Heat and

Temperature

PHYSICS

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Heat and Temperature

As we already know according to law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed it just transformed from one form to another.
Now different forms of energy can be classified as:

Energy

can be

Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

Energy of
Stored Energy
movement

energy comes energy is stored

from moving to be used later

Thermal Energy we experience energy in Chemical Energy

different ways
Energy of moving Energy stored in food,
particles (heat) fuel
Sound Energy

Form of energy we can

Mechanical Energy hear Elastic Energy

Energy of objects in Energy stored in objects

motion that are stretched
Light Energy

Form of energy our

Electrical Energy eyes can detect Nuclear Energy

Energy of particles Energy stored in centre

moving through a wire of particles

Magnetic Energy Gravitational Energy

Energy causing push or Energy stored in an

pull object due to gravity

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Heat
From this we can see that heat is also one of the modes of transfer of energy through
matter.

Definition
Heat: It is an energy transfer from one system to another or from one part of a
system to another part, arising due to the temperature difference.

 The SI unit of heat is Joule (J) and the CGS unit of heat is Calorie (cal)

 Here 1 calorie is defined as the heat energy required to raise the temperature of
one gram of water through 1° C

Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three distinct modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation

It is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body

because of their temperature difference.
Conduction Suppose one end of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end of the rod
will soon be hot. Here heat transfer takes place by conduction from the hot
end of the rod through its different parts to the other end.
It is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is possible only in
fluids.
Convection can be natural or forced. Convection involves bulk transport of
Convection different parts of the fluid.
Example: Heat transfer in a closed room, forced-air heating systems in the
home, the human circulatory system, and the cooling system of an
automobile engine.

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In radiation, heat transfer occurs through electromagnetic waves without

involving particles.
The heat transfer mechanism in which no medium is required is called
radiation. It refers to the movement of heat in waves, as it does not need
Radiation molecules to travel through.
The object need not be in direct contact with one another to transmit heat.
It is the process of heat transfer from a hot body to a cold body in a straight
line without affecting the intervening medium

Terms related to Change in states of matter

Before understanding flow of heat and temperature there are few terms we must
understand first

 The process of change of state from solid to liquid is called melting.

 The temperature at which solid starts to liquefy is known as the melting
Melting and
Melting Point point of that solid.
 The melting point of a substance at atmospheric pressure is called
normal melting point.

 The process of change of state from liquid to solid is called fusion.

Fusion and
Freezing Point  The temperature at which liquid starts to solidify is known as the
Freezing Point of that liquid.

 The process of change of state from liquid to vapor is called

Vaporization.
Vaporization and  The temperature at which liquid starts evaporating is known as the
Boiling Point Boiling Point of that liquid.
 The melting point of a substance at atmospheric pressure is called
normal melting point.

 The process of changing of state directly from solid to vapour is known

as sublimation.
Sublimation  The reverse process of sublimation is not possible.
 Example of this can be evaporation of Naphthalene balls directly from
solid state.

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Specific Heat
Specific heat capacity (s) of a substance is defi ned as the amount of heat (ΔQ)
per unit mass of the substance that is required to raise the temperature (ΔT) by 1°C.
i.e.,

And the unit of Specific heat is J/g °C and Cal/g °C

Where,
ΔQ = amount of heat given to the substance
m = mass of substance
ΔT = change in temperature

Molar specific heat

Molar heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat that is needed
to raise the temperature of 1 mole of the substance through 1ºC.

There are two types of molar specific heat:

 The molar specific heat capacity of a gas at constant volume: it is defined as

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol of the gas by 1 °C at
the constant volume.

 The molar specific heat of a gas at constant pressure: it is defined as the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol of the gas by 1 °C at the
constant pressure.

Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is greater than the specific heat at constant vol-
ume (CV). The relation between molar specific heats is given by,
CP - CV = R.
This relation is known as Mayer’s Formula
Where,

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R = Gas constant
n = molar mass of substance
Cp= molar specific heat at constant pressure
CV = molar specific heat at constant Volume

Latent Heat
 Latent heat is the amount of heat needed to change the state of unit mass of any
substance without changing its temperature.

 The SI unit of Latent heat is J/Kg and CGS unit is Cal/g respectively.

 i.e., We can say that heat needed to supply for changing its state will be directly
proportional to the mass m of the substance.

∴Q∝m

Q = mL
Where,
m = mass of substance
Q = heat supplied to substance
L = latent heat of the substance

Types of Latent Heat

 it is defined as the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1

Latent heat of
kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point
Fusion
 the latent heat of ice is 80 cal/g

 it is defined as the heat absorbed per unit mass of a given material at its
Latent heat of boiling point that completely converts the material to a gas at the same
Vaporization temperature.
 the latent heat of water is 536 cal/g

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The below diagram shows the temperature vs heat (Energy) graph to represent latent
heat of fusion and vaporization.

Q. Find the amount of heat required to boil 15 grams of ice at -8°C. Latent heat of
ice = 336 joule/gm. Latent heat of steam = 2268 joule/gm. Specific heat of water
= 4.2 J/gm °C. Specific heat of ice = 2.1 J/gm °C.

A. Given that,
Mass of ice, mi= 15 g
Change in temperature as it melts, ΔTice = 0-(-8) = 8° C
Latent heat of ice, Lw = 336 joule/gm
Latent heat of steam, Lw = 2268 joule/gm
Specific heat of water, cw = 4.2 J/gm °C
Heat absorbed by ice to attain temperature of 0°C: (Sensible Heat)
-8°C to 0°C ice:
miciΔTi = 15 × 2.1 × 8 = 252 J
Heat absorbed by ice to form water at 0°C (Latent Heat)
0°C ice to 0°C water:
miLice = 15 × 336 = 5040 J
Heat absorbed by water to attain temperature of 100°C (Sensible Heat)
0°C water to 100°C water:
mwcwΔTw = 15 × 4.2 × 100 = 6300 J
Heat absorbed by water, to change to steam (Latent Heat)
100°C water to 100°C steam:
mwLw = 15 × 2268 = 34020 J

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Total amount of heat: 252 + 5040 + 6300 + 34020 = 45612 J

Here,
mi = mass of ice
mw= mass of water
Lice= latent heat of ice
Lw =Latent heat of steam
ΔTi =change in temperature
cw = Specific heat of water

Heat Capacity or thermal capacity of matter

Heat capacity is defined as the heat energy supplied to a substance to change its
temperature while specific heat capacity is the amount of heat per unit mass of the
substance that is required to raise the temperature by 1° C.

Heat capacity (S) = Mass (m) × Specific heat(c)

The SI unit of heat capacity is JK-1

Temperature
 Temperature is just the quantity used to measure how hot or cold an object is.

 A boiling water is said to have higher temperature than ice cubes. We can perceive
the temperature of an object by touch, however this method or determining the
temperature is very unreliable.

 Hence the instrument which is used to measure the temperature is known as

thermometer.

 Also, from our daily experience we can say that heat is the form of energy
transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its surroundings by
virtue of temperature difference.

 Heat always flows from higher temperature to lower temperature.

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Thermometer
So as mentioned the device which measure the temperature of the substance is known
as thermometer.
We have different types of thermometer which measure temperature using different
methods, and among those few of them are:

Mercury thermometer
 Mercury-in-glass thermometer is an instrument that is used for measuring the
change in temperature as the volume of mercury changes with change in
temperature.
 It was invented by physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1714 in Amsterdam.
 And the range for which it can be effectively used is -30° C to 300° C

Gas thermometer
 A constant volume gas thermometer is composed of a bulb that is attached to a
mercury manometer. This thermometer operates on the principle of Law of Gay-
Lussac.
 The law states that when the temperature of an ideal gas increases, there is a
corresponding increase in pressure.
 Also, when the temperature decreases, the pressure too decreases
correspondingly.
 Using this pressure temperature relation, we can measure the effective temperature
 The temperature range of Gas thermometer from -268℃ to 1500℃.

Platinum resistance thermometer

 The platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) is a device which have a piece of
platinum wire which determines the temperature by determine the effective
electrical resistance of the material at that instance.
 Using this temperature resistance relationship, we can determine the temperature
of an object hence it is referred to as a temperature sensor.
 The temperature range of Platinum resistance thermometer from -200℃ to 1200℃.

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Thermocouple thermometer

 A thermocouple is a device for measuring temperature consisting of a pair of wires

of different metals or semiconductors joined at both ends.
 One junction is at the temperature to be measured, the second at a fixed
temperature.
 The electromotive force generated depends upon the temperature difference.
 A thermocouple application is found in Kilns, Gas turbine exhaust, Diesel engines,
Boiler, water heaters, ovens etc.
 The temperature range of Thermocouple thermometer from -200℃ to 1600℃ or
sometime more than 2000° C.

Radiation thermometer

 The radiation thermometer works on the law of Stephen or law of emission of

radiation.
 Which states that everybody radiate heat and when radiation bounce from that
surface it carries some energy with it and hence by observing the emitted radiation,
we can determine the temperature of an object.
 This is how thermal sensor camera and optical thermometer work.
 And the effective range for Radiation thermometer is 800°C to -6000°C

Different units of temperature and their relation

Generally, to measure temperature, we consider two fix point are considered
i.e., Freezing and boiling point of water and we have different scales for measuring
temperature.
Some of the worldwide accepted units of temperature are:

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 In this scale we use melting point of ice taken as 0° C and boiling point
Celsius Scale is taken as 100° C and the space these points are divided into 100
(°C) equal parts.
 In 1710 Anders Celsius designed this scale.

 In this scale we use melting point of ice taken as 32° F and boiling point
Fahrenheit Scale is taken as 212° F and the space these points are divided into 100
(°F) equal parts.
 In 1717 Gabriel Fahrenheit designed this scale.

 In this scale we use melting point of ice taken as 273 K and boiling point
Kelvin Scale is taken as 373 K and the space these points are divided into 100 equal
(K) parts.
 It was designed by Kelvin.

 In this scale we use melting point of ice taken as 0° R and boiling point
Reaumur Scale is taken as 80° R and the space these points are divided into 80 equal
(R) parts.
 It was designed by RA Reaumur in 1730.

 In this scale we use melting point of ice taken as 460° Ra and boiling
Rankine Scale
point is taken as 672° Ra
(Ra)
 And 1° Ra is equal to the 212th part of difference between two point

Relation between different unit of temperature

Where,
C = temperature in Degree Celsius Scale
F = temperature in Degree Fahrenheit Scale
K = temperature in Kelvin Scale
R = temperature in Reaumur Scale
Ra = temperature in Rankine Scale

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Q. Convert 96 °F into degrees Celsius and Kelvin.

A. Given that,
Temperature in Fahrenheit 96 °F
The relation between Fahrenheit and Celsius

Temperature in Celsius = 35.55° C

The relation between Fahrenheit and kelvin is

The temperature in kelvin = 308.55° K

Thermal Expansion
Now as temperature increases because of interatomic collisions the substance
expands. Thus, increase in its dimension (i.e., length, breadth and thickness) due to
increases in its temperature, and this property of material is known as thermal
expansion of substance.
It can be further classified as:

Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion Thermal Expansion Thermal Expansion

of solid of liquid of gases

Linear Expansion Apparent Expansion Volumetric Coefficient

Superficial Expansion Real Expansion Pressure Coefficient
Volume Expansion

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Thermal expansion of solid

Expansion of solid when heated is known as thermal expansion of Solid.
Thermal expansion of solid can be further classified into three types based on there
change in dimension.

 When expansion of solid is linear when heated such expansion is

known as linear expansion
Linear Expansion
 And coefficient of linear expansion,

 When expansion of solid expands along two dimensions, i.e., in case of

expansion of lamina both length and breadth will expand when heated
Superficial such expansion is known as Superficial expansion
Expansion
 Coefficient of Superficial expansion,

 When expansion of solid expands along three dimensions, i.e., in case

Volumetric of expansion of lamina both length, height and breadth will expand
Expansion or when heated such expansion is known as Volumetric expansion or
Cubical Cubical Expansion.
Expansion  Coefficient of Volumetric expansion,

Relation between α,β and γ

Using error theorem, we can say that,

β = 2α

γ = 3α

α:β:γ=1:2:3

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Thermal expansion of liquid

For a liquid we have only cubical expansion because liquid does not have any specific
shape and because of heat conduction liquid expand freely along all three dimensions.
So, when liquid is heated, then the vessel is also heated and liquid in it also heated.
Hence first vessel expands and then liquid expands too
Further thermal expansion of liquid can be classified as

Now if we consider the expansion of liquid neglecting expansion of vessel is

known as apparent expansion
Apparent i.e., it can be expressed as
Expansion apparent expansion coefficient,

Now the actual increase in the volume of liquid can be given as

i.e., Real expansion coefficient,
Real Expansion

Exception
Anomalous / Exceptional Behavior of Water:

Generally, for all liquid as temperature decreases its density increases, but this case is
not true for water. For water as temperature is reduced below 4° C interatomic distance
between water increases and hence its density decreases between 0° to 4° (∴ ρ4 > ρ0)
This behavior water is known as the anomalous behavior of water.

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Thermal expansion of gases

Similarly, for expansion of gas, they can be further classified into two types based on
their consequence of expansion.

it can be defined as the change in volume of gas per unit increase in

Volume temperature times its original volume. i.e.,
Coefficient (γV)

it is defined as the change in pressure of gas per unit degree Celsius at

Pressure constant volume.
Coefficient (γP)

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