HYDRAULICS LABORATORY

LBYCV2D Experiment 08

STANDARD EXPERIMENT NO. 08

FLOW VISUALIZATION IN OPEN CHANNELS

INTRODUCTION

An open channel is a conduit in which liquid flows with a free surface that is subject to atmospheric
pressure. In contrast to pressured pipe flow, in which liquid, being confined in a closed conduit, flows
under hydraulic pressure, the liquid in an open channel flow exerts no pressure other than atmospheric
pressure and that is caused by its weight. Flows in open channels occur under the influence of gravity
(i.e. liquid weight); therefore the slope of an open channel exerts a definite influence on the
characteristics of flow.

There are essentially two types of open-channel flow: (1) uniform flow (the discharge depth (water depth)
remains equal; acceleration = deceleration), (2) non-uniform flow (the discharge depth is changed by
acceleration or deceleration), The discharge can be either subcritical, critical, or supercritical.

Flow accelerating from subcritical to critical to supercritical flow jumps back to subcritical flow. This
jump is called the hydraulic jump. The hydraulic jump is a rapidly varied flow concept. The resulting
flow transition is rapid and involved a large energy loss due to turbulence. In this demonstration, various
conditions that lead to a jump are established.

The flow in an open channel depends on the slope of the liquid surface and the slope of the channel
bottom. Natural streams, rivers, sewers, and tunnels are examples of open channels.

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OBJECTIVE

1. To visualize and describe the characteristics of a uniform flow and determine and interpret the
various profile changes of open channel flow.
2. To determine and interpret the various profile changes of open channel flow with a channel
control such as the sluice gate and weir.
3. To demonstrate and explain the phenomena called the hydraulic jump.

APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES

 Hydraulic Bench
 Tilting Flume (Gunt or Tecquipment or Armfield)
 Desk-based Flow Visualization Channel(Armfield F1-19) or (Tecquipment H23 -2.5m)
 Sharp- and broad-crested weirs
 Water Supply
 Stopwatch

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OPEN CHANNEL FLUME APPARATUS

Figure 1 Flow visualization channel equipment

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Uniform Flow Visualization

In uniform open-channel flow, the discharge depth h remains equal, i.e. parallel to the bottom.
This also means that the flow velocity v remains constant. The discharge depth h can also be
described as a pressure head (a component of the specific energy). These energy heads are often
applied in the form of what is known as grade lines.

In the energy grade line J , the most significant component in many cases is the discharge depth h
. In uniform open-channel flow, the energy grade line J is equal to the bottom slope J S and thus
equal to the discharge depth h . In uniform open channel flow, the normal discharge prevails, i.e.
the bottom J S balances out the friction losses in the discharge Q . The energy grade line, water
surface profile, and bottom slope are all parallel.

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LBYCV2D Experiment 08

Flow formulas describe the relationship between the discharge Q and the discharge depth h at a
given shape of cross-section and roughness characteristics. The shape of the cross-section is taken
into account in the hydraulic radius; the discharge depth h comes into play via the energy grade
line J .

Commonly used formulae for general flumes are Darcy-Weisbach and Manning.

Flow formulas are based on empirical values.

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Consider the case of constant flow, a mean velocity in a rectangular duct can be calculated using
Chezy formula:

v=C √ Rh S B eq. 1
where:
v mean velocity
C Chezy coefficient for the channel
Rh hydraulic radius
SB slope of the channel bottom

The Manning formula is used exclusively for open channels and is usually used in large civil
engineering applications. Whilst the formula of Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White applied to
channels are derived from flow in circular and non-circular pipes which are more suited to
mechanical engineering problems. From the study of frictional forces in pipes, the friction factor
is found to be dependent on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe wall,
however for very rough pipes the friction factor becomes independent of Reynolds number and
depends only on the roughness of the pipe wall.

For many open channels found in civil engineering problems, the channel walls are very rough
and in studying these civil engineering channels Robert Manning found from experimental work
that the Chezy coefficient varied as the sixth root of the hydraulic mean radius and inversely to
the roughness of the channel.

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1
6
R h eq. 2
C=
n
where:
n Manning roughness factor
The velocity in an open channel is given by the Manning formula:

2 1
R h3 S 2B eq. 3
v=
n

2. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Gradually Varied Flow)

The main idea in using the flow visualization channel apparatus is to demonstrate a wide range of
hydraulic effects associated with flow in open channels, like, for example, the effect of upstream
(undershot) and downstream (undershot) controls on the water flow or the effect of a sluice gate
installed across the flume.

In many cases, the discharge Q in a flume is not uniform. We distinguish between gradually and
rapidly varying discharges.

In gradually varying discharge, the discharge depth h varies, the discharge Q or type of flow
itself is (initially) subcritical. Gradually varying discharge occurs for example, in a slightly
sloping flume with considerable surface roughness. On the other hand, rapidly varying discharge
occurs for example during flow over weirs. In many cases the discharge is supercritical.

Subcritical discharge has a large discharge depth h at a smaller flow velocity v . In supercritical
discharge, the opposite is true; small discharge depth h and large flow velocity v . The flow
transition from subcritical to supercritical discharge occurs with a continuous change of discharge
depth h , flow velocity v , and specific energy E , for example with an increase in the slope. The
flow transition from supercritical to subcritical discharge, on the other hand, always occurs with
an abrupt change in the discharge depth h and a loss of specific energy ΔE , such as in a hydraulic
jump.

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Considerations of the energy head at the control volume result in a third-order equation for the
discharge depth h . The discharge depth h depends on the specific energy E and the discharge Q .
A specific energy diagram shows the discharge depth h graphically as a function of the specific
energy E at constant discharge Q . The minimum specific energy Emin only has one possible
discharge depth, which is known as the critical depth h c. Critical discharge prevails at the critical
depth h c. For all other specific energies, two alternative depths are relevant from a physics point
of view (see a diagram with a hydraulic jump). The correct one of the two discharge depths has to
be calculated in each case (is there subcritical or supercritical discharge?). The maximum
discharge Q at a given specific energy E can also be determined.

The third important equation after Bernoulli and the conservation of mass is the momentum
equation. The equilibrium of forces is established at the control volume. In many cases, the
influence of the weight and the friction force is negligible. Therefore, only the forces acting on
the flow areas come into play: the static pressure force and the dynamic motive force. The
specific force F is the sum of these two forces and is determined by the momentum equation.

The specific force can also be represented in a diagram. The specific force diagram plots the
discharge depth h over specific force F at constant discharge Q . Similar to the specific energy
diagram, there is a minimum specific force F min at critical depthh c. For all other specific forces,
there are two sequent depths.

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3. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Rapidly Varied Flow)

The most important of the local non-uniform flow phenomena is that which occurs when the
supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to subcritical. There are no ordinary means of
changing from supercritical to subcritical flow with a smooth transition because theory calls for a
vertical slope of the water surface.

The result, then, is a marked discontinuity in the surface, characterized by a steep upward slope of
the profile, broken throughout with violent turbulence, and known universally as the hydraulic
jump.

This occurs when a fast stream (produced by flow under a sluice or down a spillway or a weir)
changes to a slow stream and thereby causes a hydraulic jump.

At the hydraulic jump, a supercritical discharge Q becomes subcritical again. The discharge
depth h rises rapidly and increases after the hydraulic jump. Energy is dissipated at the hydraulic

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jump due to the resulting turbulence. However, the momentum is retained, which means that
there are two sequent depths h for the same specific force F. The ratio of the sequent depths h1
and h2 is described by the following formula:

h2 1
= ( √ 8 Fr 1+1−1 )∨h2=
h1 2
2 −h1
2
+
h21
4 √
+4 h1
v 21
2g
eq. 4

Using the given specific energy diagram and an analogue specific force diagram, it is a simple
matter to determine the resulting specific energy loss ΔE graphically:

The discharge depth h1 is entered in the specific energy diagram and the specific force diagram
(points 1 and 2). To determine the discharge depth h2 after the hydraulic jump, the sequent depth
to h1 is determined graphically in the specific force diagram (point 3). The specific forces F 1 in
point 2 and F 2 in point 3 are equal (conservation of momentum). Then, the discharge depth h2 is
entered in the specific energy diagram (point 4). The specific energies E1 and E2 are read in the
diagram. The specific energy loss ΔE that occurs in the hydraulic jump is equal to the difference
between the specific energies.

The resulting specific energy loss Δ E can also be calculated using the following formula:

( )( )
2 2
v v
Δ E=E1 −E2= h1 + 1 − h2+ 2 eq. 5
2g 2g

Subcritical discharge

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Disturbances in the discharge behavior are noticeable upstream. The flow velocity v is
less than the propagation velocity c of a surface wave. Subcritical discharge usually has a
large discharge depth h at low flow velocity v .
Critical discharge
Disturbances in the discharge behavior are not noticeable upstream. The flow velocity v
is equal to the propagation velocity c of a surface wave.
Supercritical discharge
Disturbances in the discharge behavior are not noticeable upstream. The flow velocity v
is greater than the propagation velocity c of a surface wave.
The Froude number describes the ratio of flow velocity v to propagation velocity c of a surface
wave and therefore serves as a measure of subcritical or supercritical discharge. The same Froude
number means a dynamically similar open-channel flow.

Fr <1 subcritical
Fr=1 critical
Fr >1 supercritical

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LABORATORY PROCEDURE

1. Uniform Flow Visualization

a. Set up the hydraulics bench using the general experimental procedures.
b. Fully raise the sluice gate at the discharge end of the channel so that it will not restrict the
flow.
c. Set the flow channel slope to a downwards gradient from left to right as per the experimental
data setting.
d. Start the hydraulics bench pump and adjust the flowrate as per setting in the experiment.
e. When the flow conditions have become stable measure, the flow rate using the volumetric
tank of the hydraulics bench and measure the depth of water in the flow channel at 50cm
from the left-hand end.
f. Keeping the flow rate constant flow repeat the above measurements for the various slopes.
2. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Gradually Varied Flow)
a. Install the apparatus over the benchtop of the open channel. The apparatus is sited as afar as
possible from the volumetric tank, along the channels, to ensure that water discharging from
the apparatus is contained within the volumetric tank.
b. Adjust the overshot weir (located at end of the channel) in height.
c. The plate may be moved to the required position. Adjust the undershot weir by sliding it up
or down.
d. In the experiment, observe the various channel flow profile of water with each change of the
height of the weir. Make sure that heights or positions of both weirs are noted down.
e. Adjust flow rates at each pair of positions of the weir. Draw a flow profile on a plastic sheet/
acetate by placing it alongside the channel.
3. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Rapidly Varied Flow)
a. If using the Armfield F1-19 unit, attach the dye assembly and the hypodermic tubes. Fill the
reservoir with dye. Allow the full opening of the upshot weir (located downstream of the
channel) and set the height of the opening for the undershot weir (located upstream of the
channel). Allow water to pass through the header tank and the channel weirs. Allow the dye
to enter the flow using the control valve and observe the conditions of flow (as shown by the
dye traces) before and after the undershot weir. Plot the water profile in a plastic sheet placed
against the wall. Notice also what happens to the dye. Increase the flow rate by increasing the
head of water in the header tank and notice the changes that occur downstream from the
undershot weir. Shut off both flow from the dye assembly and the tank. Install the broad
crested weir using the wall and base model screw provided. The idea for this set-up is for
flow to slow down by raising the water level above the broad crested weir and allow fast flow
to occur downstream from this weir. This creates a transition of flow over the weir and
produces the phenomenon called a hydraulic jump. Again, allow water to pass through the
header tank and the channel weirs. Allow the dye to enter the flow using the dye assembly
control valve and observe the conditions of flow before and after the weir. Plot the water
profile in a plastic sheet placed against the wall. Notice also what happens to the dye.
b. For the Tecquipment 2.5 meter channel, install the broad crested weir in the middle of the
2.5- meter channel. The idea for this set-up is for flow to slow down by raising the water
level above the broad crested weir and allow fast flow to occur downstream from this weir.
This creates a transition of flow over the weir and produces the phenomenon called a
hydraulic jump. Again, allow water to pass through the header tank and the channel weirs.

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One can adjust the overshot weir at the end of the channel to see various hydraulic jump
conditions. Plot the water profile in a plastic sheet placed against the wall.
c. The students can also perform alternative experiments utilizing the sluice and drum gates.
The submerged-narrow crested and crump weirs can be used to reveal the relationship
between head over a weir and discharge.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

1. Uniform Flow Visualization

a. For each value of the slope of the channel (flume setting), record the flow rate Q, cross-
sectional area, and compute the following:
 normal depth
 mean velocity
 hydraulic radius
 Chezy coefficient
 Manning’s roughness
2 1
b. Plot a graph of the mean velocity V against R 3 S 2 and determine the Manning roughness
value from the slope of the graph.
2. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Gradually Varied Flow)
a. Case 1
 What is the main effect of a sluice gate as a channel control?
 What are your observations on the water profiles? What are the conditions for the type of
water surface profile for it to exist?
b. Case 2
 What is the main effect of a weir as a channel control?
 What are your observations on the water profiles? What are the conditions for the type of
water surface profiles to exist?
3. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Rapidly Varied Flow)
a. What phenomenon results with the increase of head from the header tank relative to the depth
under the weir?
b. What is the effect of the broad crested or a V-crump weir on the water profile (before and
after this control section)?
c. The channel is quite short, what would you expect if the channel is quite long?
d. Research the factors that establish a hydraulic jump. For what purposes is a hydraulic jump
made?

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DATA SHEET (SAMPLE ONLY)

1. Uniform Flow Visualization

Widt
Flowrate Depth
Trial No. h Slope
(m3/s) (m)
(m)
1 2/2000 0.100
2 4 /2000 0.090
−4
3 2 ×10 0.100 5/2000 0.080
4 6 /2000 0.060
5 8 /2000 0.040

2. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Gradually Varied Flow)

CASE 1 CASE 2
Mild (M) Water Surface Adverse (A), Steep (S), and Mild (M)
Profile Visualization Water Surface Profiles Visualization
Flume length 10 m 10 m
10.5/30 (A)
Flume Slope 1/200 10.5/100 (S)
1/200 (M)
Flume width 30 cm 30 cm
Gate opening 7.10 cm 7.10 cm
Flowrate, Q 20.8 L/s 20.8 L/s
Critical depth, y c 7.80 cm 7.80 cm
Freefall at the downstream
end of the flume

3. Non-Uniform Flow Visualization (Rapidly Varied Flow)

Trial Flowrate Width Gate Openings Y1 Y2

Fr 1 Fr 2
No. (Lpm) (m) (m) (m) (m)
1 20 0.005 @ 4.19 m 0.010 @ 4.05 m 0.030 @ 4.00 m
2 30 0.005 @ 4.19 m 0.010 @3.70 m 0.030 @3.65 m
3 30 0.007 @ 4.19 m 0.010 @3.75 m 0.030 @3.70 m
0.100
4 40 0.010 @3.00 m 0.013 @2.50 m 0.045 @2.37 m
5 50 0.010 @3.00 m 0.015 @2.35 m 0.050 @2.25 m
6 50 0.010 @3.00 m 0.010 @3.00 m 0.060 @2.75 m

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Note: Follow the format and content given in the Laboratory Report Template.

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