed holistically. The three overlapping traditions of
Yoga, Āyurveda, and folk wisdom have evolved in the last 3–4 millennia to offer
a wide range of health services successfully up till the colonial rule in India and
the ascendance of the Western system of medicine in the nineteenth and twentieth
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of A history of
the University of Oxford
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: A history of the University of Oxford

Author: George C. Brodrick

Release date: January 15, 2024 [eBook #72729]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1900

Credits: Bob Taylor, MWS and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/Canadian Libraries)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD ***
Epochs of Church History
EDITED BY

MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.D., LL.D.

BISHOP OF LONDON

THE

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
 Epochs of Church
History.
Edited by MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.D., LL.D.,
BISHOP OF LONDON.

Fcap. 8vo, price 2s. 6d. each.

THE ENGLISH CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS. By
the Rev. H. W. Tucker, M.A.
THE HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN
ENGLAND. By the Rev. George G. Perry, M.A.
THE CHURCH OF THE EARLY FATHERS. By
Alfred Plummer, D.D.

THE EVANGELICAL REVIVAL IN THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. By the Rev. J. H.
Overton, D.D.
A HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
By the Hon. G. C. Brodrick, D.C.L.
A HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
CAMBRIDGE. By J. Bass Mullinger, M.A.
THE CHURCH AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By the
Rev. A. Carr, M.A.
THE CHURCH AND THE PURITANS, 1570-1660.
By Henry Offley Wakeman, M.A.
THE CHURCH AND THE EASTERN EMPIRE. By
the Rev. H. F. Tozer, M.A.

HILDEBRAND AND HIS TIMES. By W. R. W.

Stephens, B.D.
THE ENGLISH CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES.
By the Rev. W. Hunt, M.A.
THE POPES AND THE HOHENSTAUFEN. By Ugo
Balzani.
THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. By A. W. Ward,
Litt.D.
WYCLIFFE AND MOVEMENTS FOR REFORM.
By R. L. Poole, M.A., Ph.D.

THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY. By H. M. Gwatkin,

M.A.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

LONDON, NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY
 A HISTORY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

BY THE

HON. G. C. BRODRICK, D.C.L.

WARDEN OF MERTON COLLEGE

FOURTH IMPRESSION

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1900

All rights reserved

 PREFACE.

The present volume is an attempt to present in a succinct form the

history of an University which, however uncertain its origin, is among
the oldest institutions in Europe. The result of such a task must
needs fall very far short of perfection, and it is probably a just
appreciation of its difficulties which has deterred abler historians
from undertaking it. The voluminous remains of Anthony Wood
contain a mine of precious records, but they are singularly ill-
arranged, and his narrative breaks off long before the end of the
seventeenth century. The great monograph of Father Denifle, now in
course of publication, on the early history of European Universities,
promises to be an exhaustive discussion of its subject; but its
enormous bulk and unwieldy construction will repel most English
readers, while it deals only with the rudimentary development of
academical constitutions. The well-known compilation of Huber
shows considerable research and grasp of the subject, but it follows
no historical order, and is disfigured by much irrelevance and
prejudice. The publications of the Oxford Historical Society have
already placed documents hitherto scarcely accessible within the
reach of ordinary students, but it will be long before the series can be
completed. All these works, as well as the valuable ‘Munimenta
Academica’ of Mr. Anstey, Professor Burrows’ ‘Visitors’ Register,’
and many other treatises of less note, have been freely consulted by
me. I have also made use of the Merton College Register, which has
been kept with few interruptions since the year 1482, and of other
MSS. documents in the possession of my own College. But I have
not thought it well to encumber the pages of so compendious a
narrative with constant references to authorities. My principal aim
has been to exhibit the various features and incidents of University
history, age by age, in their due proportion; dwelling more upon
broad and undisputed facts than upon comparatively obscure points
which are the natural field of antiquarian speculation or criticism.
Guided by a similar principle, I have not treated all periods of
University history with equal detail. Thus, I have devoted a large
share of space to the period of the Civil Wars, during which the
University played a great part in the national drama; while I have
passed lightly over the reign of George III., when the University had
not only lost all political importance, but had forfeited its reputation
as a place of the highest education and learning. In the selection of
topics from so vast a mass of materials, I have sought to preserve
the continuity of events, so far as possible, rather than to produce a
series of essays on special aspects of University life. I have
deviated, however, from this method in one or two instances, such
as the chapter on Oxford politics in the eighteenth century, and that
on the Neo-Catholic Revival. In several of the earlier chapters, and in
those on Oxford in the present century, I have borrowed the
substance of passages from my own volume, ‘Memorials of Merton
College,’ and from articles on recent University reforms contributed
by myself to various periodicals. If I have succeeded in bringing
within a single view the successive phases of development through
which the University has passed in the course of seven hundred
years, and in paving the way for a more comprehensive and detailed
history, the object of this little volume will have been attained.
George C. Brodrick.
 CONTENTS.

PAGE
eface v

CHAPTER I.
THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITY.
thical origin of the University—Early Schools of Oxford—
Intellectual revival of the twelfth century—Lectures of Vacarius,
and first germs of the University—Connection of Oxford with the
University of Paris—Recognition of the scholars by the Papal 1
Legate after the riot of 1209—Office of Chancellor—University
chests, and sources of revenue in the thirteenth century—Rise
of Halls—Early University charters

CHAPTER II.
THE EARLY COLLEGES.
e of Colleges—Foundation of University and Balliol—Foundation
of Merton College—Merton College, Statutes of, 1274—Social
position, manners, and academical life of early students 15
—‘Chamber-dekyns’—Street brawls and disorders—Superiority
of colleges in discipline and tuition

CHAPTER III.
PROGRESS OF THE UNIVERSITY IN THE
FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
ope in the fourteenth century—Social condition of the University 27
—Intellectual vigour of the University—Foundation of Exeter,
Oriel, Queen’s, and Canterbury Colleges—Foundation of New
College—European influence of Oxford in the fourteenth
 century—Rise of Wyclif—Career of Wyclif—Feud between
Northern and Southern ‘nations’—Early secessions to
Cambridge and Northampton—Secession to Stamford in 1333
—Growth of the proctorial authority—Concession by the Pope
of freedom in the election of the Chancellor

CHAPTER IV.
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY.
yal award of 1290—Riot of 1297 and agreement of 1298—Great
riot of 1354—Interdict and penance—New charter granted by 43
the King

CHAPTER V.
THE MONKS AND FRIARS AT OXFORD.
nedictines and Augustinians—Rise of Mendicant Orders—
Claustral schools—Migration from Paris and influence of Robert
48
Grostete—Position of the friars at Oxford, and University
statutes against them—Intervention of the Pope and the King

CHAPTER VI.
THE UNIVERSITY IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
cline in numbers and studies—University delegates at the
Councils of Constance and Basle—Foundation of Lincoln and
All Souls’ Colleges—Extension of University buildings; the
Divinity School and the Bodleian Library—Final organisation of 55
mediæval lectures and examinations—University curriculum—
Statute of 1431, regulating ‘inception’—Duties of regent
masters—Residence for degrees in the higher faculties

CHAPTER VII.
THE RENAISSANCE, THE REFORMATION, AND
THE TUDOR PERIOD.
vival of academical life at the end of the fifteenth century— 68
 Checked by the Reformation—Pioneers of the new learning at
Oxford—Erasmus, More, Colet, Grocyn, and Linacre—
Foundation of Corpus Christi College by Bishop Fox—Greeks
and Trojans—Cardinal Wolsey and the foundation of Christ
Church—Action of the University on the questions of the
Divorce and the Royal Supremacy—Compliance of the
University rewarded by royal favour—The first effects of the
Reformation injurious to the University—Iconoclastic Visitation
under Edward VI.—Leniency towards colleges—Reaction under
Mary. Martyrdom of Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer—Visitation
and reforms of Cardinal Pole—Foundation of Trinity and St.
John’s Colleges

CHAPTER VIII.
REIGN OF ELIZABETH AND CHANCELLORSHIP
OF LEICESTER.
tation under Elizabeth and policy of Archbishop Parker—
Chancellorship of Leicester—Changes in the government of the
University—Leicester’s administration of the University—
Depression of intellectual life in the University—Encouragement
87
of study by Elizabeth, and foundation of the Bodleian Library—
Increasing refinement of academical life—Queen Elizabeth’s
two visits to Oxford—Pestilences and disturbances in the
sixteenth century

CHAPTER IX.
THE UNIVERSITY UNDER JAMES I.
e University patronised by James I.—James I.’s attitude towards
the University and the Church—Rise and influence of Laud—
100
Completion of the ‘Schools,’ and foundation of Wadham and
Pembroke Colleges

CHAPTER X.
THE UNIVERSITY UNDER CHARLES I. AND LAUD.
liament at Oxford—Chancellorship of Laud—Compilation of 107
Laudian statutes—Main provisions of the Laudian statutes—
Studies and examinations under the Laudian statutes—
Services of Laud to the University—Last five years of Laud’s
chancellorship—Eminent members of the University in the
generation preceding the Civil Wars—University life in the
generation preceding the Civil Wars

CHAPTER XI.
THE UNIVERSITY DURING THE CIVIL WARS AND THE
SIEGE OF OXFORD.
e University sides with the King and the Church—The Commons
issue an order for the University—Contributions for the King’s
service, and first occupation of Oxford by Parliamentary troops
—Oxford becomes the royal head-quarters—Aspect of the
122
University during the Queen’s residence—The last two years of
the civil war—Siege of Oxford, and proposals of Fairfax
guaranteeing University privileges—Surrender of Oxford, and
subsequent condition of the University

CHAPTER XII.
THE PARLIAMENTARY VISITATION AND THE
COMMONWEALTH.
asures preparatory to the Visitation—Appointment of the Visitors
and the Standing Committee of Parliament—Early proceedings
of the Visitors, and suppression of resistance from the
University—Visitation of colleges. Submissions and expulsions
138
—Reception of Fairfax and Cromwell—Second Board of
Visitors—Third Board of Visitors, and conclusion of the
Visitation—State of the University on the recovery of its
independence

CHAPTER XIII.
 THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE RESTORATION AND
THE REVOLUTION.
e Restoration and new Visitation of the University—Extension of
University buildings. Sheldonian Theatre—Growth of æsthetic
tastes and social refinement—First visit of Charles II.—Second
visit of Charles II. Parliament assembled and dissolved at
151
Oxford—Doctrine of passive resistance adopted by the
University. Expulsion of Locke—Conduct of the University on
the outbreak of Monmouth’s rebellion. James II.’s treatment of
Magdalen College

CHAPTER XIV.
UNIVERSITY POLITICS BETWEEN THE REVOLUTION
AND THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III.
tude of the University towards the Revolution. Visit of William III.
—Origin of Oxford Jacobitism. Visit of Queen Anne—Popularity
of Sacheverell. Position of the Whig minority—Jacobite
demonstrations. A troop of horse sent to Oxford—The
162
Constitution Club. Government scheme for reforming the
University—Gradual decline of Jacobitism in Oxford during the
reign of George II.—Revival of loyalty after the accession of
George III.—His visits to Oxford

CHAPTER XV.
UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
cay of University education in the eighteenth century—
Contemporary evidence—Decline in numbers and dearth of
174
eminence in science and literature—Counter-evidence showing
that education and learning were not wholly neglected

CHAPTER XVI.
THE UNIVERSITY DURING THE REIGNS OF GEORGE III.
AND GEORGE IV.
gnation of University legislation in the eighteenth century— 183
Statutes affecting the University—Political sympathies of the
University after the outbreak of the French Revolution—
Accessions to professoriate in the eighteenth century—
Architectural improvements—Effects of the French war upon
the University.—Opposition to reforms—Reception of the Allied
Sovereigns.—Abolition of the Mayor’s Oath

CHAPTER XVII.
OXFORD STUDIES AND EXAMINATIONS IN THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
amination statute of 1800, and later amendments—Examination
statute of 1850, and later amendments—University
Commission of 1850—Act of 1854 and new College
Ordinances—Effect of these reforms—Abolition of University 191
tests—Local examinations, and board for examination of public
schools—Commission of inquiry (1872) and Act of 1876—
Commission of 1877—Character of last reforms

CHAPTER XVIII.
THE NEO-CATHOLIC REVIVAL, KNOWN AS THE ‘OXFORD
MOVEMENT.’
aracter of the ‘Oxford Movement’—A reaction against the rising
tide of Liberalism—Oriel the centre of the Movement—John
Henry Newman—Origin of ‘Tracts for the Times’—Association
formed—Newman assumes the lead—Spread and objects of
the movement.—Publication of Tract XC.—Collapse of 204
Tractarianism, and secession of Newman—The ‘Hampden
Controversy’—Proceedings against Pusey and Ward—Effect of
the ‘Oxford Movement’—Controversy on the endowment of the
Greek Professorship.—Defeat of Mr. Gladstone in 1865

CHAPTER XIX.
 THE UNIVERSITY IN 1886.
gn of Queen Victoria—State of the University on the Queen’s
accession—Influence of recent changes—Present character of 217
the University

DEX 223
THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
 CHAPTER I.
THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITY.

The University of Oxford has long ceased to claim

Mythical origin the fabulous antiquity for which its mediæval
of the University champions had contended, as for an article of
faith, and which found credit with so conscientious
an historian as Anthony Wood. It is now admitted that nothing is
certainly known of its origin, and that its alleged foundation by Alfred
the Great rests upon a tradition which cannot be traced back to a
period beyond the fourteenth century. There is no evidence whatever
to show that any germ of a University, much less that any college,
existed at Oxford in the reign of Alfred, who was born in the
neighbouring town of Wantage. The very contrary may reasonably
be inferred from the negative fact that Asser, in his contemporary
biography of Alfred, makes no allusion to his supposed institution of
‘schools’ at Oxford, though he amply attests his paternal zeal for
English education. The early chroniclers are, without exception,
equally silent on the subject, which is noticed by no extant writer
before the age of Edward III. In the next reign, the primary myth—for
so we must regard it—was developed into a secondary myth,
attributing to Alfred the foundation of University College, and this
imaginary pretension was actually advanced by that college in the
course of a lawsuit. Meanwhile, the simpler tradition of Alfred’s
connection with the University Schools was repeated by author after
author in days when the very nature of historical proof was unknown,
and was reinforced in the sixteenth century by the insertion of a
spurious passage into the work of Asser. It has been reserved for the
present century to recognise the plain truth that we are entirely
ignorant of the first stage in the growth of the University, and that its
name is never mentioned in history before the Norman Conquest.
The silence of Domesday Book respecting the University of Oxford
must be taken as presumptive, though by no means conclusive,
 proof that it had no corporate existence at that
Early schools of date. Much learning has been spent in
Oxford speculations on its origin and primitive constitution,
but these speculations have little support in any
facts historically known to us before the Norman Conquest. It is more
than probable, however, that Oxford was already a resort of students
and a place of education. Having been a residence of Edmund
Ironside, Canute, and Harold I., as well as the seat of several
National Councils, it was now recognised as a provincial capital by
the erection of its castle, embracing within it the Collegiate Church of
St. George; while the number of its monastic establishments would
naturally attract poor scholars from all parts of England. The earliest
schools, not in England only but throughout Europe, were attached
to monasteries or cathedrals; and, in the absence of any contrary
evidence, analogy almost compels us to regard the Church as the
foster-mother of the University. In the ‘claustral’ schools of St.
Frideswide, and the houses in Oxford belonging to abbeys, such as
those of Abingdon and Eynsham, we may discern the original
seminaries of academical teaching—the first rudiments of the
Studium Generale, afterwards developed into the Universitas
Literaria. On the other hand, it is certain that, side by side with these
claustral schools, secular or lay schools were gradually opened—
some boarding-schools, mainly designed for the reception of boys
from the country, others mere classrooms frequented by the students
who lodged either in private dwellings or in public hostels. It appears
that before long the secular outnumbered the claustral schools, and
became centred in a particular quarter of the city, stretching
northward from the west end of St. Mary’s Church, afterwards known
as School Street, and said to have existed in the year 1109. We may
surmise with some confidence that in the infancy of the University its
lecturers were almost exclusively clerks, but too often scholastic
adventurers of mean attainments, whose lessons rose little above
the barest elements of knowledge. But all theories of its rudimentary
organisation are purely conjectural. ‘The Schools of Oxford’ first
emerge into history in the next century, when they really attained a
national celebrity, soon eclipsing those of Canterbury, Winchester,