DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY.

SUMMARY BY: COMR FAITH SUNDAY TALLA ( 07081115903)

400L SECOND SEMESTER

Soc: 406

COURSE TITLE : SOCIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT.

Q1) history of Sociology if development.

The sociology of development is a relatively new and evolving field of study that emerged in the mid-
20th century. Its development can be traced back to the post-World War II era, when many countries
in the global South gained independence and began to focus on economic and social development.

In the early years of the field, development was often associated with modernization theory, which
argued that traditional societies could be transformed into modern industrialized societies through
the adoption of Western practices and technologies.

However, over time, scholars in the sociology of development began to challenge this view and
explore alternative approaches to development. These included dependency theory, which argued
that wealthy nations exploited and perpetuated underdevelopment in poorer nations, and world
systems theory, which focused on the way the global economy and political power structures
impacted development.

As the field has evolved, it has also become more interdisciplinary, drawing on insights from other
social sciences such as anthropology, economics, and political science. Today, the sociology of
development continues to engage with debates around inequality, globalization, and sustainable
development

----- Traditional perspective of development.

The traditional perspective of development was largely focused on economic growth and
modernization, with the assumption that this would automatically lead to social and political
progress. This perspective, also known as modernization theory, was popularized in the mid-20th
century and was frequently applied to former colonies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
According to modernization theory, countries were considered "developed" if they displayed certain
characteristics, such as industrialization, urbanization, high levels of education and technology, and
strong democratic institutions. The model assumes that economic growth would gradually facilitate
the adoption of these characteristics, which in turn would lead to improved social and political
conditions.

However, the traditional perspective of development has been criticized for neglecting the historical,
social, and political context of the developing countries and their people. It was argued that the model
was too simplistic and did not take into account the intricacies of local cultures, economies, and
political conditions. Moreover, some critics pointed out that economic growth often came at the
expense of environmental degradation, social inequality, and political instability.

As a result, alternative perspectives of development emerged in the late 20th century that
emphasized a more holistic and locally-driven approach, such as sustainable development,
participatory development, and capacity building. These approaches often prioritize the needs and
aspirations of local communities and promote a more equitable and sustainable model of
development.

Modern perspective of development.

The modern perspective of development focuses on achieving sustainable development that balances
social, economic, and environmental factors. This perspective recognizes the importance of economic
growth, but emphasizes that it should be accompanied by social welfare and protection, as well as
environmental conservation and sustainability.

The modern perspective of development also recognizes that development should be more inclusive,
participatory, and locally-driven. It acknowledges the diverse needs and priorities of different
communities and respects their cultures, traditions and values.

Furthermore, the modern perspective of development emphasizes the importance of human rights,
gender equality, and social justice, incorporating issues such as health, education, poverty reduction
and access to basic services. It also includes the empowerment of individuals, communities, and
institutions to drive their own development agenda, and to create a more democratic and
participatory society.
Overall, the modern perspective of development aims to achieve a more sustainable and equitable
world that prioritizes social and environmental well-being, instead of just economic growth.

-----Scope of development.

1. Economic Development: This scope of development focuses on increasing the economic activities
and opportunities that can lead to the growth of a country or region. This includes sectors like
industry, agriculture, and services, as well as trade and investment. For example, countries can
provide incentives to attract foreign direct investment, increase exports and establish infrastructure
development programs.

2. Social Development: This scope of development emphasizes the social well-being and needs of
people, including health services, education, and social welfare. For example, governments can
provide free healthcare and education for children, women empowerment programs, and elderly care
support.

3. Political Development: This scope of development aims to promote democratic governance,

accountability, and good governance. It emphasizes institutional development, such as improving
legal and regulatory frameworks, electoral systems, and public administration. For example,
institutions like Elected officials' Representatives, Independent Electoral Commission can provide
better access to justice for citizens, promote the rule of law, and protect the rights of individuals.

4. Environmental Development: This scope of development promotes sustainable utilization and

conservation of the environment. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting natural
resources, and preserving biodiversity. For example, reforestation initiatives, water conservation
strategies, and building eco-friendly and sustainable infrastructures.

5. Human Development: This scope of development focuses on the development of the individual as a
whole, aiming to promote better living standards through the improvement of health, education, and
skills. For example, access to primary and secondary education, vocational skills training, and personal
development programs can lead to individuals taking on responsible roles within society.

6. Regional Development: This scope of development centers on the development of a particular

region or area within a country, with the goal of boosting the socio-economic development of the
region. It includes improving infrastructure, transportation, energy supply, and other facilities that
enhance the economic and social activities in the region. For instance, building more local transport
links, encouraging local businesses, and improving internet connectivity will enable regional
economies to flourish.

----- characteristics of development

Here are the 10 characteristics of development:

1. Sustained improvement: Development is characterized by a sustained improvement in the

economic, social, and political well-being of individuals and communities over time.

2. Inclusivity: Development is inclusive and should benefit all people, regardless of their social,
cultural, or economic background.

3. Equity: Development should aim for an equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and
benefits among all members of society.

4. Empowerment: Development is about empowering people to be in control of their lives and to

participate actively in decisions that affect their lives.

5. Reducing inequalities: Development should aim to reduce inequalities in income, wealth, and
access to resources that exist within and between nations.

6. Ecological sustainability: Development should not compromise the natural environment or the
ability of future generations to meet their needs, but instead should be sustainable.

7. Human rights: Development should respect and promote human rights, including social, economic,
and cultural rights, as well as civil and political rights.

8. Increasing productivity: Development should aim to increase productivity through improved

technology, infrastructure, education, and training, among other measures.
9. Innovation: Development requires innovation, creativity, and continuous learning to adapt to
changing circumstances and to find new solutions to old problems.

10. Governance: Development requires good governance, including transparent and accountable
institutions that are responsive to the needs and aspirations of all members of society.

----- theories of development.

There are several theories of development that attempt to explain how and why societies and
individuals change over time. Here are some of the most common ones:

1. Modernization theory: This theory suggests that societies progress through stages of development
as they adopt modern technologies and institutions, leading to increased economic growth and
industrialization.

2. Dependency theory: This theory argues that underdeveloped countries are kept in a state of
dependency on developed countries through unequal trade relationships and exploitation of natural
resources.

3. World Systems theory: Similar to dependency theory, this theory suggests that societies are divided
into core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral regions, with the core being dominant and exploiting the
other regions for resources and labor.

4. Structural-functionalism: This theory focuses on the structures and functions of society, and posits
that development occurs when institutions and organizations work effectively towards common goals.

5. Human capital theory: This theory suggests that investment in education and training of individuals
leads to increased productivity and economic growth.

6. Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach: This theory emphasizes the importance of individual
capabilities, such as education, health, and freedom, as the key indicators of development.
7. Participatory development theory: This theory suggests that development is most effective when it
involves active participation of local communities and stakeholders, empowering them to be decision-
makers and problem-solvers in their own development.

8. Gender and development theory: This theory emphasizes the importance of gender equality in
development, arguing that women's empowerment and involvement in development projects is
necessary for sustainable development.

------- definition of development by some scolars.

1 Dodley Seers:In his classic essay "The Meaning of Development," economist Dudley Seers defined
development as "the reduction of poverty, inequality, and unemployment." Seers' definition
emphasized the social and economic dimensions of development, and specifically focused on reducing
poverty, inequality, and unemployment. He argued that economic growth was necessary but not
sufficient for development, and that other measures, such as life expectancy, literacy rates, and infant
mortality rates, should also be taken into account. Seers' definition has been influential in the field of
development economics.

2) Edger Owens: In his book "A Theory of Rural Development," economist Edgar Owens defined
development as "a process of creating conditions which will allow people to participate more fully in
determining their own future and to shape their own institutions." Owens' definition of development
focused on empowerment and participation, as well as on expanding people's choices and
capabilities. He argued that development should be seen as a process, rather than a goal, and that it
should involve the participation of people in the communities being developed. Owens also stressed
the importance of linking development to social change and conflict resolution.

3)W. Elkan : Walter Elkan, an economist and development expert, defined development as "a
multidimensional process of social transformation aimed at improving human welfare." Elkan's
definition highlights the multidimensional nature of development, which includes not only economic
growth but also improvements in health, education, and other social and political indicators. Elkan
also emphasized the importance of local participation and knowledge in the development process. He
argued that development should be based on the specific needs and interests of the people who are
being developed, rather than imposed from outside.

4) Michael Mann: In his book "The Sources of Social Power," sociologist Michael Mann defined
development as "the expansion of human capabilities, choices, and opportunities." Mann's definition
focuses on expanding people's capabilities and opportunities, rather than simply their income or
standard of living. Mann argued that social, political, and cultural factors are just as important as
economic factors in determining whether or not a society is developed. He also stressed the
importance of historical context and the need to understand how different societies have developed
over time.
5) Amartya :In his book "Development as Freedom," economist Amartya Sen defined development as
"the process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy." Sen's definition of development
focuses on expanding people's capabilities and opportunities to lead a life that they have reason to
value. According to Sen, development is not just about increasing incomes or economic growth, but
rather about creating conditions that allow people to achieve their goals and live meaningful lives. He
argued that economic growth is a means to development, rather than an end in itself.

6) Todaro: In his book "Economic Development," economist Michael Todaro proposed a definition of
development that focused on both economic and social aspects. According to Todaro, development
should be measured by "the ability of a country to enlarge its range of economic and social choices, to
progressively gain control over its own economic and social destiny, and to secure a more just
distribution of income and wealth, thereby reducing poverty." This definition of development goes
beyond simply measuring economic growth, and instead emphasizes the importance of factors such as
access to education, healthcare, and other social services.

COURwSE CODE: SOC 416

COURSE TITLE: SOCIOLOGY OF DECOLONIZATION.

Q1) colonization and independence in Africa.

Colonization in Africa started in the late 19th century, where European powers scrambled for territory
and natural resources. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 formalized the partitioning of the continent
into European spheres of influence, without regard for ethnic and linguistic divisions, leading to the
fragmentation of empires and the creation of artificial borders.

African societies were subjected to a variety of colonial systems, ranging from indirect rule, which
allowed for some level of local autonomy, to direct rule, where European powers exerted full political
control over the colonized territories. Colonization had profound effects on African societies, including
the introduction of new technologies, changes to traditional social and economic relationships, and
the establishment of different forms of political power.

However, colonization was also marked by exploitation, oppression, and violence against Africans,
leading to resistance and rebellion in many parts of the continent. In the early 20th century, African
elites began organizing nationalist movements, demanding independence and self-governance.

The 1950s and 1960s saw an upsurge in the independence movements across Africa, with Ghana
becoming the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence in 1957. This was followed by
many other countries, such as Kenya, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda, who gained independence from
their colonial rulers.

Independence marked a new era for African societies, with countries forging new paths for their
political, social, and economic development. However, the post-independence era was also marked by
challenges, including the legacies of colonialism, newly formed nation-states struggling with ethnic
and linguistic tensions, and misguided economic policies, which led to poverty, underdevelopment,
and political instability.

Today, many African countries continue to grapple with the legacies of colonization and seek ways to
address the ongoing challenges of development.

Q2) COLONIAL RULE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA.

The period of colonial rule in sub-Saharan Africa lasted from the late 19th century until the mid-20th
century, when most African countries gained their independence. Several European countries,
including Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Portugal, and Spain, established colonies across Africa
for economic, political, and strategic reasons.

During the colonial period, European powers imposed their rule on African societies through force,
coercion, and violence. They exploited natural resources, forced Africans to work on plantations and
mines, and imposed new systems of governance, religion, education, and law. African societies were
also subjected to racist and discriminatory policies and practices, which reinforced the notion of
African inferiority and European superiority.

Colonial rule was not uniform across sub-Saharan Africa, and the different colonial powers
implemented different policies and practices. The British and French, for instance, used indirect rule,
where they relied on African elites to govern their colonies on behalf of the colonial powers. In
contrast, the Portuguese and Belgians used direct rule, where they established more centralized and
authoritarian systems of governance.

The impact of colonialism on sub-Saharan Africa was profound and long-lasting. It disrupted
traditional social, political, and economic structures, and imposed new ways of living and thinking. It
also led to the fragmentation of African societies, as the colonial powers drew arbitrary boundaries on
the map, disregarding ethnic and linguistic groups.
Despite the legacy of colonialism, African societies have shown resilience and have continued to
maintain their cultural identities and traditions. Today, many African countries are grappling with the
challenges of post-colonialism, including poverty, underdevelopment, political instability, and conflict.
However, there are also many success stories of African countries that have managed to overcome
the legacies of colonialism and are making progress towards social, economic, and political
development.

Q3)the effect of scramble for Africa.

The Scramble for Africa was a period of intense competition among European powers for territories
and resources in Africa. It took place between 1884 and 1885 and resulted in the partitioning of the
continent into multiple territories that were controlled by European colonial powers.

The Scramble for Africa had a profound effect on the continent that lasted long after the colonial
period. Some of the effects include:

1. Cultural erosion: European colonialism disrupted traditional African cultures and ways of life,
leading to the erosion of languages, traditions, and beliefs.

2. Economic exploitation: The European powers exploited Africa's natural resources, including
minerals and agricultural products, which were exported to Europe to fuel industrialization. This led to
underdevelopment and poverty in Africa.

3. Political instability: The arbitrary division of African territories by European powers led to the
creation of artificial states that ignored traditional tribal and linguistic boundaries. This resulted in
conflicts and instability that persist to this day.

4. Social injustice: European colonialism reinforced racial hierarchies that favored Europeans and
discriminated against Africans. This legacy has continued even after the end of colonialism, leading to
social injustice and inequality.
Despite the negative effects of colonialism, African societies have shown resilience and have
developed strategies to overcome the legacies of colonialism. Many African countries have made
significant progress towards social, economic, and political development, although challenges remain.

Q4) use the nationalist approach to explain DECOLONIZATION.

The nationalist approach to decolonization is based on the idea that independence should be achieved
through the mobilization of nationalistic sentiment and the assertion of the right of self-
determination. Nationalists believe that colonized peoples should have the right to determine their
own destiny, free of foreign domination and interference.

The nationalist approach to decolonization emerged as a response to the injustices and inequalities of
colonialism. It sought to mobilize colonized peoples around a shared national identity and to resist
and reject foreign control. Nationalists saw colonialism as a form of political and economic
exploitation that needed to be overcome in order to achieve genuine freedom and independence.

Nationalists groups often used a range of tactics to achieve their goals, including mass mobilization,
strikes, protests, and armed struggle. One of the most famous examples of the nationalist approach to
decolonization is the Indian independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. Through nonviolent
protests, civil disobedience, and other peaceful means, Gandhi was able to mobilize the Indian people
around a shared sense of national identity and to push for independence from British rule.

Additionally, the nationalist approach to decolonization emphasized the importance of building strong
and independent national institutions to enable newly independent countries to chart their own
course. This involved developing and strengthening political, economic, social, and cultural
institutions to ensure the long-term survival and prosperity of the newly independent state.

In summary, the nationalist approach to decolonization emphasized the importance of self-

determination, national identity, and the mobilization of popular support to achieve independence
from colonial powers. It has been a crucial driver of decolonization movements and has helped to
shape postcolonial societies and nations.

Q5) characteristics of neocolinialism in Africa.

Neocolonialism is a form of indirect imperial domination that is often employed by former colonial
powers to retain control and influence over their former colonies. In Africa, some characteristics of
neocolonialism include:
1. Economic Dependency: Many African countries have remained dependent on their former
colonizers for economic support, aid, and investment, resulting in ongoing economic exploitation and
underdevelopment.

2. Political Subservience: Former colonial powers often continue to exert political influence over
African countries, either through overt political support or behind-the-scenes manipulation of
governments, elections, and policies.

3. Cultural Domination: Western cultural values and norms often continue to dominate African
societies, with African cultural heritage and traditions being suppressed or assimilated into Western
culture.

4. Resource Exploitation: Former colonial powers continue to extract and exploit African resources,
which are often sold at low prices to Western companies while African people receive little benefit
from the wealth generated.

5. Debt Burden: African countries have been saddled with massive debts owed to Western
governments, banks, and international financial institutions, which often come with harsh economic
conditions and further entrench dependency.

6. Limited Access to Technology: Technological progress in Africa is often driven and dictated by the
West, resulting in a lack of access to resources and infrastructure needed for African innovation and
economic growth.

7. Limited Sovereignty: African countries often have limited control over their economic policies,
foreign relations, and resource management, as well as limited input into international governance
structures such as the United Nations.

Overall, these characteristics of neocolonialism in Africa continue to hinder the development and
growth of African societies and economies, and perpetuate ongoing exploitation and inequality.
SOC 418

COURSE TITLE: SOCIOLOGY OF PUNISHMENT AND CORRECTION

Q1) history and effeciancy of punishment.

Punishment has been used throughout human history as a means of discouraging unwanted behavior
and maintaining social order. Early forms of punishment were typically physical, such as flogging,
branding, or hanging. Later, such punishments were considered inhumane and cruel, and so
alternative methods were developed.

Today, punishment can take many forms, such as incarceration, fines, community service, probation,
and more. The effectiveness of punishment can vary depending on a number of factors such as the
severity and consistency of the punishment, the nature of the crime, and individual factors such as
age, gender, and socio-economic status.

One of the key goals of punishment is to act as a deterrent against future wrongdoing. If a potential
offender knows that they will face consequences for their actions, they may be less likely to engage in
such behavior. Furthermore, punishment can also serve to express societal condemnation of certain
behaviors, which may discourage others from committing similar crimes.

However, the effectiveness of punishment is highly debated. Some argue that punishment alone does
little to address the root causes of criminal behavior, such as poverty, mental health issues, or trauma.
Punishment may also be costly both financially and socially, particularly in cases where individuals are
imprisoned for extended periods of time, as this can negatively impact prisoners' mental health and
lead to high rates of recidivism.

In recent years, alternative forms of punishment have been developed that focus on rehabilitation
rather than punishment. These may include counseling and therapy, education and job training, or
community reintegration programs. These methods have shown success in reducing recidivism rates.

Overall, punishment continues to be an important tool in maintaining social order and deterring
criminal behavior, but its effectiveness can be improved by addressing underlying issues and
developing alternative forms of rehabilitation.

Q2) problems and characteristics of custordian center in Nigeria.

Problems with custodial sentences in Nigeria:

1. Overcrowding: Nigerian prisons are often overcrowded, with many inmates sharing a small cell,
leading to poor hygiene and inadequate facilities.

2. Poor conditions: Nigerian prisons are often plagued by poor conditions, inadequate medical care,
and poor quality of food and water.

3. Delayed justice: The justice system in Nigeria is often slow, and many people are incarcerated for
long periods of time before trial.

4. Lack of resources: Nigerian prisons often lack basic resources, such as personnel, medication, and
equipment.

5. Poor rehabilitation: Rehabilitation and reintegration programs in Nigerian prisons are often
insufficient, leading to high rates of recidivism.

Characteristics of custodial sentences in Nigeria:

1. Imprisonment is the most common form of punishment for criminal offenses in Nigeria.

2. Sentencing is at the discretion of the judge, with little guidance given regarding the length of the
sentence.

3. Custodial sentences are often used for a range of offenses, including minor offenses such as theft
and drug possession.

4. Sentences in Nigerian prisons are often longer than those in other countries, with some prisoners
serving life sentences for non-violent crimes.
5. The use of pretrial detention is common in Nigeria, with many suspects spending months or even
years in custody before trial.

Q3) various deprivation soffered by PRISON inmate in Nigeria.

Sure, here are 10 types of deprivations experienced by prison inmates in Nigeria:

1. Loss of freedom of movement

2. Lack of access to adequate medical care

3. Overcrowding and poor living conditions

4. Undernourishment

5. Physical and sexual abuse by prison staff

6. Limited spousal and family visitations

7. Lack of meaningful work or education opportunities

8. Limited access to legal representation

9. Isolation and limited social interaction

10. Inadequate or lack of rehabilitation programs and support.

Q4) what's the concept of parole.

Parole is a legal concept and process where a prisoner is released from prison early, but still required
to serve the remainder of their sentence under supervised conditions. It is a form of early release
granted by a parole board or other appropriate authority. Parole is considered a way of balancing the
justice system's aim of punishment with the practicalities of managing a large prison population as
well as offering a chance at reintegration.

The process of parole involves a set of conditions that the prisoner must comply with for the duration
of their supervision. The conditions may include reporting to parole officers regularly, seeking
employment, attending counseling sessions or educational programs, and refraining from any
activities that may lead to criminal behavior. A parolee may also be required to reside in a halfway
house, where they can have some degree of freedom outside of prison walls but are still monitored
and required to follow rules and regulations.
If a parolee violates any of the conditions, they may be returned to prison to complete their original
sentence. On the other hand, if they comply with all the conditions and successfully complete their
parole, they may be released from their sentence early.

The concept of parole has been around for over 150 years, with the main purpose of offering prisoners
a chance to prove that they can reintegrate into society and live a law-abiding life. Parole helps to
alleviate prison overcrowding, lessens the expense on taxpayers, and provides an opportunity for a
former prisoner to get back on their feet and become a productive member of society.

Q5) vividly discuss the capital punishment model of death penalty in Nigeria.

Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, has been a part of Nigeria’s legal framework
since British colonial rule. Although the death penalty has been kept alive in Nigeria's legal system, it
is generally considered a controversial and divisive issue, with some arguing for its abolition, whilst
others claim that it is necessary for fighting crime. In recent years, Nigeria has been subject to intense
international criticism over its use of the death penalty, with the UN and other human rights
organizations calling for its abolition.

The criminal code in Nigeria classifies offenses that are punishable by death under two broad
categories: capital offenses against the state and capital offenses against individuals. Capital offenses
against individuals include murder, treason, and armed robbery. On the other hand, capital offenses
against the state include attempted secession, mutiny, and importation of prohibited firearms.

The process of capital punishment in Nigeria starts with the conviction of a suspect of a capital crime.
If they are found guilty, the judge will then determine a sentence, either life imprisonment or the
death penalty. However, before the death sentence can be carried out, the case must be reviewed by
the state governor.

The death penalty is carried out using three methods in Nigeria: hanging, shooting, or lethal injection.
Hanging is the most common method used in Nigeria, although there have been calls to abolish it due
to its painful and inhumane nature.

The use of capital punishment in Nigeria has been the subject of much debate in recent years. Some
argue that it is necessary to deter crime and maintain law and order, whilst others claim that it is a
violation of basic human rights and has no place in a modern society. Others claim that the criminal
justice system in Nigeria is flawed, and that many people are executed following flawed trials.

In conclusion, the death penalty remains a part of Nigeria’s legal system, although its use is
controversial and is subject to much debate. While those who favor it say that it is necessary to deter
crime and protect society, those against it argue that it violates basic human rights and that it has no
place in a modern democracy.

COURSE CODE: SOC 410

COURSE TITLE: CRIME PREVENTION AND CONTROL.

Q1) concept of crime prevention.

The concept of crime prevention refers to strategies, policies, and actions aimed at reducing the
occurrence of criminal offenses. The main objective is to prevent the occurrence of crime before it
happens, thereby reducing the harm caused by criminal activity.

Crime prevention is a multidisciplinary approach that involves different stakeholders such as law
enforcement officials, policymakers, and community members. The strategies employed in crime
prevention include situational crime prevention, social and community-based crime prevention, and
crime prevention through environmental design.

Situational crime prevention aims at reducing opportunities for crime by making it difficult for
offenders to commit crimes. It focuses on reducing the availability of crime targets and increasing the
risks and costs associated with criminal activity. Examples of situational prevention strategies include
the use of security cameras, locks, and alarms.

Social and community-based crime prevention focuses on addressing the underlying social and
economic factors that contribute to criminal activity. It involves engaging communities in programs
that promote social cohesion, education, and employment opportunities. Examples of social and
community-based crime prevention include mentoring programs for at-risk youth, community
policing, and after-school programs.

Crime prevention through environmental design focuses on changing the physical environment to
reduce crime. It includes modifying the built environment of communities, such as adding lighting,
preserving natural surveillance, and creating landscaping plans that discourage criminal activity.

Overall, the concept of crime prevention recognizes that criminal activity is not solely the
responsibility of law enforcement but also requires the support and cooperation of communities and
other stakeholders. Crime prevention strategies that are collaborative, tailored, and evidence-based
are more effective in reducing criminal activity and promoting community safety.

Q2) principles of crime prevention.

Here are 10 principles of crime prevention:

1. Integration: Crime prevention strategies should be integrated and collaborative across various
systems, including law enforcement, social services, health, and education.

2. Targeted: Crime prevention efforts should be focused on high-risk individuals, groups, and
locations.
3. Evidence-Based: Crime prevention strategies should be based on research, data, and analysis of
crime patterns and risk factors.

4. Community-Oriented: Crime prevention strategies should be community-based, empowering local

residents to participate in the development and implementation of prevention strategies.

5. Multidisciplinary: Crime prevention should utilize a variety of disciplines and professions to address
the complexity of crime, including law enforcement, social services, health, and education experts.

6. Sustainable: Crime prevention strategies should be sustainable, with long-term commitment and
funding to maintain and evaluate their effectiveness.

7. Proactive: Crime prevention strategies should be proactive, focusing on prevention rather than
simply responding to crime.

8. Accountable: Crime prevention efforts should be held accountable through regular evaluation of
their effectiveness and impact.

9. Inclusive and non-discriminatory: Crime prevention efforts should be inclusive and non-
discriminatory, ensuring access and support for all members of the community.

10. Collaborative: Crime prevention efforts should be collaborative and involve partnerships across
the public, private, and non-profit sectors to maximize effectiveness.

Q3) types of crime prevention.

(1) Primary crime prevention refers to the efforts made to prevent crime before it happens, by
addressing the underlying causes of crime and creating an environment where crime is less likely to
occur in the first place. Some examples of primary prevention activities include:

1. Community Development: Engaging community members to take ownership of their neighborhood

and encourage law-abiding behavior, through initiatives like community watch programs,
neighborhood cleanups, and outreach campaigns.

2. Education: Providing education to young people, parents, and the broader community, around
issues like conflict resolution, personal responsibility, and respect for the law.

3. Social Intervention: Addressing underlying social issues that contribute to crime, like poverty,
housing insecurity, mental health problems, or addiction, through social support services or referral
programs.
4. Environmental Design: Designing buildings, public spaces, and other physical environments in a way
that discourages crime, by enhancing surveillance, restricting access to high-crime areas, and
increasing natural surveillance.

5. Law Enforcement: Building trust and collaborative partnerships between law enforcement and
community members, by engaging in community policing, problem-oriented policing, and restorative
justice practices.

6. Targeted Programs: Providing targeted programs or interventions that help at-risk populations, like
counseling services, drug addiction treatment, and job training.

By focusing on primary prevention, communities can address the factors that increase the likelihood
of crime and create a safer, more resilient environment.

(2)Secondary crime prevention refers to the actions taken to identify and intervene in criminal activity
that has already started, but before it has had a chance to escalate or cause significant harm. Some
examples of secondary prevention activities include:

1. Early Intervention: Identifying individuals or groups who are at risk of engaging in criminal activity
early on, and providing targeted interventions to address the underlying causes, before criminal
behavior can occur.

2. Diversion Programs: Providing programs or interventions that divert individuals away from the
criminal justice system, like drug or mental health treatment programs for non-violent offenders.

3. Hot Spot Policing: Focusing law enforcement resources on areas with high levels of crime, in order
to deter criminal activity and prevent repeat offenses.

4. School-Based Programs: Interventions that help prevent youth crime, like social skills training,
mentorship programs or after-school activities that promote positive behavior.

5. Victim Services: Providing support and services to individuals who have been victimized by crime, in
order to reduce the likelihood of repeat offense.

By focusing on secondary prevention, communities can help to mitigate the harm caused by criminal
activity and prevent it from escalating. This can ultimately reduce the burden on the criminal justice
system and improve public safety.

(3) Tertiary crime prevention refers to the actions taken to prevent criminal behavior from reoccurring
after the offender has been incarcerated or completed their sentence. Some examples of tertiary
prevention activities include:

1. Reentry Programs: Providing support and resources to help offenders successfully transition back
into the community, like job training, housing assistance and substance abuse treatment.
2. Rehabilitation Programs: Providing programs or interventions that address the underlying causes of
criminal behavior, like anger management or cognitive-behavioral therapy.

3. Restorative Justice: Utilizing community-based programs that focus on repairing the harm caused
by the crime and promoting healing for both the victim and offender.

4. Probation and Parole: Monitoring and supervising offenders who have been released back into the
community, and providing support and resources to help them stay on the right path.

5. Victim Services: Providing ongoing support and services to victims of crime, in order to promote
healing and prevent them from becoming victims again.

By focusing on tertiary prevention, communities can help to reduce recidivism rates, improve
outcomes for offenders and promote community safety. This can ultimately lead to a healthier and
more stable community, with a lower burden on the criminal justice system.

Q4) crme prevention approach to models.

Crime prevention approaches can be broadly classified into three categories of models: social,
situational, and environmental.

1. Social model: This model focuses on addressing the underlying social and economic factors that
contribute to crime. This model looks at factors such as poverty, education, housing, and
unemployment. The social model emphasizes the importance of addressing these underlying social
issues in order to reduce crime rates.

2. Situational model: The situational model focuses on reducing crime by changing the immediate
environment in which crimes are committed. This includes modifying elements such as physical
spaces, objects involved, and access to targets and attractive goals. For example, putting up
surveillance cameras in crime-prone areas, increasing police patrols, and installing security cameras at
intersections.

3. Environmental model: This model focuses on improving the overall environment to prevent crime.
It includes the creation of safe spaces, such as public parks, community gardens, and other public
amenities that create pleasant environments for residents. This model also includes modifying the
physical environment by improving street lighting, fixing sidewalks, and removing trash to improve
public safety.

In practice, an effective crime prevention approach should integrate elements from all three models
to address the complex nature and root causes of crime. A comprehensive approach that addresses
social, situational, and environmental factors is likely to be more effective in preventing crime and
creating safer and more resilient communities.

Q5) mechanism of crime prevention.

Crime prevention involves a range of mechanisms aimed at reducing the likelihood of criminal activity
occurring. These mechanisms can be categorized into three broad strategies:

1. Primary prevention: This involves targeting the underlying causes and risk factors that contribute to
crime, such as poverty, poor family relationships, unemployment, drug and alcohol abuse, and poor
mental health. Primary prevention mechanisms include early intervention programs, education and
skill-building programs, community outreach, and social support services.

2. Secondary prevention: This involves targeting individuals or groups who are at higher risk of
committing crime, such as juvenile offenders, ex-offenders, and those with a history of substance
abuse. Secondary prevention mechanisms include diversion programs, treatment programs,
vocational training, and education programs.

3. Tertiary prevention: This involves targeting individuals who have already engaged in criminal
activity to prevent recidivism. Tertiary prevention mechanisms include rehabilitation programs,
counseling services, and support programs for ex-offenders to help them reintegrate into society.

In addition to these three broad categories, crime prevention mechanisms can also be categorized
based on their specific target areas, such as the physical environment, security measures, and
community policing initiatives. The effectiveness of each mechanism depends on various factors,
including the type and severity of crime, the specific target population, and the cultural, social, and
political context of the community. A comprehensive, multi-pronged approach that utilizes a range of
crime prevention mechanisms is typically the most effective way to address crime and its root causes.

Q6) criminal justice system and crime prevention.

The criminal justice system plays a critical role in crime prevention. The system is responsible for
investigating, prosecuting, and punishing criminal offenses, which helps to deter would-be offenders
from committing crimes. The various components of the criminal justice system, including law
enforcement, courts, and correctional institutions, each contribute to crime prevention in different
ways.

Law enforcement agencies are typically the first line of defense against crime. They are responsible for
patrolling communities, investigating reports of criminal activity, and apprehending offenders. By
actively patrolling and responding to reports of criminal behavior, law enforcement agencies help to
deter criminals from committing crimes and limit the opportunities for criminal activity to occur.

The court system is responsible for prosecuting offenders and administering justice. By holding
offenders accountable for their actions and imposing appropriate penalties, the court system sends a
message to potential offenders that criminal behavior will not be tolerated in society. The court
system also plays a role in providing restitution to victims and their families, which can help to
prevent future criminal behavior.
Correctional institutions, including prisons and jails, are responsible for incarcerating convicted
offenders. While the primary purpose of incarceration is punishment, it also serves as a deterrent to
future criminal behavior. By removing offenders from society for a specified period of time,
correctional institutions help to prevent them from committing future crimes.

In addition to these traditional criminal justice mechanisms, many communities also employ crime
prevention programs and initiatives. These programs work to address the underlying factors that
contribute to criminal behavior, such as poverty, unemployment, and substance abuse. By providing
support and resources to at-risk individuals, crime prevention programs help to prevent criminal
behavior from occurring in the first place, reducing the burden on the criminal justice system.

Q7) crime prevention and development.

The criminal justice system plays a critical role in crime prevention. The system is responsible for
investigating, prosecuting, and punishing criminal offenses, which helps to deter would-be offenders
from committing crimes. The various components of the criminal justice system, including law
enforcement, courts, and correctional institutions, each contribute to crime prevention in different
ways.

Law enforcement agencies are typically the first line of defense against crime. They are responsible for
patrolling communities, investigating reports of criminal activity, and apprehending offenders. By
actively patrolling and responding to reports of criminal behavior, law enforcement agencies help to
deter criminals from committing crimes and limit the opportunities for criminal activity to occur.

The court system is responsible for prosecuting offenders and administering justice. By holding
offenders accountable for their actions and imposing appropriate penalties, the court system sends a
message to potential offenders that criminal behavior will not be tolerated in society. The court
system also plays a role in providing restitution to victims and their families, which can help to
prevent future criminal behavior.

Correctional institutions, including prisons and jails, are responsible for incarcerating convicted
offenders. While the primary purpose of incarceration is punishment, it also serves as a deterrent to
future criminal behavior. By removing offenders from society for a specified period of time,
correctional institutions help to prevent them from committing future crimes.

In addition to these traditional criminal justice mechanisms, many communities also employ crime
prevention programs and initiatives. These programs work to address the underlying factors that
contribute to criminal behavior, such as poverty, unemployment, and substance abuse. By providing
support and resources to at-risk individuals, crime prevention programs help to prevent criminal
behavior from occurring in the first place, reducing the burden on the criminal justice system.

COURSE CODE: SOC 402

COURSE TITLE: MODELS IN SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS.

Q1) concept of models.

In general, a model is a simplified representation of a complex system or process that helps us to

better understand, analyze, and predict its behavior. Models can be used in various fields, including
science, engineering, economics, and social sciences.

In science, for example, models can be designed to represent the behavior of physical systems,
chemical processes, or biological systems. Engineers often use models to design and test new
technologies and products, and economists use models to simulate and predict the behavior of
markets and the economy.

In social sciences, models can be used to represent the behavior of individuals, organizations, or entire
societies. For example, in psychology, models can be used to explain human behavior or cognitive
processes, while in political science, models can be used to predict voting behavior or the outcomes of
elections.

Some common types of models include mathematical models, statistical models, computer
simulations, and conceptual models. Mathematical models use equations to describe the behavior of
a system, while statistical models use statistical methods to analyze data and make predictions.
Computer simulations are models that are run on computers to simulate complex systems or
processes, while conceptual models are simplified representations that focus on key aspects of a
system or process.

Overall, models are essential tools for understanding, analyzing, and predicting complex systems and
processes. They help us to make informed decisions, design new technologies and products, and
better understand the world around us.

Q2) difference between models and theory.

1. Definition: A theory is a broad explanation or set of assumptions that attempt to explain a

phenomenon, while a model is a simplified representation of a system or phenomenon.

2. Purpose: The purpose of a theory is to provide a generalized framework for understanding a

phenomenon, while a model aims to provide a specific and detailed understanding of a particular
aspect of a phenomenon.
3. Scope: A theory applies to a broader range of phenomena, while a model applies to a specific
system or aspect of a phenomenon.

4. Level of abstraction: A theory is more abstract than a model, which is more concrete and specific.

5. Testability: A theory can be tested and modified through empirical observation and
experimentation, while a model is often tested and refined through simulations and experiments.

6. Predictive power: A theory often has greater predictive power than a model, which may have
limited applicability beyond the specific context for which it was developed.

7. Flexibility: A theory is generally more flexible and adaptable to new data and situations than a
model, which may require significant modification to apply to new contexts.

8. Complexity: A theory tends to be more complex and comprehensive than a model, which is often
simpler and more focused.

9. Epistemological status: A theory is often considered to have a higher status than a model, which
may be viewed as a more tentative or provisional explanation.

10. Usefulness: A theory may have greater overall usefulness in providing a foundation for further
research and understanding, while a model may be more useful for practical applications and
decision-making in specific contexts.

Q3) Relationship between theory and model.

Models and theories are interrelated concepts in research. Models are often built based on theoretical
foundations, and theories are tested through the use of models. The relationship between models and
theory can be explained in the following ways:

1. Models are developed to test and validate theories: Theories provide a framework for
understanding a phenomenon, while models provide a way to test the theory and make predictions.
By creating a model based on a theory, researchers can test and validate the theory.

2. Models can be used to refine theories: When a model is tested and the results do not match the
predictions of the theory, it provides an opportunity to refine and improve the theory. Researchers
can identify gaps in the theory and modify it accordingly based on the results obtained from the
model.

3. Theories guide the development of models: Theoretical frameworks provide guidance for
researchers to develop models that accurately represent the system or phenomenon being studied.
Theories provide a foundation for selecting the variables to include in the model and defining the
relationships between them.
4. Models can be used to generate hypotheses: By analyzing the results of a model, researchers can
generate new hypotheses and theories to explain observed phenomena, which can then be tested
through further research.

In summary, models and theories are two closely related concepts in research. Theories provide the
foundation for developing models and validating their results, and models can be used to refine or
generate new hypotheses and theories.

Q4) purpose of models.

Models are simplified representations of complex systems or phenomena that are used to
understand, explain, or predict their behavior. The purpose of models is to help researchers and
decision-makers gain a deeper understanding of a particular system or phenomenon, either by
providing insights into the underlying mechanisms that govern its behavior or by facilitating the
prediction of future outcomes.

There are several specific purposes of models that are commonly used in research:

1. Explaining phenomena: Models are often used to explain complex phenomena in a simplified way.
By breaking down a system or process into its component parts, researchers can use a model to
demonstrate how these parts work together to produce the observed behavior.

2. Predicting outcomes: Models can also be used to predict the outcomes of different scenarios or
interventions. By altering the inputs or variables in a model, researchers can simulate the effects of
different decisions or changes and predict the likely outcomes.

3. Testing theories: Models are key tools for testing hypotheses and theories. Researchers can use a
model to simulate and observe the behavior of a system under different conditions to test different
theoretical assumptions or hypotheses.

4. Communicating ideas: Models are often used to communicate ideas or concepts to others, by
providing a visual representation of complex concepts that can be easily understood by people who
may not have a technical background in a particular field.

In summary, models serve a variety of purposes, including explaining phenomena, predicting

outcomes, testing theories, and communicating ideas. They are invaluable tools for gaining a deeper
understanding of complex systems and facilitating decision-making in a wide range of fields, from
physics and chemistry to economics and business.

Q5) Types of models.

(1) structural functional models.

Structural functional models are used to understand how a system or society is organized and how its
different parts work together to fulfill specific functions. These models focus on the functions that
different parts of a system perform and how these functions contribute to the overall functioning of
the system as a whole.

According to this model, every institution or social structure has a specific function, and each works
together to enhance the stability and continuity of the society. The theory posits that social systems
are inherently stable, and any changes in the system will be resisted. Therefore, any changes in the
system must be made slowly and incrementally so that the system can adjust and maintain stability.

Structural-functional models view society as a complex system with various interconnected parts, and
each part has an essential function that contributes to the society's survival and stability. These parts
can range from institutions, such as family, education, religion, and economic systems, to
relationships, norms, and values. Society relies on these structures or institutions to fulfill certain
needs or functions, such as education providing knowledge and skills, the economic system providing
goods and services, and religion providing moral values and social control.

Furthermore, a breakdown or dysfunction in any part of the social system will affect the system's
overall functioning, and the system's capacity to cope and adapt to changes will ensure its success and
endurance.

In summary, structural functional models are used to understand how different parts of a system or
society work together to fulfill specific functions and keep the system stable and functional. It is an
essential tool for understanding social systems, institutions, and the relationships that exist within
them.

(2) conflict Models.

Conflict models are frameworks or theories that describe how conflicts arise, escalate, and get
resolved. There are several conflict models, each offering its unique perspective on conflict. Here are
some commonly used conflict models:

1. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument: This model describes five conflict modes that
individuals use to approach and respond to conflicts, including avoiding, accommodating,
compromising, collaborating, and competing.

2. The Dual Concerns Model: This model proposes that conflicts result from differences in individual's
preferences or goals and describes how individuals choose conflict management strategies based on
their level of concern for their own interests and those of others.

3. The Conflict Cycle Model: This model describes how conflicts arise, escalate, and get resolved over
time, and identifies the various stages that a conflict passes through.
4. The Transcendental Model: This model emphasizes the importance of understanding and
addressing the underlying needs, values, and beliefs of individuals involved in conflicts as a means of
resolving those conflicts.

Each of these models offers a unique perspective on conflict, and choosing the appropriate model
depends on the nature and context of the conflict at hand.

(3) symbolic enteractionalism .

Symbolic interactionist models are sociological frameworks that focus on how people communicate
and negotiate meaning through symbols and language. Here are some commonly used symbolic
interactionist models:

1. Mead's Theory of Symbolic Interactionism: This model proposes that people's actions are guided by
social interactions, language, and symbols that are created through these interactions.

2. Blumer's Three Principles of Symbolic Interactionism: According to this model, people act based on
the meanings they give to their experiences, rather than to objective reality. The three principles are
meaning, language, and thought.

3. Goffman's Dramaturgical Model: This model describes how people present themselves in social
situations as if they were actors in a play, using symbols and language to create different impressions
on others.

4. Berger and Luckmann's Social Constructionist Model: This model proposes that reality is socially
constructed through language and symbols, and that individuals create and maintain their own
definitions of reality through social interactions.

Each of these models offers a unique perspective on how people communicate and create meaning
through symbols and language. Researchers in symbolic interactionism often use qualitative research
methods, such as ethnography and interviews, to explore how people create and negotiate meaning
in social situations.

(4) Rational choice theory.

Rational choice models are sociological frameworks that assume that individuals base their decisions
on rational calculations of costs and benefits. These models are often used to explain individual
behavior within social systems. Here are some commonly used rational choice models:

1. Economic Model of Rational Choice: This model assumes that individuals make decisions based on
their rational calculation of costs and benefits, with the primary goal of maximizing their economic
gain.

2. Game Theory: Game theory is a mathematical model used in economics and political science that
tries to predict how individuals will behave in strategic situations. It assumes that individuals make
decisions based on their self-interest and the actions of others.
3. Exchange Theory: Exchange theory is an adaptation of the economic model of rational choice, but it
applies more generally to social exchanges beyond just economic transactions. It assumes that people
will engage in social exchanges to maximize their rewards, while minimizing their costs.

4. Rational Choice Institutionalism: This model recognizes that individuals are constrained by the
institutional context they are operating in, but assumes that they still make rational choices within
those constraints. It emphasizes the importance of exploring institutional structures and incentives to
understand how individuals make decisions.

Each of these models offers a unique perspective on how individuals make rational calculations when
making social decisions. The use of rational choice models in sociology is often controversial, as some
critics question the assumption that people always make rational decisions, or that social phenomena
can be adequately explained solely through individual calculations of costs and benefits.

Q6)using sociological model analyze what values are promotive of economic development in Nigeria.

One sociological model that can be used to analyze the values promotive of economic development in
Nigeria is the cultural dimensions theory developed by Hofstede. According to this theory, there are
six cultural dimensions that shape the values, beliefs, and behaviors of individuals and societies.
These dimensions are power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term
orientation, and indulgence.

In Nigeria, the promotion of economic development may be facilitated by a cultural context that
values:

- Low power distance: A society that values egalitarianism and minimizes social inequalities can
promote economic development by providing equal opportunities for all individuals to access
education and employment, regardless of their social status.

- Individualism: A society that values individual achievement and personal responsibility can promote
economic development by encouraging entrepreneurship and innovation, which can lead to economic
growth and job creation.

- Masculinity: A society that values competitiveness, assertiveness, and achievement can promote
economic development by encouraging competition and ambition in the business sector.

- Low uncertainty avoidance: A society that is comfortable with ambiguity and risk-taking can promote
economic development by encouraging experimentation and innovation in the business sector.

- Long-term orientation: A society that values persistence, future-oriented thinking, and investment
can promote economic development by encouraging long-term planning and investment in productive
activities.
- Indulgence: A society that values pleasure, enjoyment, and hedonistic pursuits can promote
economic development by promoting tourism and hospitality industries that cater to the preferences
of people seeking pleasure and relaxation.

Therefore, a cultural context that promotes individualism, competitiveness, long-term orientation,

risk-taking, and innovation could promote economic development in Nigeria. However, it is important
to note that cultural values are not the only factors that influence economic development, as other
factors such as political stability, economic policies, and resources also play significant roles.

Q7)sociologically how did Europe moved third of the rest of the world in development or what is the
basis of development in Europe.

Europe's rise to economic and political dominance over the third of the world can be explained by
several sociological factors. One of the primary factors is colonialism, which allowed European
countries to extract resources and wealth from their colonies across Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
This wealth accumulation allowed European countries to invest in industrialization, technology, and
infrastructure, ultimately giving them a significant edge in economic development.

Additionally, Europe's development was also influenced by cultural and social factors. The
Renaissance, Enlightenment, and Industrial Revolution all had profound effects on European society,
spurring new ideas, innovations, and ways of thinking. The emphasis on scientific reasoning,
individualism, and democracy helped create the conditions necessary for economic development.

European societies also had access to natural resources, such as coal and iron, which were vital for the
development of industries. Moreover, their location on the Atlantic coast gave them strategic
advantages, such as access to sea trade routes.

Another critical factor that contributed to Europe's development was social organization. European
societies evolved complex bureaucracies, legal systems, and governments that facilitated economic
development and trade. For example, the rise of nation-states in Europe helped establish stable
political and legal structures, which in turn facilitated long-term economic planning and investment.

Overall, Europe's development resulted from a complex interplay of sociological, cultural, political,
and economic factors, including colonization, industrialization, scientific and cultural revolutions,
access to resources, and stable social and political structures.