Nasa 1002 Product Technology Rev 2

Internationally Approved NDT Training.
NASA Dbn (Pty) Ltd.
Product Technology
Note Book
Document Title: Product Technology Note Book Revision: 2

Document Number: Nasa 1002 Issue Dated: 18-May-2021
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Index:
Section 1 Introduction to Metals.................................................................................... 9
Metals Available in the Earth’s Crust..................................................................................................................9
Steelmaking ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
The Blast Furnace ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Primary Steelmaking – Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) ................................................................................ 11
Secondary Steelmaking – Electric Arc Furnace................................................................................................ 11
Mechanical Properties of Steel........................................................................................................................ 12
Steel Composition............................................................................................................................................ 12
Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) ......................................................................................................................... 12
Medium Carbon Steel ...................................................................................................................................... 12
High Carbon Steels........................................................................................................................................... 12
Ultra High Carbon Steels.................................................................................................................................. 12
Alloyed Steels .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Crystal and Grain Structure ............................................................................................................................. 13
Section 2 Classification of Discontinuities and Terminology ........................................ 15
Interpretation .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Indication Types............................................................................................................................................... 15
Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
Defects ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Discontinuity Categories.................................................................................................................................. 17
Inherent Discontinuities .................................................................................................................................. 17
Primary Processing Discontinuities ................................................................................................................. 17
Secondary Processing Discontinuities ............................................................................................................. 17
Service Discontinuities..................................................................................................................................... 17
Section 3 Casting .......................................................................................................... 18
Casting Processes ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Continuous Casting (Concast) ...................................................................................................................... 18
Sand Casting ................................................................................................................................................ 18
Shell Moulding ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Investment Casting (Lost Wax) .................................................................................................................... 18
Die Casting ................................................................................................................................................... 18
Expendable Pattern Casting (Lost Foam)..................................................................................................... 18
Centrifugal Casting....................................................................................................................................... 18

Continuous Casting (Concast) .......................................................................................................................... 18
Sand Casting .................................................................................................................................................... 19
Shell Moulding ................................................................................................................................................. 19
Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process) ........................................................................................................... 20
Die Casting ....................................................................................................................................................... 20
Expendable Pattern (Lost Foam Process) ........................................................................................................ 21
Centrifugal Casting .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Casting Imperfections ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Section 4 ............................................................................................................................ 23
Wrought Products ........................................................................................................................................... 23
Forging ............................................................................................................................................................. 23
Hammer forging............................................................................................................................................... 23
Press forging .................................................................................................................................................... 24
Open Die Forging ............................................................................................................................................. 24
Closed die forging ............................................................................................................................................ 25
Rolling .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Extrusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Imperfections in Wrought Products ................................................................................................................ 28
Section 5 ............................................................................................................................ 30
Welding............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Weld Joint Types.............................................................................................................................................. 30
Weld Preparation (Prep) Types ....................................................................................................................... 30
Square Butt Joints ............................................................................................................................................ 30
V-Joints ............................................................................................................................................................ 31
J-Joints ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
U-Joints ............................................................................................................................................................ 31
Other Prep Types ............................................................................................................................................. 31
Weld Zones ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
Pressure Welding (Forge Welding) .................................................................................................................. 32
Fusion Welding ................................................................................................................................................ 33
Fusion Welding Processes ............................................................................................................................... 33
Oxy-Gas Welding ......................................................................................................................................... 33
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA) ............................................................................................................. 33
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) ................................................................................................................. 33
Gas Tungsten Arc Welded (GTAW) .............................................................................................................. 33

Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) .................................................................................................................. 33
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) .......................................................................................................................... 33
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) ................................................................................................................... 33
Electroslag Welding (ESW)........................................................................................................................... 33
Oxy-Gas Welding ............................................................................................................................................. 34
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA) ................................................................................................................. 34
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) ..................................................................................................................... 35
Gas Tungsten Arc Welded (GTAW) .................................................................................................................. 35
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) ...................................................................................................................... 36
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW).............................................................................................................................. 36
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) ....................................................................................................................... 37
Electroslag Welding (ESW) .............................................................................................................................. 38
The Effect of Hydrogen in Steel ....................................................................................................................... 38
Hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC) ...................................................................................................... 38
Fissures / micro-fissures .............................................................................................................................. 38
Chevron cracks............................................................................................................................................. 38
Fish-eyes ...................................................................................................................................................... 38
Weld Cladding.................................................................................................................................................. 39
Welding Imperfections .................................................................................................................................... 39
Group 1 - Weld Cracks ..................................................................................................................................... 40
Types of Weld Cracks....................................................................................................................................... 40
Group 2 – Cavities............................................................................................................................................ 42
Group 3 – Solid Inclusions ............................................................................................................................... 43
Group 4 – Lack of Fusion and Penetration ...................................................................................................... 44
Group 5 – Imperfect Shape and Dimensions ................................................................................................... 44
Group 6 – Miscellaneous Imperfections.......................................................................................................... 46
Summary of Welding Imperfections ................................................................................................................ 47
Section 6 Heat Treatment ............................................................................................ 48
Types of Heat Treatment ................................................................................................................................. 48
Annealing (Full Anneal)................................................................................................................................ 49
Sub-Critical Anneal ...................................................................................................................................... 49
Normalising.................................................................................................................................................. 49
Quenching (Hardening) ............................................................................................................................... 49
Tempering.................................................................................................................................................... 49
Hydrogen Release ........................................................................................................................................ 49

Stress Relieving ............................................................................................................................................ 49
Post Weld..................................................................................................................................................... 49
Heat Treatment (PWHT) .............................................................................................................................. 49
Preheat ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Section 7 Secondary Processing Imperfections ............................................................ 51
Grinding Cracks ............................................................................................................................................ 51
Pickling Cracks ............................................................................................................................................. 51
Heat Treatment Cracks ................................................................................................................................ 51
Machining Tears .......................................................................................................................................... 51
Plating Cracks............................................................................................................................................... 51
Section 8 Service Imperfections ................................................................................... 52
Fatigue Cracks .............................................................................................................................................. 52
Thermal Fatigue ........................................................................................................................................... 52
Corrosion Fatigue ........................................................................................................................................ 52
Creep............................................................................................................................................................ 52
Stress corrosion cracking ............................................................................................................................. 52
Corrosion ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Erosion ......................................................................................................................................................... 52
Revision control sheet:
Rev: Date: Compiled by: Reviewed by: Revision Description:

2 18-May-2021 Miechaal Sewcoomar Nish Kanhaye Complete rewrite of notes.

Section 1 Introduction to Metals
Metals may be described as substances having a 'metallic' lustre and are usually malleable, ductile, of high specific
gravity and are good conductors of heat and electricity, although some materials classified as metals may lack some of
these properties.
Common metals are iron (steel), copper, lead, aluminium etc. Metals usually occur as components of an 'ore' in the earth
crust and need separation and refining to allow their use. Metals may be combined with other metals to form 'alloys'.
Pure materials are known as 'Elements' and consist of atoms that are a collection of particles held together by various
bonds. These particles are known as protons, neutrons and electrons.
The number of protons and electrons determine the type of element each having a different number. An element is a
pure material that cannot be separated into a simpler substance. There are 94 naturally occurring elements and around
another 20 that can be made artificially.
Iron has an atomic number of 26 which means that its atom contains 26 protons and 26 electrons there are also 30
neutrons in the core giving an atomic weight of 56.
Metals Available in the Earth’s Crust

The amount of metal present in the earth’s crust is variable. They are not spread evenly and some are more abundant
than others. Some areas are rich while others have none. Ores are mined at source and separated from unwanted
materials for refining. Different materials have different methods of refining. These notes will only discuss the processes
associated with engineering steels.

Steelmaking
Steelmaking is the second step in producing steel from iron ore. In this stage, impurities such as sulphur, phosphorus,
and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium, and
vanadium are added to produce the exact steel required.
Modern steelmaking processes are broken into two categories: primary and secondary steelmaking. Primary steelmaking
uses mostly new iron as the feedstock, usually from a blast furnace. Secondary steelmaking uses scrap steel as the
primary raw material. Gases created during the production of steel can be used as a power source.
The Blast Furnace

A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals. Blast refers to the
combustion air being "forced" or supplied above atmospheric pressure. A mixture of iron ore, coke and limestone is
added to the furnace and heat applied. The iron produced is known as pig iron and contains approximately 92% iron,
high amounts of carbon (typically up to 4%), manganese, silicon, small amounts of phosphorus, sulphur and other
impurities. Pig iron is a very brittle material and requires further processing to obtain a usable steel.

Primary Steelmaking – Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS)
In the BOS process, molten iron from blast furnace mixed with scrap metal. Scrap metal has a known content which
improves the quality of the steel produced. Most of the impurities from the pig iron is removed by the oxidation process.
The carbon content is reduced and a low carbon steel produced. Up to 250 tons can be produced in as little as 40
minutes giving the process a high production rate.
Secondary Steelmaking – Electric Arc Furnace

The electric arc furnace makes use of graphite electrodes to produce an arc which melts scrap metal (of a known
content). The process is generally used for smaller quantities of high grade steels.

Mechanical Properties of Steel
Mechanical properties refer to properties that steel exhibits when forces are applied.
Property Description
Tensile strength Resistance of steel to breaking under tension.
Yield strength Maximum stress that can be applied before it begins to change shape permanently.
Elastic strength Maximum stress that can be applied without any permanent shape change.
A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it fractures with little elastic deformation and
Brittleness
without significant plastic deformation.
Ductility The ability of a solid material to stretch under tensile strain.
Malleability The ability of a solid material to deform under compressive strain.
Toughness The ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracture.
Hardness The ability to resist abrasion. (scratching)
Steel Composition
Steel is an alloy. Carbon is added to iron to improve required material properties such as strength or hardness. The
amount of carbon added determines the dominant properties of the alloy. The following table shows the effects of
increasing carbon content:
Increases Reduces
Hardness Weldability
Brittleness Plasticity
Yield point Ductility
Tensile strength Air corrosion resistance
There are 4 main types of carbon steels which are in use today.
Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel)

These steels contain ±0.05 to 0.30% carbon and is the most common form of steel. Price is relatively low while providing
material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Typical applications include food cans & vehicle body
panels.
Medium Carbon Steel

These steels contain ± 0.3–0.8% carbon and balances ductility, strength and has good wear resistance. Most engineering
steels are medium carbon steels.
High Carbon Steels

These steels contain ± 0.8–2.0% carbon and are very strong, hard and good wear resistance. Used for springs, edged
tools, high-strength wires, etc.
Ultra High Carbon Steels

These steels contain ± 3.25–4.0% carbon and can be tempered to great hardness. Used only for special purposes such as
knives or punches.

Alloyed Steels
The addition of other elements to carbon steels can greatly improve required material properties for engineering
applications. The table below shows common elements along with their effect:
Element Effect
Aluminium Refines grain & acts as deoxidizer
Chromium Improves hardness, wear resistance & corrosion resistance
Nickel Improves strength, ductility & corrosion resistance
Vanadium Improves strength, toughness & ductility
Silicon Acts as deoxidizer
Manganese Acts as deoxidizer & desulphuriser
Molybdenum Improves creep resistance
Sulphur Improves machinability although lowers ductility
Phosphorus Increases resistance to corrosion and improves machinability
Crystal and Grain Structure

When steel solidifies, atoms form into regular structures called crystals. These crystals form into groups which are called
grains. Steel therefore has a grain structure. Where the structure of the crystal changes, we have grain boundaries.

Metals have one of 3 crystal structure, body centred, and face centred or hexagonal.

Section 2 Classification of Discontinuities and Terminology
One of the main objectives of NDT is to identify discontinuities on or within an object. A discontinuity is defined as an
imperfection or interruption in the normal physical structure of a material or deviation from the intended geometry.
Once discontinuities are detected, the inspector must first carry out interpretation to determine their relevance.
Interpretation
To interpret an indication is to decide what condition caused it. The technician should first determine if the indication is
false, non-relevant or relevant. One method of determining if an indication is relevant is to retest the specimen. If the
indication reappears, it is a relevant indication. If the indication is found to be false, the technician must determine the
source of the invalid indication and correct the problem. Test objects with false indications must be re-cleaned and
reprocessed.
Therefore a knowledge of products (Product technology) aids the operator in determining the source of indications.
Indication Types
Indications can be defined as the response or evidence from a Nondestructive test and are split into 3 categories:
Type Description Possible Causes

Indications that are interpreted to be caused by a Poor cleaning, improper application of
False condition other than a discontinuity or imperfection. paint, electrical interference or faulty
equipment, improper processing, etc.
Indications caused by features in the test object that
Press fits, rivets, keyways, drilled holes,
are there by design, but are in no way a relevant
differences in permeability, changes in
Non-Relevant discontinuity. Any non-relevant indication that
acoustic impedance, surface roughness,
interferes or could mask a relevant indication must be
etc.
further evaluated.
Relevant indications are those caused by material
discontinuity which is not present by design. Any
Cracks, Lack of fusion or penetrations,
Relevant relevant indication immediately becomes subject to
laminations, bursts, hot tears, etc.
evaluation of its cause (type of discontinuity) and then
subjected to evaluation.

Evaluation
Simply defined, evaluation is the process of comparing a relevant indication to an acceptance criteria and either
accepting or rejecting it. A Rejectable indication may be defined as a relevant indication whose size, shape, orientation,
location, or properties do not meet specified acceptance criteria.
Only when a relevant indication is classified as Rejectable can it be referred to as a defect.
NDT
INDICATION
INTERPRETATION
FALSE RELEVANT NON RELEVANT
EVALUATION
ACCEPT REJECT
Defects
Defects may be classified depending on their shape:
Type Description Examples

Linear defects which are 2 dimensional. Relative to
Planar other defects usually have a high significance. Cracks and lack of fusion.
Linear
Linear defects which are 3 dimensional. Slag lines and elongated porosity.
Volumetric
Defects which are rounded or non-linear. Relative to
Equiaxed other defects, these defects usually have a low Gas pores and inclusions.
significance.
The position of a defect in the cross-section of a test component is also an important consideration. Stress is more
concentrated at a surface and corrosion may also be taking place in the region, therefore a non-planar defect breaking
the surface may be classed as highly significant defect. The actual acceptance or rejection will depend on the defect
acceptance levels listed in the relevant specification.

Discontinuity Categories
Discontinuities are divided into three general categories: inherent, processing and service. These categories are further
classified as to stage of manufacturing, the material (ferrous or nonferrous) and the manufacturing process.
Inherent Discontinuities
Inherent discontinuities are those that are related to the melting and original solidification of the molten metal, ingot or
casting. They include those discontinuities introduced by casting variables, such as inadequate feeding, gating,
excessively high pouring temperature, entrapped gases, shrinkage, hot tears, inclusions, cracks and blowholes.
Casting although a process, will remain classified as inherent.
Primary Processing Discontinuities

This group refers to discontinuities that originate during hot or cold working processes such as forging, rolling, welding
and extrusion. These discontinuities may be caused by the processing method, or they may be inherent discontinuities
that have been exposed or changed (in shape or direction) by the processing method.
Secondary Processing Discontinuities

These are discontinuities which originate during grinding, heat treatment, machining, plating and other related finishing
processes.
Service Discontinuities
These are discontinuities which originate or develop while the part is in service. They are caused by service conditions
such as cycles of loading, stress corrosion, fatigue and wear.

Section 3 Casting
Metal casting is a modern process with ancient roots. In the metal casting process, metal shapes are formed by pouring
molten metal into a mould cavity, where it is cooled and later extracted from the mould. Metal casting is arguably the
earliest and most influential industrial process in history. It’s used to make many of the metal objects used in our daily
lives: automotive parts, train wheels, lamp posts, school bus pedals, and much more.
Casting Processes
There are many casting processes, each having its own set of advantages and limitations. Shown below is a list of widely
used casting processes:
Continuous Casting (Concast)

Sand Casting
Shell Moulding
Investment Casting (Lost Wax)
Die Casting
Expendable Pattern Casting (Lost Foam)
Centrifugal Casting
Continuous Casting (Concast)

This process produces continuous lengths of simple shapes which are cut into the required lengths for further processing.
Molten metal from a ladle is teemed into a 'tundish' which feeds metal into a vertical, open bottom mould. This mould is
water cooled copper flux lined and oscillates (to prevent sticking), the molten metal solidifies at the surface of the mould
and withdrawn from the bottom. The centre solidifies as it passes through water cooling jets and through rolls to support
and curve it into the horizontal plane but has no significant effect on the as cast grain structure, it is then flame cut to
length.
Concast machines may produce several strands simultaneously giving an extremely high production rate. Because of the
shapes produced it is possible to omit the first stage of rolling that is necessary with ingots.

Sand Casting
The oldest known casting process, sand casting can be traced back to earlier than 1000 B.C. The process is referred to as
sand casting because the mould that contains the cavity into which metal is poured is made of compressed or compacted
sand. The sand contains some other material that encourages it to hold its shape.
The mould is made in two parts, the bottom half called the drag and the top half called the cope. Moulds are made
slightly larger to accommodate for contraction as the metal cools. The parts are fixed together and the cavity within is
where the molten metal is teemed. A core a place within cavity to provide internal holes or contours and is held in
place by small metal pins known as chaplets. Once solidified, the finished casting is removed and all excess material
such as feeders and risers are removed by the fettling process.
Although the surface finish and accuracy are poor when compared to other processes, sand casting is widely used due
to simplicity and cost.
Shell Moulding
A ferrous or aluminium pattern is made resembling the cast item to be manufactured. The pattern is heated to between
150-370˚C and has a coating of silicone applied which acts as a release agent. A fine sand mixed with a thermo-setting
binder is then blown over the heated pattern to provide optimum coverage prior to placing into a sand box containing
the same material. Further heating is applied to complete resin curing. The shell is then taken from the pattern in two
halves and suitably mounted to receive molten material.
Raw materials are generally expensive when compared to sand casting but thinner parts can be cast with a higher degree
of accuracy and better surface finishes are possible.

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
Metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates for this process and intricate shapes can be made with
a high degree accuracy. This can also be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal manufacturing
techniques such as turbine blades that have complex shapes, or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.
The types of materials that can be cast are aluminium alloys, bronzes, tool steels, stainless steels and precious metals.
Parts made with investment castings often do not require any further machining, because of the close tolerances and
surface finish that can be achieved (best achievable surface finish is produced).
The mould is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material that can be melted away. This wax pattern is
dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern and forms a skin. This is dried and the process of dipping in the
slurry and drying is repeated until a robust thickness is achieved. After this, the entire pattern is placed in an oven and
the wax is melted away. This leads to a mould that can be filled with the molten metal. Because the mould is formed
around a one piece pattern (which does not have to be pulled out from the mould as in traditional sand casting process)
very intricate parts and undercuts can be made.
Die Casting
Die casting is primarily used to make castings with aluminium, magnesium alloys and other low melting point materials.
The molten metal is forced into the die cavity of special steel dies at pressures between 0.7-700 MN/mm2.
There are two types:
1. Hot chamber process - a piston forces the hot molten metal into the die cavity and maintains pressure until the
metal solidifies. Ideal for zinc, tin and lead materials.
2. Cold chamber process - molten material is teemed into a cold piston aperture and then is injected into initially
cold die-plates. Ideal for aluminium, magnesium alloys and copper base alloys.

Expendable Pattern (Lost Foam Process)
The pattern used in this process is made from polystyrene (this is the light, white packing material which is used to pack
electronics inside boxes). Polystyrene foam is 95% air bubbles, and the material itself evaporates when the liquid metal is
teemed on it. The pattern itself is made by moulding the polystyrene beads and pentane which are put inside an
aluminium mould and heated; it expands to fill the mould, and takes the shape of the cavity.
The process is useful since it is very cheap, and yields good surface finish and complex geometry. There are no runners,
risers, gating or parting lines - thus the design process is simplified. The process is used to manufacture crank-shafts for
engines, aluminium engine blocks, manifolds, etc.
Centrifugal Casting
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mould is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal
is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the outer mould wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The
casting is usually a fine grain casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion,
a typical situation with pipes. The inside diameter has more impurities and inclusions, which can be machined away.
Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of aluminium, copper and
nickel. Two materials can be cast by introducing a second material during the process. Typical parts made by this process
are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric.

Casting Imperfections
The following imperfections may be present in the material before any further processing operations such as forging or
rolling have begun. All casting defects are therefore inherent.
Type Description
Gas Pore Gas cavity of essentially spherical form.
Porosity A group of gas pores.
A subsurface cavity formed by air which has been trapped in the mould by the metal during
Airlocks
pouring.
These are small holes near to or on the surface of the casting. They are caused by gas
Blowholes
evolution from the decomposition of grease, moisture etc.
Non-metallic inclusions are impurities such as slag, oxides and sulphides, which exist the
Non-Metallic Inclusions
molten metal and finally the solidified metal
This is a cavity in the centre of the ingot/casting caused by shrinkage during solidification. A
Shrinkage / Pipe primary pipe defect is surface breaking and a secondary pipe defect is one that exists sub-
surface.
Segregation is chemical heterogeneity, or the non-uniform distribution of the alloys or
Segregation
impurities. Pure metals do not exhibit segregation.
A cold shut is an area where two or more streams of metal meet within the mould however
Cold Shuts
they do not fuse together.
Cracks caused by non-uniform cooling (where the metal is part liquid and part solid)
resulting in stresses which may or may not rupture the surface of the metal while its
Hot Tears
temperature is still in the brittle range. Chills are generally used to encourage directional or
uniform solidification to prevent hot tears.

Section 4 Wrought Products
A wrought product is a worked product, primarily produced by hot working, e.g. forging or rolling, although cold working
is possible in some cases and is classed as a high energy forming process. Forging is usually used for higher strength
applications in comparison to the casting process due to refinement of the material grain structure.
Forging
Forging is one of the oldest forms of metal working processes known to man and is simply illustrated by the blacksmith
using a hand held hammer and anvil working the hot metal supported by tongs. At the other extreme, very precise pairs
of dies may be used with hydraulic presses to produce precision finished components. Forging is often used when
strength and toughness are needed from the components. Many basic components, e.g. nuts, bolts and rivets are mass
produced by forging.
Because the base material is more malleable at high temperatures, hot forging is easier to perform. Cold forging requires
much greater forces to distort the material to shape, but will be capable of finer finished tolerances and a higher surface
profile than a hot worked material.
Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper design, the grain flow can
be orientated to take account of the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction
of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and
toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has crystals randomly orientated.
Hammer forging
For components to be used in industry, hand forging is rarely used; however, automatic hammer processes may be
encountered. Hammer forging uses the energy derived from the mass and velocity of the hammer contacting the
stationary work piece. There are two main types of hammer used in industry:
1. Gravity Drop - this is where a forging ram is raised against gravity by chain, belt, air and stream etc., and is then
allowed to fall freely to contact the work piece.
2. Power Drop - Power drop hammers - these are similar to the above but the power (down stroke) is a pressurised
ram that intensifies the impact.

Press forging
Press forging is when force is imparted by a pressing action, generally applied to non-ferrous materials and allows a
deeper flow of the metal; the specific methods used are:
1. Mechanical presses - these have a crank or eccentric type of actuation. They are limited by the inherent length
of stroke but high forces can be generated. Special component dies are fitted to meet component
manufacturing requirements.
2. Screw press - this uses the stored energy of a flywheel or centrifugal mass; the mass of flywheel or centrifugal
mass is a limitation in itself. This system uses die inserts and is only suitable for light work.
Open Die Forging

Two flat dies are placed in the two forging faces and a suitable heated section of material is placed on the lower die. The
faces are brought together and the material is shaped by compression, sometimes termed upsetting.

Closed die forging
Used when special shapes are required. A sequence of forging sets have to be used: the material is shaped, part formed,
formed again, possibly pierced and finally trimmed to produce components almost to size. Closed die forging produces
excess metal called flash which has to be trimmed off.
To ensure the die is fully filled by the base material in all areas, the blank (base material being formed) contains more
material than the finished forging, this excess material is squeezed into an area around the die called the gutter, and this
excess material is now referred to as flash and is removed afterwards via fettling.
Rolling
When an ingot or continuously cast section is to be further processed, the first operation is usually rolling. Rolling
modifies the shape to one that can be either the finished product or is suitable for further processing. Rolling also
modifies and homogenizes the structure from the as cast state.
Primary rolling (roughing/cogging) is usually only applied to ingots to bring them to a suitable size and shape. This size
and shape may also be a direct product of continuous casting so Concast products are not subject to primary rolling.
Further stages of rolling (secondary) produce progressively more useful shapes. The product of this rolling may be
blooms, billets, slabs, plate, I or H beams.

The following terms are commonly used in the iron and steel industry:
1. Square bloom - Semi-finished product with sides generally greater than 120 mm.
2. Rectangular bloom - Semi-finished product with cross sectional area greater than
3. 14,400 mm2 and with a ratio width to thickness greater than 1:1 and less than 2:1.
4. Square billet - Semi-finished product with sides generally equal to or greater than 50 mm and less than or equal
to 120 mm.
5. Rectangular billet - Semi-finished product with cross-sectional area equal to or greater than 2500 mm2 and less
than or equal to 14,400 mm2 and with a ratio of width to thickness greater than 1:1 and less than 2:1.
6. Round billet - Semi-finished product with diameter equal to or greater than 75 mm. (Up to 75 mm is termed
round bar)
7. Slab - Semi-finished product of thickness equal to or greater than 50 mm and with a width to thickness ratio
equal to or greater than 2:1.
8. Flat slab - Slab with a width to thickness ratio greater than 4:1.

Rolling may be carried out 'hot' or 'cold'. Hot means that the process is carried out at a temperature above the
'recrystallization' temperature. Above this temperature, grains that have been distorted and elongated are re-formed as
small Equiaxed grains. Rolling temperature is critical as grain growth continues at higher temperatures which could lead
to excessive grain size and consequently weak material.
Extrusion
Extrusion is the process which pushes material through a shaped die. A lubricant is often employed to reduce friction
through the dies and varies with the material extruded i.e. glass may be used as a lubricant when dealing with some
steels. The lubricant is generically referred to as "Soap". There are two main types of extrusion process:
1. Direct extrusion - a hot billet is placed in a chamber, then forced out under pressure through a die opening.
2. Indirect (or reverse) extrusion - the billet is held within the chamber, the die holder is then forced into the billet
extruding the shaped section.
Extrusion is normally carried out at elevated temperatures termed hot extrusion to increase the ductility of the material
and therefore the ease in which the extrusion can be achieved. After extrusion a thin residual shell known as "Skull" is
sometimes left in the chamber, the existence of skull confirms that the extruded material is free of oxides.
This process is normally associated with non-ferrous materials and classified as a high energy process to form the
product, it is rarely used for high melting point materials unless difficult to forge or roll.

Imperfections in Wrought Products
All wrought product imperfections are referred to as processing imperfections.
The following table shows common types:
Type Description
Laps are caused by metal being folded over and flattened but not fused onto the surface of
Forging Laps (Folds)
the forging. Laps can be produced by using faulty, oversized or misaligned dies.
Bursts are surface or internal ruptures caused by processing at too low a temperature
Forging Bursts
excessive working or metal movement during forging.
Laminations are planar voids usually aligned parallel to the surface of the material. They
Laminations may be the result of any original casting defect enlarged and flattened (Common when
rolling flat plate but may be present in forgings).
A slug is a piece of foreign material which has been processed or rolled into the surface of
Slugs
wrought material.
As a billet is rolled into a bar section, any non- metallic inclusions are squeezed out into
Stringers
longer and thinner defects. These are called stringers.
During the rolling operation bar stock, faulty, oversized dies, surface cracks or any surface
Seams and Laps
irregularities may cause laps or seams.
As the ingot is forged and rolled, the segregations are elongated and reduced in cross-
Banding section. If further processing is carried out, they may appear as very thin parallel lines or
bands and is generally known as banding.
Internal ruptures usually associated with hydrogen and nitrogen and often found in heavy
Flakes alloy steel forgings. Flakes are caused during cooling and, being internal are seldom found
by magnetic or penetrant testing.
A form of cracking occurring due to a rapid thermal gradient, so called due to the sound
Clinks created as the material spontaneously cracks, usually associated with large forgings or high
strength materials when rapidly cooled for high (working) temperatures.
Where the metal has been scarfed, usually to remove visible surface defects and burning
torches have not evenly melted/ removed the surface it can leave ridges on the surface and
Slivers
when the material is then re rolled the ridges are pushed into the material surface being
fused at one end only to the base material, this is also sometimes referred to as fash.
Ruptures caused when the deformation rate at the contact of the dies is different to the
Chevron (Cone) Cracks
central area of the product during the extrusion process.

Section 5
Welding
Welding is an ancient art which has been in use since the Bronze Age (Before Iron, Roman times, and the first time that
humans started to work with metal.). It produces a secure, strong joint that is stronger than other methods of bonding
metals. The process however, is not restricted to metals and materials such as plastic and glass can also be welded.
The process of welding doesn't merely bond the two pieces together as in brazing and soldering, but, through the use of
extreme heat and sometimes the addition of other metals or gases, causes the metallic structures of the two pieces to
join together and become one.
There are two main types of welding in use today, pressure (forge) welding and fusion welding. In case of fusion welding
the metal to be welded, is heated up to molten state and re solidification results in completion of the weld. During
pressure welding, the metal to be welded is only heated to a semi-molten state (below melting point) and pressure is
applied to complete the weld.
Weld Joint Types

A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal are joined together. They are formed by welding
two or more work pieces according to a particular geometry. There are five basic types of joints: butt, corner, edge, lap,
and tee. These configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual welding can occur. The sketch
below shows the five basic joint types.
Weld Preparation (Prep) Types

There are many types of butt welds, but all fall within one of these categories: single welded butt joints, double welded
butt joint, and open or closed butt joints. A single welded butt joint is the name for a joint that has only been welded
from one side. A double welded butt joint is created when the weld has been welded from both sides. With double
welding, the depths of each weld can vary slightly. A closed weld is a type of joint in which the two pieces that will be
joined are touching during the welding process. An open weld is the joint type where the two pieces have a small gap in
between them during the welding process.
Square Butt Joints

The square-groove is a butt welding joint with the two pieces being flat and parallel to each other. This joint is simple to
prepare, economical to use, and provides satisfactory strength, but is limited by joint thickness. The closed square butt
weld is a type of square-groove joint with no spacing in between the pieces. This joint type is common with gas and arc
welding.

V-Joints
Single V butt welds are similar to a bevel joint, but instead of only one side having the bevelled edge, both sides of the
weld joint are bevelled. In thick metals, and when welding can be performed from both sides of the work piece, a
double-V joint is used. When welding thicker metals, a double-V joint requires less filler material because there are two
narrower V-joints compared to a wider single-V joint. Also the double-V joint helps compensate for warping forces. With
a single-V joint, stress tends to warp the piece in one direction when the V-joint is filled, but with a double-V-joint, there
are welds on both sides of the material, having opposing stresses, straightening the material.
J-Joints
Single-J butt welds are when one piece of the weld is in the shape of a J that easily accepts filler material and the other
piece is square. A J-groove is formed either with special cutting machinery or by grinding the joint edge into the form of a
J. Although a J-groove is more difficult and costly to prepare than a V-groove, a single J-groove on metal between a half
an inch and three quarters of an inch thick provides a stronger weld that requires less filler material. Double-J butt welds
have one piece that has a J shape from both directions and the other piece is square.
U-Joints
Single-U butt welds have both edges of the weld surface shaped like a J, but once they come together, they form a U.
Double-U joints have a U formation on both the top and bottom of the prepared joint. U-joints are the most expensive
edge to prepare and weld. They are usually used on thick base metals where a V-groove would be at such an extreme
angle, that it would cost too much to fill.
Other Prep Types

Thin sheet metals are often flanged to produce edge-flange or corner-flange welds. These welds are typically made
without the addition of filler metal because the flange melts and provides all the filler needed. Pipes and tubing can be
made from rolling and welding together strips, sheets, or plates of material.
Flare-groove joints are used for welding metals that, because of their shape, form a convenient groove for welding, such
as a pipe against a flat surface. The Tee Butt Weld is formed when two bars or sheets are joined perpendicular to each
other in the form of a T shape.
Square Single Bevel
Single V Double Bevel
Double V Single J
Single U Double J
Double U
Flange Tee Flare

Weld Zones
A weld can be divided into 3 basic zones. These are:
3. The fusion zone which experiences melting and solidification.

4. The weld interface which is a narrow zone consisting of partially melted base material which has not got an
opportunity for mixing. This zone separates the fusion zone and heat affected zone.
5. The heat affected zone (HAZ) is the area of the base material that has its microstructure and properties altered
by the heat input of welding.
Pressure Welding (Forge Welding)

The first welding carried out was called forge welding. As the name implies, it was used in the forge or smithy by
blacksmiths. The method involves heating the pieces of iron to be joined to red heat and hammering them together.
Because no melting of the materials is involved, the process is termed hot solid phase welding or welding with pressure.
The process involves the use of high pressures to bring the materials into close enough contact for an atomic bond to be
obtained.
Welding with pressure has a low heat input when compared to fusion welding, this is advantageous for many welding
applications. It can also join dissimilar metals which are difficult to weld with any fusion welding process. However,
fusion welding processes are more widely used than the welding processes involved with pressure.
This type of welding process requires the two pieces being joined to be extremely clean and especially free of oxides and
non-metallic films which must be removed from the surfaces of the metals, so as to ensure the strongest welded joint
possible. Pressure welding techniques are used primarily on metals that are highly ductile or whose ductility increases
with increasing temperatures. Types of commonly used pressure welding processes in industrial applications are:
1. Cold pressure welding is used for joining sheets, wires and electric components.
2. Explosive welding is used when joints of dissimilar metals are to be welded.
3. Ultrasonic welding, when thin sheets are to be joined.
4. Percussion welding is utilized for joining dissimilar metals.
5. Friction welding is used when similar or dissimilar metals are to be joined.
6. Induction welding is used for welding pipes.
7. Inertial welding is for welding of high strength alloys.

Fusion Welding
Fusion welding produces welded joints by localized heating of the edges of the base metals, above their melting
temperature. A filler metal may or may not be used, and no external pressure is required. A flux or certain gases may be
used to enhance the quality of the weld created by protecting the weld pool from contamination by atmospheric gasses.
The welded joint is achieved after solidification of the fused weld pool. Metals to be joined must possess some degree of
mutual solubility in solid state. Metals that are completely soluble in the solid state, exhibit the highest degree of
weldability, and metals with no solubility in the solid state, are not weldable, for which an intermediate soluble metal is
used.
The fusion process relies on the properties of molten materials to easily form atomic bonds. When a material melts, the
lattice structures which form the material are destroyed, allowing the atoms to easily mix together. Upon cooling and
solidification, the atoms re-form into new lattice structures. These structures may well be different to the original lattice
for various reasons, including the rate of heating, the temperatures reached, the rate of cooling, and any additions made
to the molten material. Therefore the finished weld may have properties quite different from the parent materials.
Fusion welding processes require a local application of heat in order to bring the material to a temperature at which it
will fuse, for steels this is approximately 1400˚C to 1500˚C. The temperature in the molten weld pool may be in the
2500˚C to 3000˚C range. The average temperature in the arc is 6000˚C. This heat energy is dissipated into the
surrounding atmosphere and parent material on either side of the weld.
Fusion Welding Processes

There are 8 main fusion welding processes which are used in industry today. They are:
Oxy-Gas Welding
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Gas Tungsten Arc Welded (GTAW)
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Electroslag Welding (ESW)

The following text describes each process.
Oxy-Gas Welding
The term Oxy-Gas welding is a generic term for fusion welding which uses a fuel gas and oxygen to provide a flame hot
enough to weld materials to be joined. Acetylene is the only fuel gas that gives sufficient heat energy for the commercial.
A flame temperature of 3100˚C is produced. Oxy-acetylene welding is suitable for the welding of most metals including
carbon steels, stainless steels, cast iron, bronze, copper and aluminium. For all materials except carbon steels, the use of
a flux is required.
The main area of application for oxy-gas welding is on metals less than 5 mm thickness, although thicker sections may be
welded. In recent years the process has declined in popularity, mainly due to the development of other more efficient
processes such as TIG, MIG/MAG and plasma arc.
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)

Manual Metal Arc welding, commonly referred to as MMA or Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), is the most versatile
of the welding processes, suitable for almost all thickness and types of ferrous and most non-ferrous metals. With this
particular type of welding, the welder follows a manual process of stick welding. The stick uses an electric current to
form an electric arc between the stick and the metals to be joined. The arc has an average temperature of around
6,000˚C which is more than sufficient to melt the parent metal, consumable electrode and flux. This type is often used in
the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication to weld iron and steel.

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
GMAW can be split into two categories:
1. Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

2. Metal Active Gas (MAG)
MIG and MAG welding may be considered together because the welding equipment, including power source, is
essentially the same. It is the shielding gas and consumables (filler wires) which differ. It uses a shielding gas to along the
wire electrode, which heats up the two metals to be joined. This method requires a constant voltage and direct-current
power source, and is the most common industrial welding process.
The shielding gas has two functions:
1. It provides a suitable ionisable atmosphere for the electric arc.

2. It protects the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
MIG uses an inert gas such as Argon or Helium whereas MAG uses an active gas such as Oxygen or Carbon Dioxide.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welded (GTAW)

Commonly referred to as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, the process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
provide an arc. Filler metal, when required, is fed from a separate filler rod in a manner similar to oxy -acetylene welding.
A shielding gas, e.g. argon, is fed through the welding gun to the weld area and provides a gas shield to prevent
contamination by the atmospheric gases. No fluxes are used with the process.
Although initially developed for the light alloys, i.e. aluminium and magnesium, TIG welding may be used on a large
variety of metals particularly those with high oxidation rates.
The manual TIG process is expensive when compared to most other manual arc welding techniques and is generally only
used on carbon steels when high metallurgical and mechanical properties are required for the weld. An example
application is for the deposition of high quality root runs on pipework, the fillers and cap are usually deposited by a more
cost effective process such as MMA or MAG.
The shielding gas has two functions:
1. It provides a suitable ionisable atmosphere for the electric arc.

2. It protects the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
TIG uses an inert gas such as Argon, Nitrogen or Helium.
Note: A major limitation of processes using a gas shielded (MIG, MAG and TIG) process is that the gasses used are easily
blown away by the wind leading to porosity.

Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux-cored arc welding is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process which requires a continuously-fed
consumable tubular electrode containing a flux and a constant-voltage or, less commonly, a constant-current welding
power supply. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate
the necessary protection from the atmosphere, producing both gas protection and liquid slag protecting the weld. The
process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.
FCAW was first developed in the early 1950s as an alternative to shielded metal arc welding. The advantage of FCAW
over SMAW is that the use of the stick electrodes used in SMAW is unnecessary. This helped FCAW to overcome many of
the restrictions associated with SMAW.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc welding. The electric arc is formed
between an electrode (which is usually but not always made of sintered tungsten) and the work piece. The key difference
from GTAW is that in PAW, by positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated
from the shielding gas envelope. The plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc
and the plasma exits the orifice at high velocities (approaching the speed of sound) and a temperature approaching
28,000 °C (50,000 °F) or higher.
PAW can be complementary to, or used as a substitute for TIG welding, offering greater welding speed, less sensitivity to
process variations and consequently better weld quality.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding uses a continuously fed bare wire consumable electrode, 1.6 to 6.4 mm diameter, to produce a
weld pool which is protected from atmospheric contamination by a separately supplied shielding flux in fused or
agglomerated form.
Submerged arc welding is normally fully mechanised, but may be used manually or in a fully automatic mode. The arc and
molten weld metal are completely submerged beneath the layer of shielding flux and are not visible to the eye, however,
protection against the arc light is advisable. The flux also provides additives to the weld, removes impurities from the
weld and provides a thermal blanket (slag) protecting the weld as it cools down. The remaining unfused flux is recovered
for re-use after the removal of impurities and sieving. SAW produces high quality, uniform welds.

Electroslag Welding (ESW)
ESW is a highly productive, single pass welding process for thick (greater than 25 mm up to about 300 mm) materials in a
vertical or close to vertical position and the least amount of weld prep is required (a square cut joint is always used).
Carbon steel, low alloy steels and austenitic stainless steels are the only materials weldable with the electroslag process.
For welds up to 75 mm thick, the ESW process uses less weld metal and 90% less flux than SAW. Plates 75-300 mm thick
are welded at 600-1200 mm/hr and angular distortion is eliminated.
Electroslag welds are relatively defect free. Slag entrapment, porosity and lack of fusion defects are almost non-existent.
Electroslag welds normally require post-weld heat treatment especially on the thicker materials, due to the resultant
coarse grain structure.
The Effect of Hydrogen in Steel

The presence of hydrogen causes general embrittlement in steel and during welding may lead directly to cracking of the
weld zone. The following terms are forms of hydrogen related problems:
Hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC)

Fissures / micro-fissures
Chevron cracks
Fish-eyes
The hydrogen content in a specific weld depends on a variety of factors such as the degree of contamination on the weld
preparation, the arc length used, the amount of water vapour in the immediate environment and cooling rate of the
weld. However, it is still possible to approximate hydrogen contents of welds made under typical well controlled
conditions. The amount of hydrogen remaining in a weld - assuming no hydrogen release post-heat treatment process
has been used - will depend largely on the welding process used.

Shown below are welding processes with approximate hydrogen levels attained per 100 grams of weld metal deposited:
Weld Process Hydrogen Content Possible

TIG <1 ml is possible.
MIG / MAG < 2 ml is possible.
ESW > 3 ml is likely.
<5ml possible for high temperature baked electrodes but could be as much as 70ml for
MMA certain cellulose electrodes.
<5ml but could be as much as 50ml depending on flux type and heat treatment.
SAW
FCAW > 10 ml is likely.
Weld Cladding
Weld cladding is a means of depositing a metallic layer onto a substrate to enhance the properties. The most common
purpose is to enhance corrosion resistance and is commonly applied to boiler walls and roofs in utility boilers and
energy-from-waste boilers.
Cladding has been successfully deposited over large surface areas and in intricate, hard-to reach places in high value
plant items. Additional applications include deposition of weld metal buttering to reinstate minimum design thickness
requirements on vessels and tanks. The benefit of weld cladding is that it is a fused bond onto the substrate creating an
integral layer with the component, eliminating the risk of spalling or detaching during service.
Welding Imperfections
A welding imperfection is defined as a discontinuity in the weld or a deviation from the intended geometry. A defect is
defined as an unacceptable imperfection. It must be understood that an imperfection is not necessarily a defect.
International Standard ISO 6520-1 classifies fusion welding imperfections into the following groups:
1. Cracks
2. Cavities
3. Solid inclusions
4. Lack of fusion and penetration
5. Imperfect shape and dimension
6. Miscellaneous imperfections

Group 1 - Weld Cracks
Weld cracks, which are defined as imperfections produced by a local rupture in the solid state which can arise from the
effect of cooling or stresses, can occur for various reasons during or after welding. They can be divided into 3 categories
as described below.
Category Types
1.1 Solidification Cracking (Hot Tearing)

1. Weld Metal Cracks
1.2 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking (HICC)
2.1 Liquation Cracking
2. HAZ Cracking 2.2 Reheat cracking
2.3 Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking (HICC)
3. Parent Metal Cracking 3.1 Lamellar Tearing
Note: HICC can occur hours or even days after welding (up to 72 hours).
Because of the various crack types and causes, NDT Inspectors, under most circumstances, need only describe cracks in
terms of the position of a crack, e.g. longitudinal centre line crack, longitudinal crack in the HAZ, transverse crack on cap,
crater crack etc.
A crack is usually regarded as the most serious type of imperfection in welds. If a crack exists in the weld zone, the
specification may require the entire weld to be removed and re-welded, rather than carry out a localised weld repair.
Although some specs may permit localised repair, very few will allow acceptance no matter the size of a crack.
Types of Weld Cracks
Type Description Possible Location:
Can be situated:
• In the weld metal
Longitudinal Crack Crack essentially parallel to the axis of the weld. • At the weld junction
• In the heat-affected zone
• In the parent material
Can be situated:
Transverse Crack Crack essentially transverse to the axis of the weld.

Can be situated:
Radiating Cracks Cracks radiating from a common point.
Can be:
• Longitudinal
Crater Cracks Crack in the crater at the end of a weld.
• Transverse
• Radiating (star cracking)
Can be situated:
Group of
Disconnected Group of disconnected cracks in any direction.
Cracks
Can be situated:
Group of connected cracks originating from a common
Branching Cracks crack and distinguishable from a group of disconnected
cracks and from radiating cracks.
Can be situated:
Cracking which occurs beneath welds, and is principally
Lamellar Tearing • In the parent plate, beneath
found in rolled steel fabrications.
weld in tee or corner joints

Group 2 – Cavities
Gas cavities are defined as a cavity formed by entrapped gas.
Type Description
Gas Pore Gas cavity of essentially spherical form.

Number of gas pores distributed in a substantially uniform manner
Uniformly Distributed Porosity throughout the weld metal; not to be confused with linear porosity and
clustered porosity.
Clustered (Localized) Porosity Group of gas pores having a random geometric distribution.
Linear Porosity Row of gas pores situated parallel to the axis of the weld.
Large, non-spherical cavity with its major dimension approximately parallel

Elongated Cavity
to the axis of the weld.
Worm-Hole Tubular cavity in weld metal caused by release of gas.
Surface Pore Gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld.
Porosity appearing at the surface of the weld; single or multiple gas cavities
Surface Porosity
that break the surface of the weld.

Group 3 – Solid Inclusions
Solid inclusions refer to solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal.
Type Description Can Be:
• Linear
Slag Solid inclusion in the form of slag. • Isolated
• Clustered
• Linear
Flux Solid inclusion in the form of flux. • Isolated
• Clustered
• Linear
Oxide Solid inclusion in the form of metallic oxide. • Isolated
• Clustered
In certain cases, especially in aluminium alloys, gross oxide film

• Linear
enfoldment can occur due to a combination of unsatisfactory
Puckering • Isolated
protection from atmospheric contamination and turbulence in the
• Clustered
weld pool.
• Tungsten (TIG)
Metallic Solid inclusion in the form of foreign metal. • Copper (MIG / MAG)
• Other Metal

Group 4 – Lack of Fusion and Penetration
Lack of fusion (LOF) occurs when the weld metal fails to fuse with the side wall or joint, or when two weld beads fail to
completely join together.
Incomplete joint penetration, also referred to as lack of penetration (LOP) is described as a joint root condition in a
groove weld in which weld metal does not extend through the joint thickness.
Type Description Can Be:
• lack of side wall fusion

Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent
LOF • lack of inter-run fusion
material or between the successive layers of weld metal.
• lack of root fusion
• incomplete root penetration where

Difference between the actual and the nominal
LOP one or both fusion faces of the root
penetration.
are not melted
Group 5 – Imperfect Shape and Dimensions

Imperfect shape refers to the external surfaces of the weld or defective joint geometry. Imperfect dimensions refer to
weld dimensions which do not that which is intended.
Type Description
Irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent material or in previously

Undercut
deposited weld metal / Melting of base metal due to extreme heat input.
Continuous Undercut Undercut of significant length without interruption.
Intermittent Undercut Short length of undercut, intermittent along the weld
Shrinkage Grooves Undercuts visible on each side of the root run.
Inter-Run / Inter-Pass Undercut Undercut in the longitudinal direction between weld runs.
Short undercuts, irregularly spaced, on the side or on the surface of the

Localised Intermittent Undercut
weld runs.
Excess Weld Metal Reinforcement of the butt weld on the face is too large.
Excessive Penetration Reinforcement of the butt weld on the root side is too large.
Excessive weld metal covering the parent material surface but not fused to
Overlap
it.
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that they are not in the
Linear Misalignment
same required parallel plane, even though their surface planes are parallel.
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface planes
Angular Misalignment
are not parallel or at the intended angle.
Burn Through Collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld.
Longitudinal continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld
Incompletely Filled Groove
due to insufficient deposition of weld filler material.
Shallow groove due to shrinkage of a butt weld at the root / Hot pass
Root Concavity (Suck Back)
above root too hot causing metal to be sucked back into the weld pool.
Spongy formation at the root of a weld due to bubbling of the weld metal
Root Porosity
at the moment of solidification.
Poor Restart Local surface irregularity at a weld restart.

Group 6 – Miscellaneous Imperfections
All imperfections which cannot be included in groups 1 to 5 fall into group 6.
Type Description
Local damage to the surface of the parent material adjacent to the weld,
Arc Strike (Stray Arc)
resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the joint preparation.
Globules of weld metal or filler metal expelled during welding and adhering
Spatter
to the surface of parent material or solidified weld metal.
Particles of tungsten transferred from the electrode to the surface of
Tungsten Spatter
parent material or solidified weld metal.
Grinding Mark Local damage due to grinding.
Chipping Mark Local damage due to use of a chisel or other tools.
Temper Colours (visible oxide film) Lightly oxidized surface in the weld zone, e.g. in stainless steels.
Visibly tinted surface layers in the weld metal and heat- affected zone
Discolouration
caused by the weld heat and/or by lack of protection, e.g. in titanium.
Scaled surface Heavily oxidized surface in the weld zone.
Slag Residue Adherent slag that is not sufficiently removed from the surface of the weld.

Summary of Welding Imperfections
The sketch below shows a summary of common welding defects along with possible causes:

Section 6 Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is a group of industrial, thermal and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes
chemical, properties of a material. It is used on materials such as plastics, glass and most commonly metals. Techniques
include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, carburizing, normalizing and quenching.
Although the process specifically applies to heating and cooling with the intention of changing the material properties, it
often occurs incidentally due to other manufacturing processes such as hot working or welding.
In simple terms, heat treatment is the process of heating the metal, holding it at that temperature, and then cooling it
back. During the process, the metal part will undergo changes in its mechanical properties. This is because the high
temperature alters the microstructure of the metal. And microstructure plays an important role in the mechanical
properties of a material.
There are various reasons for carrying out heat treating. Some procedures make the metal soft, while others increase
hardness. They may also affect the electrical and heat conductivity of these materials. Some heat treatment methods
relieve stresses induced in earlier cold working processes. Others develop desirable chemical properties to metals.
Choosing the perfect method really comes down to the type of metal and the required properties.
Types of Heat Treatment

The following table shows common heat treatment techniques:

Type Description Benefits
• Produces very soft, low
hardness material
The steel is heated beyond the upper
• Improves machinability,
Annealing (Full Anneal) critical temperature and then cooled at
ductility and toughness
a very slow rate.
• Relieves stress caused by
cold working processes
Also referred to as spheroidizing, the • Produces soft, low hardness
Sub-Critical Anneal steel is heated to around 680°C to material
700°C and then usually air cooled. • Cheaper than Full Anneal
Achieved by heating the steel until it is • Used to maintain or
fully austenitic - the same temperature improve material properties
Normalising as that used for full anneal - soaking to • Can modify grain structures
achieve a uniform through thickness by making them more
temperature and then air cooling. uniform
The steel is heated to produce
austenite, allowed to soak at this
temperature to produce grain • Increases hardness
uniformity, and then fast cooled by • Improves wear resistance,
Quenching (Hardening) quenching into oil or water to achieve strength and toughness
the desired hardness. Quenched steel is
very prone to cracking and therefore
requires tempering.
Achieved by slowly heating the • Quenching stresses are
hardened steel to a temperature reduced
between 200 to 650˚C to produce the • Material will have
Tempering required tensile strength and toughness maximum tensile and
properties, the component may then be hardness
air cooled. • Reduces risk of cracking
Performed by heating the weld area to
150 to 200˚C and soaking for
• Reduces hydrogen
Hydrogen Release approximately 10-24 hours. Both
• Prevents HICC
normalising and annealing will also help
to release hydrogen from a weld area.
Achieved by heating to 550-650˚C, • Relaxes welding stresses

Stress Relieving holding for the required time and then • No significant change on
cooling down in air. the material structure
PWHT is a process in which metal in the

solid state is subjected to one or more
Post Weld • Releases welding stresses
controlled heating cycles after welding.
• Can control or improve
The post heat treatment of welds
Heat Treatment (PWHT) (PWHT) is normally carried out for the
material properties
purpose of stress relief.
• Slows down the cooling rate
of the weld and HAZ
• Counteracts the adverse
metallurgical effects
produced by welding
The application of heat to a joint prior
• Removes any moisture in
Preheat to welding. Preheat is usually applied by
the region of the prep
a gas torch or induction system.
• Ensures more uniform
expansion and contraction
• Lowers the stress between
the weld and parent
material

Section 7 Secondary Processing Imperfections
Type Description
Shallow surface cracks usually at right angles to the direction of grinding, caused by localised
Grinding Cracks heating of the base material. Causes include the use of glazed grinding wheels or inadequate
coolant.
Pickling is a chemical surface cleaning operation using acids to remove unwanted scale or
Pickling Cracks minor surface imperfections. Pickling cracks are hydrogen induced, caused by diffusion of
the hydrogen generated at the surface of the metal.
Heat treatment cracks mostly occur during quenching, especially when harsh media (such as
Heat Treatment cold water) is used. When quenched, the surface of a material cools immediately upon
Cracks contact with the liquid while the inside cools at a slower rate. The difference in cooling
causes residual stress, resulting in cracking.
Machining Machining tears result from the use of machining tools having dull or chipped cutting edges.
Such discontinuities are stress raisers and could lead to failure when the material is
Tears subjected to cycles of loading.
Plating cracks are surface discontinuities that can develop due to the penetration of
Plating Cracks hydrogen or hot plating material into the base metal.

Section 8 Service Imperfections
Type Description
Fatigue cracking is a service failure which occurs under cyclic stress conditions.
Fatigue Cracks It normally occurs at a change in section, e.g. groove, radius, step, weld toe etc.,
therefore design and workmanship are important to minimise failure by fatigue.
Cracks which occur if the cyclic stresses are provided by frequent temperature
Thermal Fatigue changes producing fluctuating thermal stresses.
Failure resulting from a combination of cyclic stress and a corrosive

Corrosion Fatigue environment at the fatigue site.
Deformation by creep is the slow plastic deformation of a metal, under a

Creep constant stress at any temperature. Creep may lead to fracture (cracking).
This type of cracking occur in materials in a state of tensile stress and in contact
Stress corrosion cracking with a corrosive medium.
Corrosion is when a refined metal is naturally converted to a more stable form
Corrosion such as its oxide, hydroxide or sulphide state which leads to deterioration of the
material.
Erosion is a process where materials are worn away by abrasive action such as
Erosion product flow.


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Metals Available in the Earth’s Crust

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The Blast Furnace

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Secondary Steelmaking – Electric Arc Furnace

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Tensile strength Resistance of steel to breaking under tension.

Malleability The ability of a solid material to deform under compressive strain.

Hardness The ability to resist abrasion. (scratching)

Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel)

Medium Carbon Steel

High Carbon Steels

Ultra High Carbon Steels

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Crystal and Grain Structure

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Type Description Possible Causes

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Only when a relevant indication is classified as Rejectable can it be referred to as a defect.

FALSE RELEVANT NON RELEVANT

Type Description Examples

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Primary Processing Discontinuities

Secondary Processing Discontinuities

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Continuous Casting (Concast)

Continuous Casting (Concast)

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There are two types:

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Gas Pore Gas cavity of essentially spherical form.

Porosity A group of gas pores.

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Open Die Forging

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Weld Joint Types