INTRODUCTION

Transport phenomena involving fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer play important roles
in many materials processing operations. Examples are in the blast furnace operation, steel
making processes, floatation processes and in gas stirred ladles. Optimization of these
processes as well as the development of technology requires a fundamental understanding of
the transport phenomena in such systems.

The study of transport phenomena concerns the exchange of mass, energy, momentum and
charge between systems. The analyses of mass, heat and momentum transfer are often
grounded in the simple principle that the sum total of the quantities being studied must be
conserved by the system and its environment. Every aspect of transport phenomena is
grounded on two primary concepts: The conservation laws and the constitutive equations. The
conservation laws which in the concept of transport phenomena are formulated as continuity
equations describe how the quantity being studied must be conserved. The constitutive
equations describe how the quantity in question responds to various stimuli via transport.
Prominent examples include Fourier’s law of heat conduction and Navier- Stokes equations,
which describe respectively the responses of heat flux to temperature gradients and the
relationship between fluid flux and the forces applied to the fluid.

Energy flux equation (Fourier’s law) and momentum flux equation (Navier- Stokes equation)
demonstrate the strong connection between transport phenomena and thermodynamics as
energy transfer, momentum flux and mass transport ultimately involve systems seeking their
lowest energy state in keeping with the principle of minimum energy. Heat transfer is the
systems’ attempt to achieve thermal equilibrium with its environment, just as mass and
momentum transport move the system towards chemical and mechanical equilibrium.
Examples of transport processes are heat conduction (energy transfer), fluid flow (momentum
transfer), molecular diffusion (mass transfer), radiation, and electric charge transfer in semi
conductors. Momentum, heat and mass transfer are called transport phenomena.

1
1.1 MOMENTUM TRANSFER

Momentum transfer in a fluid involves the study of the motion of fluids and the forces that
produce these motions. A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a
shear stress, no matter how small that shear stress may be. Gases and liquids are examples of
fluids.

CONCEPT OF FLUID AS A CONTINUUM

Fluids like all matter are composed of large number of molecules. There are about 1020
molecules in a cubic inch of air at room condition. Any theory that would predict the individual
motions of these many molecules would be extremely complex. Most engineering analyses
consider macroscopic or bulk behaviour of a fluid rather than the microscopic or molecular
behaviour. In most cases, it is convenient to think of a fluid as a continuous distribution of
matter or a continuum.

BASIC DEFINITIONS

1 STEADY FLOW AND UNSTEADY FLOW

A flow whose flow rate expressed by velocity, pressure, density etc at any position does not
change with time is called a steady flow. On the other hand, a flow whose state changes with
time is called unsteady flow.

2 THREE DIMENSIONAL, TWO DIMENSIONAL AND ONE DIMENSIONALFLOW

All general flows such as a ball flying in the air and flow around automobile have velocity
components in the x, y, and z directions. They are called three dimensional flows. A flow whose
state can be described by two coordinates x and y is called two dimensional flow. While a flow
whose state is determined by one coordinate, x only is called a one- dimensional flow. Its
velocity, u depends on coordinate, x and t only.

3 LAMINA FLOW AND TURBULENT FLOW

𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑
Lamina flow is a flow condition when the value of a non- dimensional quantity (Re = = ) is
𝜇 𝜈
less than a critical value (2320), irrespective of the values of the average velocity v, pipe
diameter, and fluid density ρ and fluid viscosity μ. Turbulent flow is a flow condition that occurs
when Re > 2320.

4 COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID

A compressible fluid is one whose density changes with time and with variation in fluid
conditions such as temperature and pressure. An incompressible fluid is a fluid with constant
2
density or negligible change in density irrespective of changes in temperature and pressure on
the fluid.

5 NEWTONIAN AND NON- NEWTONIAN FLUID

A fluid that obeys Newton’s law of viscosity (equation 1) is called a Newtonian fluid. Air, oil, and
molten metal are classified into this category. On the other hand, a fluid which does not obey
equation 1 is called a non- Newtonian fluid. Examples of non- Newtonian fluids are blood, semi
solid slurries and visco- elastic fluids.

1.2 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

Newton’s law of viscosity states that for flow between two parallel plates in which the lower
plate is fixed, the force per unit area necessary for moving the plate, ie, the shearing force is
proportional to the velocity, u of the fluid and inversely proportional to the distance, L between
the plates.
𝐅 𝐮
Ie α (1)
𝐀 𝐋

𝒖
Τ = μ𝑳 (2)

Where F/A is shear stress, τ (N/m2), μ, the constant of proportionality is the dynamic viscosity
(Pa.s). Equation 2 can be re- written in the following differential form:
𝒅𝒖
Τ = -μ𝒅𝒚 (3)

Newton’s law of viscosity relates the shear stress, τ, to the rate of deformation (velocity
gradient) in the fluid. The minus sign is inserted to ensure that the shear stress is positive since
the velocity gradient is always negative. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It
describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion
because of its molecular make up gives it a lot of internal friction. The viscosity of a Newtonian
fluid depends mainly on temperature and to a lesser extent on pressure. The ratio of absolute
viscosity (μ) to the fluid density is called kinematic viscosity.
𝝁
ν = (4)
𝝆

3
1.3 CONSERVATION LAWS

The motion of a fluid is governed by conservation laws such as the equations of continuity,
momentum and energy. These equations are the fundamental governing equations of fluid
dynamics. The equations describing the governing laws (the differential equation of flow) are
derived by considering a differential volume element of fluid and describing mathematically:

1. The conservation of mass of fluid entering and leaving the control volume; the resulting
mass balance is called continuity equation.
2. The conservation of momentum entering and leaving the control volume is called
momentum equation.
3. The conservation of energy entering and leaving the control is called energy equation.

1.3.1 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

Consider an infinitesimal cubical element dx. dy. dz in the three dimension flow shown in figure
1. The conservation of mass of fluid passing through this element is stated as follows:

Z ρu
ρu

dz
dy
Y dx

Rate of mass accumulation within element = Transport rate of mass in- Transport rate of
mass out (5)

The transport rate of mass in the element at location x and through the face dy. dz of the
element=
Mass flux of fluid in the x direction X the surface area of the face dy. dz = (ρU) (dy. dz) (6)
similarly the transport rate of mass out of the element at location x + dx and through the face
dy. dz is expressed by:
𝜕𝜌𝑈
(ρU)x + dx (dydz) = [(ρU)x + dx](dy.dz) (7)
𝑑𝑥

4
The only way that mass can be accumulated (or depleted) within the control volume is by the
corresponding change in fluid density.
𝜕𝜌
The rate of accumulation is expressed as follows: 𝜕𝑡 (dxdydz) (8)

Substituting equation 6- 8 into equation 5, we have

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑈
(dxdydz) = (ρU)x dydz - [(ρU)x + dx]dydz (9)
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑈
(dxdydz) = - dxdydz (10)
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑈
=− (11)
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑥

Similarly for mass flux of fluid in the y- and z- directions we have:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝜌𝑊
= − =− (12)
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Combining equations 11 and 12

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑈 𝜕𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝜌𝑊
𝜕𝑡
=−[ 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑑𝑧
] (13)

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑈 𝜕𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝜌𝑊

Hence + + + = 0 (14)
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝜌
For steady state flow, 𝜕𝑡
= 0

𝜕𝜌𝑈 𝜕𝜌𝑉 𝜕𝜌𝑊

And equation 14 becomes 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑑𝑧
= 0 (15)

For steady incompressible flow (ρ = constant), equation 15 reduces to:

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑊
+ + = 0 (16)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

1.3.2 NAVIER STOKES EQUATION (MOMENTUM EQUATION)

The Navier Stokes equation was developed from the Newton’s law of conservation of
momentum which states that: Rate of momentum accumulation =

Transport rate of momentum in – Transport rate of momentum out + Sum of forces acting on
element.

5
Navier Stokes equations in three- dimensions for an incompressible fluid flow are expressed as
follows:

X- Component

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕2 𝑈 𝜕2 𝑈 𝜕2 𝑈 𝜕𝑃
ρ( 𝜕𝑡 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = μ( 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 ) + FX − 𝜕𝑥 (17)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Y – Component

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕𝑃
ρ( 𝜕𝑡 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ) = μ(𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 ) + FY − 𝜕𝑦 (18)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Z- Component

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑌 𝜕2 𝑊 𝜕2 𝑊 𝜕2 𝑊 𝜕𝑃
ρ( 𝜕𝑡 +𝑢 𝑑𝑥
+𝑣 𝑑𝑦
+𝑤 𝑑𝑧
) = μ( 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2
+ 𝜕𝑧 2
) + FZ − 𝜕𝑍 (19)

where P is pressure, μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid and FX, FY and Fz are external forces
acting on the fluid element in x, y and z directions respectively. In the inertia term, the rates of
velocity change with position:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑌
(𝑢 +𝑣 + ), (𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ), and (𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

and are called convective accelerations.

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕2 𝑈
For incompressible, one- dimensional, steady ( 𝑑𝑡 = 0), uniform ( 𝑑𝑥 = 0) and = 0, with
𝜕𝑥 2
negligible body force, the Navier Stokes equation reduces to:

𝜕2 𝑈 𝜕𝑃
μ 𝜕𝑦 2 = (20)
𝜕𝑥

1.3.3 THE BERNOULI EQUATION (ENERGY EQUATION)

The following energy equation holds for and incompressible steady flow in tube (figure below).

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 𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑉22 𝑃2
Z1 + + = Z2 + + (21)
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

Where P1 and V1 are the pressure and velocity at location 1. The vertical distance from that
position to a reference position is denoted by Z1, and ρ and g are the density and the
acceleration due to gravity respectively. The corresponding values at location 2 are denoted by
P2, V2, and Z2. At all points, along a streamline:

𝑉12 𝑃1
Z1 + + = H = Constant (22)
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

The terms in equation 22 represent energy per unit weight, and have the units of length (m)
and are commonly termed heads.

𝑉12 𝑃1
Z: potential head. : Velocity head; : pressure head; These represent potential energy,
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
kinetic energy and energy due to pressure.

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2.1 HEAT TRANSFER

2.1.1 THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

Thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transferred as a system undergoes a process
from one equilibrium state to another while the subject of heat transfer deals with the rate of
heat transfer. Energy exists in various forms such as mechanical, electrical, magnetic, nuclear,
chemical, heat etc, Heat is the form of energy that that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference. The science that deals with the determination of
the rates of such energy transfer is heat transfer.

The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature difference. The
temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the
driving force for electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow.
The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature
gradient (temperature difference per unit length) in that direction. The larger the temperature
gradient the higher the rate of heat transfer.

2.1.2 ENERGY TRANSFER

Energy can be transferred to and from a given mass by two mechanisms: heat Q and work W.
An energy interaction is heat if its driving force is temperature, otherwise, it is work. A rising
piston, a rotating shaft and associated with work interactions. Work per unit time is power and
is denoted by W, and measured in Watts W. Car engines, steam and gas turbines produce work.
Compressors, pumps and mixers consume work. Notice that the energy of a system decreases
as it does work and increases as work is done to it. The amount of heat transferred during a
process is denoted by Q. The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer
rate and it is denoted q which has the unit of J/S ≡ W. When the rate of heat transfer q is
available, the total amount of heat transfer Q during a time interval Δt can be determined from:
𝛥𝑡
Q = ∫0 𝑞𝑑𝑡 (J) (2.1)

Provided that the variation of q with time is known. For the special case of q = constant, the
equation becomes:

Q = qΔt (J) (2.2)

The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer is called heat
flux and the average heat flux is expressed as:

1
 𝑞
q= (W/m2) (2.3)
𝐴

where A is the heat transfer area

Example 1

A 10 cm diameter copper ball is to be heated from 100 OC to an average temperature of 150 OC

in 30 minutes. Taking the average density and specific heat of copper in the temperature range
to be ρ = 8950 Kg/m3 and Cp = 0.395 KJ/Kg respectively, determine (a) the total amount of heat
transferred (b) the average rate of heat transfer to the ball, and (c) the average heat flux.
4
(a) Q = mCPΔt m = ρV V = 3 𝜋𝑟 3

4
V = 3 . π. 0.053 = 0.000523 𝑚3 m = 8950 x 0.000523 = 4.68 Kg

Q = 4.68 x 0.385 (150 – 100) = 92.6 KJ

Therefore 92.6 KJ of heat needs to be transferred to Cu ball to heat from 100 OC to 150 OC.
𝑄 92.6 𝑥 1000
(b) qave = 𝛥𝑡 = = 51.4 W
1800

𝑞𝑎𝑣𝑒
(c) q= A = 4πr2 4 x 3.14 x 0.052 = 0.0314 m2
𝐴

51.4
q= = 1636 W/m2
0.0314

2.1.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics also known as the conservation of energy principle states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change from one form to another. The
conservation of energy principle (or energy balance) for any system undergoing any process
may be expressed as follows: The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the
system during a process is equal to the difference the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during the process. That is:

(Total energy entering the system) – (Total energy leaving the system)= (Change in the total
energy of the system)

The energy balance for any system undergoing any process can be expressed as:

Ein – Eout = ΔEsystem (2.6)

2
Or in rate form as: Ein – Eout = dE/dt (2.7)

At steady state (the rate of energy transfer to the system is equal to the rate of energy transfer
from the system), ie, Ein = Eout.

For a closed system (consisting of closed maas), the total energy E in practice consists of the
internal energy U. The energy balance relationship for a closed system reduces to:

Ein – Eout = ΔU = mCVΔT (2.8)

CV = specific heat at constant volume.

Open systems (control volume) such as water heater and car radiator involve mass flow in and
out of a system and are analyzed under steady operating conditions. (steady means no change
with time). The total energy content of a control volume (open system) during a steady flow
process remains constant (ECV = constant). Thus the amount of energy entering a control
volume in all forms (heat, work, mass transfer) for a steady flow process must be equal to the
amount of energy leaving it. The amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a flow
device per unit time is called mass flow rate and it is denoted by m.

For one- dimensional flow, the mass flow rate of a fluid flowing in a pipe can be expressed as:

m = ρVA (2.9)

while the volume of fluid flowing through a pipe is called the volume flow rate, expressed as:
𝑚
V = vA = (2.10)
𝜌

For a steady flow system with one inlet and one exit, the rate of mass flow into the control
volume must be equal to the rate of mass flow out of it. Ie,

min = mout (2.11)

when the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible,

q = mΔh = mCPΔT (J/S) (2.12)

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2.2 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS

Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection and radiation. All
modes of heat transfer require the existence of temperature difference and all the modes the
modes are from the high temperature medium to a low temperature one.

CONDUCTION: Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles.
Conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases. In liquids and gases, conduction is due to
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to a
combination of vibration of molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑋 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Rate of conduction α 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑇1 −𝑇2 𝑑𝑇
qrad = KA = -KA𝑑𝑋 (W) (2.13)
𝛥𝑋

The rate equation for conduction is given by Fourier’s law. For heat

Conduction in the X- direction, normal to the area A, assuming that

the material is isotropic and homogeneous, the rate of heat flow is

described by:
𝑑𝑇
qcond = KA𝑑𝑋 (2.14)

where K is the thermal conductivity of the material (W/m.K) or (W/.OC). q is the rate of heat
flow in the X- direction by conduction (W or J/S), A is the area normal to the direction through
which heat flows (m2), T is the temperature (OC or K) and X is the length variable (m). The minus
sign is inserted so that q is positive (since dT/dX is negative in the increasing X- direction). dT/dX
is the temperature gradient, which is the slope of temperature curve on a T- X diagram. Dividing
q by area A, gives:
𝑑𝑇
q = -K𝑑𝑋 (2.15)

where q is the heat flux. i.e, heat flow per unit time per unit area. This equation indicates that
the heat flux is proportional to the temperature gradient. Notice that a similar relationship
exists in fluid flow as Newton’s law of viscosity.
𝑑𝑉
τ = μ𝑑𝑋 (2.16)

4
CONVECTION:

Convection is a process by which thermal energy is transferred between a solid and a fluid
flowing past it. Convection involves the combined effects conduction and fluid motion.
Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external
means such as a fan, pump or wind. In contrast, convection is called natural or free convection
if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to
the variation of temperature in the fluid. The rate equation for convection heat transfer is
expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as:

Qconv = hA(Ts- Tα) (2.17)

Where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K), A is the surface area through
which convection heat transfer takes place, T is the surface area through which convective heat
transfer takes place, TS is the surface temperature and Tα is the temperature of the fluid
sufficiently far from the surface. The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of
the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on the variables
influencing convection such as the surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties
of the fluid and bulk fluid velocity.

Table 1: Typical values of convection h

Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K) Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)

Free convection (W/m2.K) Material K(W/m.K)
Gases 2- 25 Diamond 2300
Liquid 10- 1000 Silver 429
Forced convection Copper 401
Gases 25- 250 Gold 317
Liquids 50- 20;000 Aluminium 237
Convection with phase change Iron 80.2
Boiling 2500- 100,000 Mercury 8.54
Condensation 4000- 25,000 Glass 0.78
Brick 0.72
Wood(oak) 0.17
Rubber 0.13
Glass fiber 0.043
Air 0.026

5
RADIATION

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or phonon) as
a result of changes in the electronic configuration of the atoms or molecules. Thermal radiation
is energy emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of
radiations such as X- rays, microwaves, radio and television waves. Unlike conduction and
convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence of an intervening
medium. All bodies at a temperature above absolute temperature zero emit thermal radiation.
The radiation heat loss from a hot surface to the cool air is given by:

Qrad = εσA(TS4- Tα4) (2.18)

Where qrad is the rate of heat flow by radiation (W), ε is the emissivity of the surface, σ is the
Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.669 x 10-8 W/m2.K4), A is the surface area through which heat
flows, TS is the absolute surface temperature, and Tα is the absolute ambient temperature (K).
The importance of radiation becomes very significant at high absolute temperature levels.

2.2.1 HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS

A thermal barrier (insulation, radiation shield)

B Heat transfer enhancement (heat exchangers, boilers, evaporators, condensers, radiators,

solar collectors, finned surfaces.

C Temperature control (cooling of electronic components, heat treating and quenching of

metals, minimizing thermal stress).

Objectives of heat transfer calculations

Design: (1) Determine operating conditions that yield specified temperature and heat transfer
rate, eg (1) determine insulation needed to meet a specified daily heat loss from a furnace, (2)
determine heat sink and /or fan needed to keep operating temperature of a semiconductor
chip below specified value.

6
3.1 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION

Heat conduction in a medium, in general is three- dimensional and time dependent. That is T =
T(x, y, z, t) and the temperature in a medium varies with position as well as time. Heat
conduction in a said to be steady, when the temperature does not vary with time, and unsteady
and transient when temperature varies with time. Heat conduction is one- dimensional when
conduction is significant in one direction only and negligible in the other two directions, two-
dimensional when conduction in the third direction is negligible and three- dimensional when
conduction in all three directions is significant.

3.2 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN ISOTROPIC MATERIALS

Consider an infinitesimal element of dimensions Δx, Δy, and Δz, in the Cartesian coordinate
system shown in figure 3.1. Here the unsteady condition of temperature variation with time t is
also taken into account,

Figure 3.1: The volume element for the derivation of heat conduction equation.

An energy balance on this volume element during a small time interval can be expressed as:

(Rate of heat conduction at x) – (Rate of heat conduction at x+Δx) + (Rate of heat generation
inside the element) = (Rate of change of the energy content of the element)
(3.1)
𝛥𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
qX – qX+ΔX + qgen = (3.2)
𝛥𝑡
According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the heat flowing into the left face of the element
can be expressed as:
𝜕𝑇
qX = - KΔyΔz𝜕𝑋 (3.3)

The magnitude of heat flow out of the right face of the element can be obtained by expanding qX
in a Taylor series and retaining only the first two terms as reasonable approximation.
𝜕𝑞𝑥
qX+ΔX = qX + ΔX (3.4)
𝜕𝑥

The net heat flow in the X direction is:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
qX – qX+ΔX = - KΔyΔz𝜕𝑋 - [- KΔyΔz𝜕𝑋 + 𝜕𝑋 (- KΔyΔz𝜕𝑋 ΔX)] (3.5)

𝜕 𝜕𝑇
qX – qX+ΔX = (K𝜕𝑋 ) ΔXΔyΔz (3.6)
𝜕𝑋

Similarly for the Y and Z directions

𝜕 𝜕𝑇
qY – qY+ΔY = (K𝜕𝑦 ) ΔXΔyΔz (3.7) and
𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑇
qX – qZ+ΔZ = (K ) ΔXΔyΔz (3.8)
𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍

The sum of net quantities of heat in the volume element is:

(qX – qX+ΔX) + (qY – qY+ΔY) + (qX – qZ+ΔZ) (3.9)

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
= [𝜕𝑋 (K𝜕𝑋 ) + 𝜕𝑦
(K𝜕𝑦 ) + 𝜕𝑍
(K𝜕𝑍 )] ΔXΔyΔz (3.10)

This can be re- written as

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
= [K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2] ΔXΔyΔz (3.11)

If qIII (x, y, z, t) is the rate of heat generation per unit volume (W/m3), then the generation of
heat in the element is:

Eg = qIII ΔXΔyΔz (3.12)

The heat remaining in the volume element owing to conduction (eqn 3.10) and heat generated
within the volume element (equ 3.11) together serve to increase the internal energy of the
volume element. The time change of internal energy within the volume element can be written
as:
 𝜕𝑇
ES = ρC ΔXΔyΔz (3.13)
𝜕𝑡

Where C is the specific heat (J/Kg/K), ρ is the density of the material (Kg/m3) and t is time
(second). Substituting equations 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13 into energy balance equation 3.1:

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
[K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 + q///] = ρC 𝜕𝑡 (3.14)

Dividing both sides by ρC

𝐾 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝑇
[K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 ] + = (3.15)
𝜌𝐶 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑡

𝜌𝐶
Multiplying both sides of equation 3.15 by
𝐾

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑇
K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 + = (3.16)
𝐾 𝐾 𝜕𝑡

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 𝜕𝑇
K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 + = (3.17)
𝐾 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Equation 3.17 is the heat conduction equation for isotropic materials. Equation 3.17 can be
written in compact form as:

𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 𝜕𝑇
V 2T + + (3.18)
𝐾 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Where V is called a laplacian operator:

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
V2 = + 𝜕𝑌 2 + (3.19)
𝜕𝑋 2 𝜕𝑍 2

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖
(1) STEADY STATE CONDUCTION (Ht gen) K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 + =0 (3.20)
𝐾

𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖 1 𝜕𝑇
(2) TRANSIENT CONDUCTION K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 + = (3.21)
𝐾 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
NO HEAT GENERATON
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖
(3) STEADY STATE NO HT GENERATION K𝜕𝑋 2 + K𝜕𝑌 2 + K𝜕𝑍 2 + =0 (3.22)
𝐾

3.3 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

In heat transfer analysis, we are often interested in the rate of heat transfer through a medium
under steady state condition. Such problems can be solved easily without involving any
differential equations by the introduction of thermal resistance concepts in an analogous
manner to electrical circuit problems. Consider heat transfer through a “Plane Wall” which has
finite dimension in one direction but extended infinitely in the other two dimensions.

𝑇1 −𝑇2
Slope =
𝐿

The heat flow through a wall of cross sectional area A can be obtained from Fourier’s law of heat
conduction:
𝑑𝑇
q = - KA𝑑𝑥 (3.23)

𝑇2 −𝑇1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
= - KA 𝐿
= 𝐿/𝐾𝐴
(3.24)

The term L/KA is called the thermal resistance. The thermal resistance circuit is shown in figure
3.2.

T1 T2
𝐿
R = 𝐾𝐴

Figure 3.2: Thermal current for 1D heat flow in a plane wall.

If the outer wall is loosing heat to the surrounding by convection,

qconv = hA(T2- Tα)

𝑇2 −𝑇𝛼
= (3.25)
1/ℎ𝐴

1/hA is termed convective resistance for the heat transfer to the fluid adjacent the outer wall.
The heat flow equation for the wall shown in figure 3.3 is shown as follows:

𝑇𝛼1 −𝑇𝛼2
q= 1 𝐿 1 (3.26)
+ +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝐾𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴

where h1 and h2 are the inner and outer heat

transfer coefficients respectively.

Fig 3.4: Thermal for steady state heat conduction in a plane wall bound by fluids having different temps.
 The temperature distribution in the plane wall can be determined as follows:
𝑇2 −𝑇1
T(x) = 𝑥 + T1 (3.27)
𝐿

The thermal resistance concept can still be used to determine the rate of steady heat transfer
through multilayer plane walls (composite walls) as shown below:
𝑇𝛼1 −𝑇𝛼2
q=
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑇𝛼1 −𝑇𝛼2
q= 1 𝐿1 𝐿 1
+ + 2 +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝐾 1 𝐴 𝐾 2 𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴

1 𝐿1 𝐿2 1
Rtotal = + + +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐴 𝐾2 𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴

Example 1:Consider a 3m high, 5m wide and 0.3m thick wall whose thermal conductivity is K=
0.9 W/m.OC. On a certain day, the temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the wall are
measured to be 16 OC and 2 OC respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss through the wall.

A = 3 X 5 = 15m2

L = 0.3m

K = 0.9 W/m.OC
𝑇1 −𝑇2 16−2
q = KA = 0.9 x 15 = 630 W
𝐿 0.3

Example 2: Consider a 0.8m high and 1.5m wide glass window with a thickness of 8mm and a
thermal conductivity of K= 0.78 W/m.OC. Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this
glass window and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the room is
maintained at 20 OC while the temperature of the window is -10 OC. Take the heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1 = 10 W/m2.OC and h2= 40
W/m2.OC.
 𝑇𝛼1 −𝑇𝛼2
q= 1 𝐿1 1
+ +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝐾 1 𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴

Rin Rglass Rout

A = 0.8 x 0.5 = 1.2 m2

1 1
Rin = = = 0.0833 oC/W
ℎ1 𝐴 10 𝑥 1.2

𝐿 0.008
Rglass = = = 0.00855 oC
𝐾𝐴 0.78 𝑥 1.2

1 1
Rout = = = 0.02083 oC
ℎ2 𝐴 40 𝑥 1.2

Rtotal = Rconv1 + Rglass + Rconv2

= 0.0833 + 0.00855 + 0.02083

= 0.1127 oC/W

𝑇𝛼1 −𝑇𝛼2 20−(−10)

q= = = 266 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 0.1127

The inner surface temperature of the window glass can be determined from
𝑇𝛼1 −𝑇1
q= qRconv1 = Tα1 – T1
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣1

T1 = Tα1 – qRconv1

= 20 – (266)(0.08333)

= -2.2 oC
3.2 HEAT CONDUCTION IN HOLLOW CYLINDER

Consider a long thick- walled hollow cylinder or tube (figure 3.1) having the inside surface
temperature maintained at T1 (at r1) and outer surface temperature maintained at T2 (r2).The
heat flow occurs only in the radial direction and axial conduction effects may be neglected.

Figure 3.5: One- dimensional heat conduction through a long hollow pipe.

Figure 3.5 shows an infinitely long hollow pipe subjected to conduction in the radial direction.
From Fourier’s law:
𝑑𝑇
q = -KA𝑑𝑟 (3.28)

A = 2πrl (3.29)
𝑑𝑇
q = -2πlKr𝑑𝑟 (3.30)

𝑞 𝑑𝑇
Hence dT = - 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 . (3.31)
𝑑𝑟

This differential equation is solved subject to the following boundary conditions.

For T = T1, r = r1 (3.32)

And T = T2, r = r2 (3.33)

Integrating equation 3.31,

𝑞 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
T = - 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 ∫𝑟 2 (3.34)
1 𝑟

𝑞
T = - 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 lnr + C (3.35)

Where C is the constant of integration which can be determined by using the boundary
conditions (equation 3.32) as follows:
 𝑞
T1 = - lnr1 + C (3.36)
2𝜋𝑙𝐾

𝑞
→ C = T1 + lnr1 (3.37)
2𝜋𝑙𝐾

Substituting equation 3.37 in 3.35 yields

𝑞 𝑞
T = - 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 lnr + 2𝜋𝑙𝐾
lnr1 + T1 (3.38)

Applying the second boundary condition (equ 3.33)

𝑞 𝑞
T2 = - 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 lnr2 + 2𝜋𝑙𝐾
lnr1 + T1 (3.39)

𝑞 𝑞
T1- T2 = 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 lnr2 - 2𝜋𝑙𝐾
lnr1 (3.40)

𝑞
T1- T2 = (lnr2- lnr1) (3.41)
2𝜋𝑙𝐾

𝑟
lnr2- lnr1 = ln𝑟2 (3.42)
1

Combining equations 3.42 and 3.41 yields

𝑞 𝑟
T1- T2 = 2𝜋𝑙𝐾 ln𝑟2 (3.43)
1

2𝜋𝑙𝐾(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
q= 𝑟 (3.44)
𝑙𝑛 2
𝑟1

XXX For steady state state, one dimensional heat flow through a cylindrical or composite
cylindrical hollow tube that is exposed to convection on both sides at temperature T α1 and Tα2
with heat transfer coefficients h1 and h2 respectively as shown in figure 3.7, the thermal
resistance in this case consists of conduction and convection resistances in series.
Figure 3.7: Thermal resistance network for a hollow cylindrical material.
𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇𝛼2
q= (3.40)
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑟
1 ln( 2 ) 1
𝑟1
Rtotal = (2𝜋𝑟 + + (3.41)
1 𝐿)ℎ1 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 (2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿)ℎ2

Similarly for a composite hollow cylinder as shown in figure 3.8:

𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇𝛼2
q= (3.40)
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Figure 3.8: Thermal resistance network for a composite hollow cylinder

𝑟 𝑟
1 ln( 2 ) ln( 3 ) 1
𝑟1 𝑟2
Rtotal = (2𝜋𝑟 + + + (3.41a)
1 𝐿)ℎ1 2𝜋𝐿𝐾1 2𝜋𝐿𝐾2 (2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿)ℎ2

OR
𝑟 𝑟
1 ln( 2 ) ln( 3 ) 1
𝑟1 𝑟2
Rtotal = ℎ + + + (3.41b)
1 𝐴1 2𝜋𝐿𝐾1 2𝜋𝐿𝐾2 ℎ2 𝐴2

Once q is known, we can determine any intermediate temperature 𝑇𝑗 by applying the relation:
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑗
q=𝑅 (3.42)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖−𝑗
For heat transfer through a three- layered composite cylinder subjected to convection on both
sides (figure 3.9)

Once q has been calculated, the interface temperature T2 can be determined as follows:
𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇2 𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇2
q= = 1 𝑙𝑛(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) (3.43)
𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣1 + 𝑅1 +
ℎ1 (2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿) 2𝜋𝐿𝐾1

𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇𝛼2
Similarly q= (3.44)
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇1
q=
𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣1

𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇2
q=
𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣1 + 𝑅1

𝑇1 − 𝑇3
q=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑇2 − 𝑇3
q=
𝑅2

𝑇2 − 𝑇4
q=
𝑅2 + 𝑅3

𝑇2 − 𝑇𝛼2
q= = …..
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣2

q remains constant in one- dimensional, steady state conduction.

3.2.1 HOLLOW SPHERE

Similarly fro spheres, the heat conduction through a sphere of area A = 4πr 2 can be expressed as:
 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
Qcond, sphere = (3.45)
𝑅𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑟2 − 𝑟1
Where Rshere = (3.46)
4𝜋𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐾

Where r1 and r2 are outer and inner radii respectively.

For a hollow sphere in which there is convection in the inside and outside of the hollow sphere,
𝛥𝑇
q= (3.47)
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

1 r2 − r1 1
Rtotal= + + (3.48)
ℎ 1 𝐴1 4𝜋𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐾 ℎ 2 𝐴2

1 r2 − r1 1
Rtotal = + + (3.49)
(4𝜋𝑟12 )ℎ1 4𝜋𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐾 (4𝜋𝑟22 )ℎ2

Example 3: A 3 m internal diameter spherical tank made of 2 cm thick stainless steel (K = 15

W/m. OC) is used to store iced water at Tα1 = 0 OC. The tank is located in a room whose
temperature is Tα2 = 22 OC. The convection heat transfer coefficients at the inner and outer
surfaces of the tank are h1 = 80 W/m2.OC and h2 = 10 W/m2.OC respectively. Determine (a) the
rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the tank. (b) the inner and outer temperatures of the
stainless steel container.

Ø = 3m r1= 1.5m

Thickness= 0.02mm r2= 1.5+0.02= 1.52m

K = 15 W/m. OC A1= 4πr2

Tα1 = 0 OC A1= 4 x π x 1.52=28.3m2

Tα2 = 22 OC A2= 4 x π x 1.522=29.0m2

h1 = 80 W/m2.OC
 𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇𝛼2 𝑇𝛼1 − 𝑇𝛼2
q= = 1 𝑟 −𝑟 1
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣1 + 𝑅𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣2 + 2 1 +
ℎ1 𝐴1 4𝜋𝐾𝑟1 𝑟2 ℎ2 𝐴2

1 1
Rconv1 = = = 0.000442 OC/W
ℎ 1 𝐴1 80 𝑥 28.3

𝑟2 −𝑟1 1.52−1.50
Rsphere = = = 0.000047 OC/W
4𝜋𝐾𝑟1 𝑟2 4.𝜋.15.1.52.1.5

1 1
Rconv1 = = = 0.00345 OC/W
ℎ 2 𝐴2 10 𝑥 29

Rtotal = 0.000442 + 0.000047 + 0.00345 = 0.003939 OC

𝑇𝛼2 −𝑇𝛼1 22−0
q= = = 5585.17 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 0.003938

b INNER TEMPERATURE T1
𝑇1 −𝑇𝛼1 𝑇1 −0 𝑇1
q= = ; 5585.17 = ; T1 = 2.47 OC
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣1 0.00042 0.00042

𝑇2 −0 𝑇2
T2: q = ; 5585.17 =
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣1 + 𝑅𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0.000442+0.000047

𝑇2
5585.17 = ; T2 = 2.73 OC
0.000489

3.4 TRANSIENT OR UNSTEADY STATE CONDUCTION

Unsteady state condition problems are those where the temperature of the body varies with
both space and time or with only time (as in a pumped system). A typical example of a transient
case is the heating or cooling of ingots. Transient temperature calculations are important for the
purpose of melting, hot working, heat treatment etc, where from the variation of temperature
the transfer analyst can predict the time required for a particular part to attain predetermined
temperature levels.

3.4.1 LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lumped system analysis is applied to bodies in which the temperature of a body varies with time
but remains uniform throughout the body at any time. The temperature of such bodies is taken
to e a function of time only, T(t). The lumped system analysis provides simplification of heat
transfer problems without much sacrifice from accuracy.

Consider a body of mass m, volume V, surface area AS, density ρ, and specific heat CP initially at a
uniform temperature Ti (figure 3.10). The body is placed into a medium at temperature Tα, and
heat transfer takes place between the body and its environment, with a heat transfer coefficient
h. Assuming that T > Ti, (the analysis is also valid for the opposite case). We assume lumped
system to be applicable, ie temperature remains uniform within the body but changes with time.
T = T(t).

During a differential interval dt, the temperature of the body rises by a differential amount dT.
An energy balance of the solid for the time interval dt can be expressed as:

(Heat transfer into the body during dt) = (The increase in the energy of the body during dt)

hAS(Tα – T)dt = MCPdT (3.50)

recall that M = ρV and dt = (T – Tα)

Equation 3.50 can be re-arranged as:

𝑑(𝑇−𝑇𝛼 ) −ℎ𝐴𝑆
= dt (3.51)
𝑇−𝑇𝛼 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Integrating from t = 0, at which T = Ti to any time t, at which T = T(t) gives

(𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝛼 ) −ℎ𝐴𝑆
ln = t (3.52)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝛼 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Taking the exponential of both sides

ℎ𝐴𝑆
(𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝛼 ) − 𝑡
= 𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑃
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 (3.53)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝛼

ℎ𝐴𝑆
Where b = (1/S) (3.54)
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑃
Equation 3.53 enables us to determine the temperature T(t) of a body at time t, or alternatively,
the time required for the temperature to reach a specified value T(t).

CRITERIA FOR LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

It is generally accepted that the lumped system analysis is applicable if Bi = 0.1

ℎ𝐿𝐶
Where Bi = (3.55)
𝐾𝑆

𝑉
And LC = (3.56)
𝐴𝑆

Where LC is the characteristic length, AS is surface area, KS is thermal conductivity of the solid
and h is heat transfer coefficient.

SOLID BODY
M = Mass
V = Volume
Ρ = Density
Ti = Initial temperature

Figure 3.2: The geometry and parameters involved in the lumped

system analysis
q = hAS(Tα – T(t)) (3.57)
Biots number can also be expressed as:

ℎ 𝛥𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

Bi = . = (3.58)
𝐾/𝐿𝐶 𝛥𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

Recall from equation 5.53

ℎ𝐴𝑆 ℎ
(𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝛼 ) − 𝑡 − 𝑡
= 𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑃
= 𝑒 𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝐿𝐶
(3.59)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝛼

ℎ𝐴𝑆 ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝐿𝐶 𝐾 𝑡 ℎ𝐿𝐶 𝛼𝑡

𝑡= = . . = . = Bi.FO (3.60)
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑃 𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝐿𝐶 𝐾𝑆 𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝐿2𝐶 𝐾𝑆 𝐿2𝑐

𝛼𝑡 𝐾
Where FO = Fourier’s number = 𝐿2 and α = thermal diffusivity =
𝑐 𝜌𝐶𝑃

(𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝛼 )
Thus = 𝑒 −𝐵𝑖.𝐹𝑂 (3.61)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝛼
 ℎ𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 /𝐾𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
Similarly Bi = = = (3.62)
𝐾𝑆 1/ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

Lumped system analysis assumes a uniform temperature distribution throughout the body,
which will be the case when the thermal resistance of the body to heat conduction is zero.
Lumped system analysis is exact when Bi = 0. The smaller the Bi number, the more accurate the
lumped system analysis. Equation 3.59 can be used to determine the temperature T(t) of a body
at time (t) or alternatively the time t, required for the temperature to reach a specified
temperature T(t).

3.4.1 HEAT TRANSFER TO A SEMI- INFINITE WALL

For a large plane wall at an initial constant temperature Ti and subjected to a surface
temperature Ts, where Ts > Ti, the differential equation to be solved is:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
=α (3.63)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2

Solving equation 3.63 for the initial and boundary conditions:

T = Ti at t = 0 and T = Ts at x = 0 and T→ Tα as x → α

Yields the following equations:

(𝑇−𝑇𝑖 ) 𝑥
= 1- erf ( ) (3.64)
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑖 2√𝑥𝑡

(𝑇−𝑇𝑖 ) 𝑥
≡ = erfc ( ) (3.65)
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑖 2√𝑥𝑡

(𝑇𝑠 −𝑇) 𝑥
or = erf ( ) (3.66)
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑖 2√𝑥𝑡

For the case of finite surface resistance, the solution to equation 3.63 for a semi- infinite wall is:

(𝑇𝛼 −𝑇) 𝑥 ℎ𝑥 ℎ2 𝛼𝑡 ℎ√𝛼𝑡 𝑥

= erf ( ) + exp ( + )[1- erf( + )] (3.67)
𝑇𝛼 −𝑇𝑖 2√𝛼𝑡 𝐾 𝐾2 𝐾 2√𝛼𝑡

(𝑇−𝑇𝑖 ) 𝑥 ℎ𝑥 ℎ2 𝛼𝑡 ℎ√𝛼𝑡 𝑥
≡ = erfc ( ) - exp ( + )[erfc( + )] (3.68)
𝑇𝛼 −𝑇𝑖 2√𝛼𝑡 𝐾 𝐾2 𝐾 2√𝛼𝑡
3.5 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer by convection is associated with energy exchange between a surface and an
adjacent fluid. There are very few energy transfer situations of practical importance in which
fluid motion is not involved. The rate equation for convection has been expressed previously as:
𝑞
= hΔT (3.69)
𝐴

Where the heat flux, q/A occurs by virtue of a temperature difference. This simple equation is
the defining relation for h, convective heat transfer coefficient. The determination of the
coefficient h, is, however, not at all simple undertaken. It is related to the mechanism of fluid
flow, the properties of the fluid, and the geometry of the specific system of interest.

3.5.1 PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION

As mentioned earlier, there are three basic mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection
and radiation. Conduction and convection are similar in that both mechanisms require the
presence of a material medium. But they are different in that convection requires the presence
of fluid motion. Heat transfer through a solid is always by conduction since the molecules of a
solid remain at relatively fixed position. Heat transfer through a liquid or gas can be by
conduction or convection, depending on the presence of any bulk fluid motion. Heat transfer
through a fluid is by convection in the presence of bulk fluid motion and by conduction in the
absence of it.

Convection heat transfer is complicated because it involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction. The fluid motion enhances heat transfer since it brings hotter and cooler fluids into
contact, initiating higher rates of conduction at a greater number of sites in a fluid. Therefore
the rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by convection than by conduction and
the higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer.

The fluid particle immediately adjacent to a solid boundary are stationary, and thin layer of fluid
close to the surface will be laminar flow regardless of the nature of the free stream. Thus
molecular energy exchange or conduction effects will always be present, and play a major role in
any convection process. If fluid flow is laminar, then all energy transfer between a surface and
contacting fluid or between fluid layers is by molecular means. If on the contrary, flow is
turbulent, there is a bulk mixing of fluid particles between regions at different temperatures,
and heat transfer rate is increased. The distinction between laminar and turbulent flow will thus
be a major consideration in any convective situation.
There are two main classifications of convective heat transfer, depending on the driving force
causing fluid flow. NATURAL or FREE CONVECTION is the type of heat transfer process wherein
fluid motion results from the heat transfer. When a fluid is heated or cooled, the associated
density change and buoyant effect produce a natural circulation in which the affected fluid
moves of its own accord past the solid surface, the fluid that replaces it is similarly affected by
the energy transfer and the process is repeated.

Forced convection is the classification used to describe those convection situations in which
fluid circulation is produced by an external agency such as fan or a pump.

3.52 SIGNIFICANT PARAMETERS IN CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

1 NUSSELT NUMBER (Nu):

The Nusselt number is viewed as the dimensionless convective heat transfer coefficient and is
defined as:

ℎ𝐿𝑐
Nu = (3.71)
𝐾𝑓

Where Kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid. Nusselt number is the ratio of heat convection flux
to heat conductive flux of a fluid.

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ℎ𝛥𝑇 ℎ𝐿
ie Nu = = = = Nu (3.72)
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝛥𝑇/𝐿 𝐾

Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid layer as a result of
convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer. The lager the Nusselt number, the
more effective the convection. NU = 1 for a fluid layer represents that the heat transfer across
the layer is by pure conduction.

2 PRANDTL NUMBER (Pr)

Prandtl number is the ration of molecular diffusivity of momentum to the molecular diffusivity of
energy.
𝜈
Pr = (3.72)
𝛼

ν = momentum diffusivity (Kinematic viscosity) and α = thermal diffusivity of fluid

 µ 𝐾
recall that ν = and α =
𝜌 𝜌𝐶𝑝

𝜈 µ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 µ𝐶𝑝
→ Pr = = x = (3.75)
𝛼 𝜌 𝐾 𝐾

The Prandtl number is a combination of fluid properties.

3 REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re):

This is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force. Reynolds number is defined as follows:

𝑉𝑑 𝜌𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Re = = = (3.76)
𝜈 µ 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

V = velocity, d = diameter of pipe, ν and α are kinematic and dynamic viscosities.

Reynolds number defines the transition between lamina and turbulent flow. The normal range
for the beginning of transition is 2320 (determined by Schiller). The Reynolds number is used for
determining Nusselts number in forced convection.

4 GRASHOF NUMBER (Gr):

Grashof number is used in natural convection analysis. This is the ratio of buoyancy force to
viscous force.

𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝛼 )𝐿3𝑐

Gr = (3.77)
𝜈2

where g = acceleration due to gravity,

β = coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid and

Lc = characteristic length (volume/surface area of medium, V/As).

The Nusselt number for a given geometry can be expressed in terms of the Reynolds number Re,
and the Prandtl number for forced convection and in terms of Grashof number for natural
convection.

The experimental data for heat transfer is often represented with reasonable accuracy by a
simple power- law relation of the form:
Nu = C Rem Prn (3.78)

or

Nu = C Grm Prn (3.79)

for forced convection (equation 3.78) and natural convection (equation 3.79) respectively.
where m and n are constant exponents (usually between 0 and 1), and the value of the constant
C depends on geometry. Sometimes more complex relations are used for better accuracy.
4.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF MASS TRANSFER
Transport phenomena of momentum and heat transfer have dealt with one- component phase
that possesses a natural tendency to reach equilibrium conditions. When a system contains two
or more components whose concentrations vary from point to point, there is a natural
tendency for mass to be transferred, minimizing the concentration differences within the
system. The transport of one constituent from a region of higher concentration to that of a
lower concentration is called mass transfer.

Examples of mass transfer are in day- to- day experiences are: A lump of sugar added to a cup
of tea dissolves and diffuses uniformly throughout the tea. Perfume presents a pleasant
fragrance throughout a surrounding atmosphere. Mass transfer is the basis of many biological
and chemical processes. Biological processes include the oxygenation of blood and the
transport of ions across membranes within the kidney. Chemical processes include, the doping
of a silicon wafer to form a semi conducting thin film and the purification of ores. Mass transfer
underlies the various chemical separation processes where one or more components migrate
from one phase to the interface between the two phases. In liquid- liquid extraction processes,
the components penetrate the interface and then transfer to the bulk of the second phase in
contact.

Mass can be transferred by random molecular motion in quiescent fluids, or it can be

transferred from a surface into a moving fluid, aided by dynamic characteristics of the flow.
These two distinct modes of transport: molecular mass transfer (mass diffusion) and convective
mass transfer are analogous to conduction heat transfer and convective heat transfer. The two
mechanisms of mass transfer can act simultaneously.

4.1 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

1 DRIVING FORCE

The driving force for heat transfer is the temperature difference. In contrast, the driving force
for mass transfer is concentration difference. We can view temperature as a measure of “heat
concentration”. Therefore, both heat and mass are transferred from the more concentrated
regions to the less concentrated ones.

2 MODES OF TRANSFER

Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation. Mass however, is transferred by

conduction (called diffusion) and convection only. The rate of heat conduction in a direction X is

1
proportional to the temperature difference dT/dx in that direction and is expressed by
FOURIER’S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION as:

𝑑𝑇
q = -KA (4.1)
𝑑𝑥

where K is the thermal conductivity of the medium and A is the area normal to the direction of
heat transfer. Likewise, the rate of mass diffusion Mdiff of a chemical specie A in a stationary
medium in direction X is proportional to the concentration gradient dC/dx in that direction and
is expressed by FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION as:

𝑑𝐶𝐴
Mdiff = -DABA (4.2)
𝑑𝑥

where DAB is the diffusion coefficient (or mass diffusivity) of the specie in the mixture and C A is
the concentration of the in the mixture at that location. A is the area normal to the direction of
mass transfer. It can be shown that the differential equations for both heat conduction and
mass diffusion are of the same form.

3 HEAT GENERATION

Heat generation refers to the conversion of some form of energy such as electrical, chemical or
nuclear energy into sensible heat energy in the medium. Heat generation occurs throughout
the medium and exhibits itself as a rise in temperature. Similarly, some mass transfer problems
involve chemical reactions that occur within the medium and result in the generation of a
chemical specie throughout the medium. Such reactions that occur within a medium a medium
are analogous to internal heat generation.

4 CONVECTION

Recall that heat convection is the heat transfer mechanism that involves both heat conduction
(molecular diffusion) and bulk fluid motion. Fluid motion enhances heat transfer by removing
the heated fluid near the surface and replacing it by cooler fluid further away. In the limiting
case of no bulk fluid motion, convection reduces to conduction. Likewise, mass convection (or
convective mass transfer) is the mass transfer mechanism between a surface and a moving fluid
that involves both mass diffusion and bulk fluid motion. Fluid motion also enhances mass
transfer by removing the high concentration fluid near the surface and replacing it by the lower
concentration fluid further away. The rate of heat convection for external flow is expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as:

qconv = hconvAs(Ts – Tα) (4.3)

hconv is the heat transfer coefficient.

2
Likewise, the rate of mass convection can be expressed as:

Mconv = hmassAs(Cs – Cα) (4.4)

where hmass is the mass transfer coefficient, As is the surface area, and Cs-Cα is the concentration
difference across the concentration boundary layer.

4.2 MASS DIFFUSION (OR SIMPLY DIFFUSION)

FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

The law states that the rate of mass diffusion of a chemical specie in a stagnant medium in a
specified direction is proportional to the concentration gradient in that direction. Fick’s law of
diffusion can be expressed as:

Mass flux = Constant of proportionality X Concentration gradient

𝑑𝐶𝐴
JA,X = - DAB (4.5)
𝑑𝑥

where JAX is the molar flux of a given specie in the X direction (Kmol/S.m2). dCA/dx, is the
concentration gradient in the X- direction and DAB, the proportional constant is the mass
diffusivity or diffusion coefficient for component A diffusing through B (m2/S). Diffusion
coefficients, in general, are highest in gases and lowest in solids. Diffusion coefficients increase
with temperature. The diffusion coefficient and thus mass diffusion rate of carbon through iron
during hardening process, for example, increases by 6000 times as the temperature is raised
from 500 oC to 1000 oC.

4.3 DIFFUSION IN SOLIDS

The diffusion of atoms within solids plays very important roles in the manufacturing of many
engineering materials. In semiconductor manufacturing process, “impurity atoms”, commonly
called dopants, are introduced into solid silicon to control the electrical conductivity in a
semiconductor device. The hardening of steel results from the diffusion of carbon and other
elements through iron. Vacancy diffusion and interstitial diffusion are the two most frequently
encountered solid diffusion mechanisms.

VACANCY DIFFUSION: In vacancy diffusion, the transported atoms “jump” from a lattice
position of the solid into a neighbouring unoccupied lattice site or vacancy as illustrated in

3
figure 4.1. The atom continues to diffuse through the solid by a series of jumps into the
neighbouring vacancies.

Figure 4.1: Solid- state vacancy diffusion.

INTERSTITIAL DIFFUSION: An atom moves in interstitial diffusion by jumping from one

interstitial site to a neighbouring one as illustrated in figure 4.2. This like the vacancy diffusion
involves a distortion of the lattice.

Figure 4.2: Solid- state interstitial diffusion.

4
The solid- phase diffusion coefficient has been observed to increase with increasing
temperature according to an Arrhenius equation of the form:
𝑄⁄
DAB = Do 𝑒 − 𝑅𝑇 (4.6)
or
𝑄1
lnDAB = lnDo - (4.7)
𝑅𝑇

or
𝑄
logDAB = logDo - (4.8)
2.3.3𝑅𝑇

where DAB is solid diffusion coefficient for the diffusing specie A within solid B, D o is a
proportionality constant (m2/S),Q is the activation energy (J/mol), R is the thermodynamic
constant (8.314 J/mol. K) and T is absolute temperature (K). Equation 4.7 suggests that a plot of
lnDAB against 1/T for a diffusion process gives a straight line as shown in figure 4.3 in which the
slope is a measure of activation energy of the diffusion process or equation 4.7 suggests that a
plot of lnDAB versus 1/T yields a straight line with slope = -Q/R and intercept lnDo

Table 4.1 provides the diffusion data that is needed to evaluate to evaluate D AB by equation 4.6
in pure metals and interstitial solutes in iron. These tables point out the significant energy
barrier that must be overcome when an atom jumps between two lattice sites by vacancy
diffusion and a smaller energy barrier encountered in interstitial diffusion.

Table 4.1: Data for self- diffusion in pure metal and interstitial solutes in atom.

Structure Metal Do (mm2/S) Q (KJ/mole)

FCC Au 10.7 176.9
FCC Cu 31 200.3
FCC Ni 190 279.7
FCC Fe(ϒ) 49 284.1
BCC Fe(α) 200 239.7
BCC Fe(δ) 1980 238.5
Table 4.2: Data for diffusion of interstitial solute atoms in iron

Structure Element Do (mm2/S) Q (KJ/mole)

BCC C 2.0 84.1
BCC N 0.3 76.1
BCC H 0.1 13.4
FCC C 2.5 144.2

5
4.4 TRANSIENT MASS DIFFUSION (UNSTEADY STATE DIFFUSION)

Fick’s first law can be used to estimate the rate of diffusion of a specie in another for a steady
state condition in which the diffusion flux and concentration do not change with time. Unsteady
state diffusion describes processes where the diffusion flux and concentration change with
time. This is encountered during the carburization of mild steel in which carbon molecules
diffuse through the surface of the steel sample and results in a steel component with a hard
surface and relatively soft core region. Another example is during doping of impurity elements
in a silicon surface in order to alter the electrical properties of n- or P- type semiconductor
materials used in the manufacturing of electronic components.

Unsteady- state diffusion is governed by Fick’s SECOND LAW:

𝜕𝐶𝐴 𝜕 𝜕𝐶𝐴
= (𝐷𝐴𝐵 ) 4.8
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Assuming D is constant,

𝜕𝐶𝐴 𝜕 𝜕2 𝐶𝐴
= (𝐷𝐴𝐵 ) 4.9
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2

Fick’s second law written in rectangular coordinates and in 3- dimensions is:

𝜕𝐶𝐴 𝜕2 𝐶𝐴 𝜕2 𝐶𝐴 𝜕2 𝐶𝐴
= 𝐷𝐴𝐵 [ + + ] 4.10
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

The solution of equation 4.8 can be expressed in an analogous manner to equation 3.58 as:
𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑜 𝑥
=1 – erf ( ) 4.11
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑜 2√𝐷𝑡

where Cx is the concentration of the specie at a given distance x, Co is the initial concentration
of the specie (C = Co @ x = α), Cs is the surface concentration of the inner side of the exposed
surface of the medium. X is the distance to which the surface concentration can be attained in a
component at a given time. D is mass diffusivity. Equation 4.11 can be written as follows:
𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑜 𝑥
= erfC ( ) 4.12
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑜 2√𝐷𝑡

6
Example problem

The surface of a mild steel component is to be hardened by packing the component in a

carbonaceous material in a furnace at a high temperature for predetermined time. Consider
such a component with a uniform initial concentration of 0.15% by mass. The component is
now packed in a carbonaceous material and is placed in a high temperature furnace. The
diffusion coefficient of carbon in steel at the given temperature is 4.8 X 10-10 m2/s, and the
equilibrium concentration of carbon in the interface is 1.2% by mass. Determine how long the
component should be kept in the furnace for the mass concentration of carbon- 0.5mm from
the surface to reach 1%.

GIVEN: Cx = 1%, Co = 0.15%, Cs = 1.2%, X = 0.5mm, D = 4.8 x 10-10 m2/s, t = ?

Solution 0.821−0.81 0.16−𝑥

0.81−0.799
= 𝑥−0.18
𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑜 𝑥
= erfC ( ) 0.011 0.16−𝑥
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑜 2√𝐷𝑡 =
0.011 𝑥−0.18
0.01− 0.0015 𝑥 1 0.16−𝑥
= erfC ( ) = 𝑥−0.18
0.012− 0.0015 2√𝐷𝑡 1

0.0085 𝑥 x – 0.18 = 0.16 – x

= erfC ( )
0.0105 2√𝐷𝑡
2x = 0.16 + 0.18
𝑥
0.81 = erfC ( ) 0.34
2√𝐷𝑡 2x = 0.34 x= = 0.17
2

The argument whose complementary error function is 0.81 is determined from the Table as
0.17.
𝑥
= 0.17
2√𝐷𝑡

𝑥2
= 0.172
4𝐷𝑡

𝑥2 0.00052
t= = = 4505
4 x D x 0.172 4 x 4.8 x 10−10 x 0.172

4505
t = 4595 sec = = 1.25hrs = 1hr 15mins
3600

7
Example problem: In a similar problem, Co = 0.15%, Cs = 1.0%, X = 0.6mm, D = 5.0 x 10 -10 m2/s,
t = 1hr, find Cx.

Solution
𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑜 𝑥
= erfC ( )
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑜 2√𝐷𝑡

𝐶𝑥 − 0.0015 0.0006
= erfC ( ) Search argument and interpolate where
0.01− 0.0015 2√5 x 10−10 x 3600
necessary to find unknown complementary
𝐶𝑥 − 0.0015 0.0006
= erfC ( ) error function.
0.0085 2 x 0.00134

𝐶𝑥 − 0.0015
= erfC 0.223
0.0085

The complementary error function of 0.223 from the Table is 0.7557

𝐶𝑥 − 0.0015
= 0.7557
0.0085

Cx – 0.0015 = 0.7557 x 0.0085

Cx – 0.0015 = 0.00642

Cx = 0.00642 + 0.0015

Cx = 0.0079 (0.79%)