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CHAPTER 2
Personality Research Methods
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.1. Understand that personality is not directly observable, and data are clues.
2.2. Recognize and classify instances of B, L, I, and S data.
2.3. Define and distinguish B, L, I, and S data.
2.4. Identify strengths and weaknesses of B, L, I, and S data.
2.5. Understand new concepts and terminology associated with different types of data.
2.6. Differentiate the goals of scientific training from technical training.
2.7. Define and distinguish reliability and validity.
2.8. Give examples of techniques researchers can use to improve measurement quality.
2.9. Identify a variety of issues related to generalizability.
2.10. Compare and contrast different types of research designs.

MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The goal of the dissertation in the process of scientific education is to demonstrate that the future scientist
a. has memorized all of the known facts about a given topic.
b. has read all of the known articles about a given a topic.
c. can contribute something new to the field.
d. can apply the technical knowledge learned in graduate school.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate
REF: Psychology’s Emphasis on Method: Scientific Education and Technical Training
OBJ: 2.6 MSC: Remembering
2. According to the text, the goal of a scientific education is to

a. question what is known and how to find out what is not yet known.
b. convey what facts are already known about a subject.
c. train individuals to exclusively rely on deductive reasoning to solve problems.
d. All of the answer options are correct.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate
OBJ: 2.6 MSC: Understanding
3. According to the text, a ________ would receive technical training, whereas a ________ would receive scientific
education.
a. pharmacologist; pharmacist
b. physician; biologist
c. botanist; computer programmer
d. research psychologist; clinical psychologist
ANS: B DIF: Moderate
4. According to the textbook, there are no perfect ________ of personality, only ________.
a. measures; devices c. theories; hypotheses
b. indicators; clues d. reliable measures; valid measures
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data
5. Researchers must use clues to personality in their research because personality

a. is defined solely by biological factors that cannot be observed.
b. tests are unethical.
c. is something difficult to measure that resides inside an individual.
d. is defined by responses to self-report questionnaires.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data
6. When gathering data or clues about personality, the best policy is to

a. gather only a very small number of clues and focus on the important ones.
b. gather only clues that are certain not to be misleading.
c. rely solely on self-report data.
d. collect as many clues as possible.
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data
7. Because each kind of data has limitations, personality psychologists should
a. not bother collecting data.
b. gather as much data as possible.
c. only use L data, which are the most reliable.
d. use only one source of data and control for its limitations.
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data
8. There is a possibility that individuals are so accustomed to certain aspects of their personality that they might not be
aware of those traits. This is called the ________ effect.
a. fish-and-water c. self-expectancy
b. self-verification d. narcissism
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
9. In order to examine the relationship between early life experiences and adult criminality, Dr. Robbins asks his
research participants to fill out questionnaires describing their early lives. He then obtains copies of their arrest
records from the county courthouse. The questionnaires used in Dr. Robbins’s study would be ________ data,
whereas the arrest records would be ________ data.
a. L; B c. S; L
b. S; I d. B; L
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
10. To assess the personality traits of a group of 5-year-olds, researchers use puppets to illustrate different personality
traits. Children are then asked to pick the puppet that best matches their personalities. This is an example of
________ data.
a. S c. L
b. I d. B
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
OBJ: 2.2 MSC: Applying
11. ________ data are the most frequently used basis for personality assessment.
a. B c. S
b. L d. I
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
12. I data are

a. self-judgments.
b. judgments made by knowledgeable observers.
c. easily observable, real-life outcomes.
d. direct observations of the subject in some predefined context.
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
13. I data essentially measure

a. your internal states or emotions.
b. your level of self-awareness.
c. your reputation.
d. work productivity (in industrial psychology).
14. According to the text, accidental mistakes in judging personality are considered ________, whereas inaccurate
judgments that are influenced by prejudices are considered ________.
a. biases; stereotypes c. errors; biases
b. heuristic errors; formal errors d. trivial; serious
15. What is one advantage of collecting descriptions of a participant’s personality from his or her acquaintances?
a. The acquaintances are likely smarter.
b. The acquaintances’ descriptions of the participant are likely based on many behaviors in many
situations.
c. The acquaintances are likely more accurate in judging the participant’s internal state.
d. There is little to no bias with acquaintance descriptions.
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
16. According to a study reported in the text, researchers were able to predict individuals’ level of conscientiousness and
openness to experience based solely on various aspects of their bedrooms. This study used ________ data to assess
personality.
a. S c. B
b. I d. L
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
17. The Thematic Apperception Test and the Rorschach test elicit ________ data.
a. L c. S
b. I d. B
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
OBJ: 2.3 MSC: Analyzing
18. The typical experimental psychologist in a testing situation collects ________ data.
a. B c. L
b. I d. S
19. To obtain S data, a psychologist can

a. develop a questionnaire. c. observe the subject directly.
b. recruit informants. d. look up information in public records.
20. What you do may be influenced by how you see yourself and how you are seen by others. This means that your self-
perceptions and others’ perceptions have
a. definitional truth. c. phenomenological force.
b. causal truth. d. causal force.
21. What is the best way for a researcher to judge the face validity of items on a measure?
a. Conduct an exploratory factor analysis on the items.
b. Conduct a confirmatory factor analysis on the items.
c. Conduct an internal consistency analysis on the items.
d. Read and consider the content of the items.
22. ________ data are fairly easily verifiable, concrete, real-life outcomes of possible psychological significance.
a. S c. I
b. B d. L
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
23. ________ data derive from the researcher’s direct observation of what the subject does.
a. L c. S
b. I d. B
24. In a priming study, participants solved puzzles that included words such as gray, wise, retired, and Florida. After
solving these puzzles, participants were observed as they walked down a hallway. The observation of participants’
speed of walking would be considered ________ data.
a. experience sampling c. L
b. laboratory B d. projective
25. Which kind of data would be the easiest way to obtain information about the content of dreams?
a. S c. L
b. B d. I
26. Dr. Garcia wants to measure the earliest autobiographical memories of the participants in her project. She would
most likely obtain ________ data.
a. L c. S
b. I d. B
27. Different informants may not agree about the personality of a common target individual because
a. each judge may see the target person in only a limited number of social contexts.
b. judges may form a mistaken impression based on the recollection of a single, uncharacteristic
behavior.
c. some informants may have biases that affect the accuracy of their judgments.
d. All of the answer options are correct.
28. What kinds of behaviors by an acquaintance would MOST likely be remembered?
a. an atypical behavior that was emotionally evocative
b. only behaviors consistent with the acquaintance’s personality
c. the most recently observed typical behavior
d. behaviors that are observed every day
29. Records of employee absenteeism are what type of data?

a. S c. I
b. B d. L
30. Which of the following types of personality data is the MOST objective and verifiable?
a. S c. I
b. B d. L
31. Which of the following would be an example of natural B data?

a. observations of the number of times a subject told a joke in a day
b. number of seconds a subject waits before seeking help in an experimental emergency situation
c. a subject’s verbal responses to a Rorschach test
d. number of times a subject interrupts others during a videotaped laboratory situation
32. Which type of data is likely to be the most judgmental, subjective, and irreducibly human?
a. I c. L
b. B d. S
33. Which of the following is LEAST likely to be considered B data?

a. measures of heart rate and other physiological measurements
b. observation of how many times a participant spoke during a five-minute conversation
c. a psychologist’s interpretation of a participant’s responses to an unstructured clinical interview
d. a participant’s records of his daily activities in a daily research “diary”
ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
34. When a psychologist asks a question because he or she wants to know the answer, the question elicits ________
data. When a psychologist asks a question because he or she wants to see how the individual will respond to that
stimulus, the test elicits ________ data.
a. B; I c. S; B
b. S; I d. laboratory B; natural B
35. Which kind of data is the LEAST expensive to collect?

a. L c. I
b. S d. B
36. According to the text, which of the following is another term for behavioral confirmation?
a. action verification c. expectancy effect
b. causal force d. narcissistic reflection
37. The tendency for us to become what other people believe us to be is called a(n) ________ effect.
a. confirmation c. fish-and-water
b. expectancy d. self-monitoring
38. The fact that behavior is frequently determined by multiple causes presents the most significant disadvantage for
________ data.
a. B c. I
b. L d. S
39. The judgments that others make of your personality affect your opportunities and expectancies. Thus, these
judgments have
a. generalizability. c. causal force.
b. validity. d. reliability.
40. A major advantage of S data is that

a. only a trained personality psychologist can interpret S data.
b. the best information about personality is obtainable from real-life social outcomes.
c. you are probably the world’s best expert about your own personality.
d. to assess personality, you must observe what the person actually does.
41. If Dr. O’Connell wants to learn about Laura, why might Dr. O’Connell want to avoid using S data?
a. The person supplying the S data may not want to or be able to provide accurate reports about Laura.
b. The S data often do not have psychological relevance.
c. The S data are influenced by too many factors to reveal much about a person’s personality.
d. The S data have definitional truth.
42. Because Jesse’s teacher believes that he is intelligent, she challenges him with extra assignments and generally
encourages his curiosity. At the end of the school year, Jesse performs better on the school’s achievement test than
any other student. Jesse’s enhanced performance is likely due to the
a. recency effect. c. self-serving bias.
b. expectancy effect. d. judgment bias.
43. A researcher asks participants to imagine that they have been excluded from their circle of friends and then takes
images of their brains using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning technology. The images
generated in this study would be considered ________ data.
b. experimental B d. projective
44. The most important advantage of B data is that they are based on
a. common sense, so they have greater psychological relevance.
b. a report by the best expert, so they are more accurate.
c. direct psychological tests, so they have greater causal force and scientific value.
d. direct observations of behavior, so they are more objective and quantifiable.
45. When someone is high in narcissism, what type of data about this person might be the LEAST trustworthy?
a. B c. L
b. I d. S
46. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of I data?

a. They have causal force.
b. They include common sense.
c. They are based on large amounts of information.
d. They come from carefully controlled experimental situations.
47. A major disadvantage of L data is that

a. they provide too much information.
b. informants may have access to only a narrow range of the target’s behavior.
c. the data are influenced by multiple factors besides just personality.
d. judges may be biased about the person they are describing.
48. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of B data?

a. Direct observations require little in the way of psychological interpretation.
b. Direct observations are easily quantifiable.
c. Direct observations can be made with extreme precision, as in the case of reaction times.
d. Psychologists can construct situations to elicit particular behaviors.
49. One concern with items on measures like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is that they
often lack face validity. What kind of problem does this create?
a. Participants can easily fake responses on the items.
b. Such items raise concerns with social desirability.
c. Responses are difficult to interpret in psychological terms.
d. Such items tend to make participants anxious.
50. As part of a research project, a participant uses a smart phone application that signals her at random times
throughout the day. At those times, the application presents a series of questions for her to answer regarding her
current activities. This is an example of ________ data.
b. experimental B d. projective
51. What term describes computer-assisted methods to measure thoughts and feelings that occur during normal daily
activities?
a. experiential assessment
b. ambulatory assessment
c. projective assessment
d. digitally assisted experimental assessment
52. What term is sometimes used to describe instruments like the Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
a. S instruments c. objective tests
b. omnibus personality test batteries d. performance-based personality tests
53. A behavioroid measure is a combination of which two types of data?

a. S and B c. I and B
b. L and B d. S and L
54. According to the principles on enhancing reliability described in the text, it would be relatively difficult to create a
reliable measure of attitudes toward
a. lumber tariffs. c. outgroup members.
b. casual sexual encounters. d. the self (like self-esteem).
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability
55. If measurement errors are truly random, then they should

a. never occur.
b. not affect the reliability of a measure.
c. not attenuate the validity of a measure.
d. sum to zero.
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability
56. Which formula in psychometrics quantifies the principle of aggregation?

a. alpha c. kappa
b. Spearman-Brown d. Kaiser-Guttman
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability
57. If you can get the same answer repeatedly, then your measure is
a. reliable. c. significant.
b. valid. d. generalizable.
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability
58. The technical meaning of reliability refers to

a. how much measurement error is present in your assessment instrument.
b. whether an instrument accurately assesses the construct it is intended to measure.
c. whether an instrument correlates with a similar measure of the same construct.
d. whether a sample of participants reasonably represents the population of interest.
59. On Friday, Terence completes the Self-Monitoring Scale and receives a score of 49. On the following Tuesday, he
fills out the scale again and receives a score of 28. Terence’s scores on the Self-Monitoring Scale do not appear to
be
a. valid. c. significant.
b. reliable. d. free of unwanted biases.
60. Linda is taking an intelligence test. During the test, the teachers walk through the halls and chat loudly with each
other. Due to these distractions, Linda scores lower on the test than she would have if she had been able to
concentrate fully. The influence of the teachers’ chatting is an example of
a. reliability. c. a cohort effect.
b. a validity bias. d. measurement error.
61. The MOST important and generally useful way to enhance reliability is to
a. use the smallest possible number of items.
b. measure something that is important.
c. aggregate your measurements.
d. maximize error variance.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability
62. At the heart of aggregation is the idea that

a. random errors cancel each other out.
b. random errors never cancel each other out.
c. reliable errors cancel each other out.
d. a sufficiently precise measure has no reliable error.
63. Dr. Grant is creating a new measure of shyness, and she decides to include more than one item in her scale. She
believes that using multiple items will lead to a more reliable measure. Dr. Grant is following which principle of
measurement?
a. multitrait assessment c. aggregation
b. content validation d. construct validation
64. A researcher can increase the reliability of a personality test by

a. refusing to aggregate items.
b. measuring something important instead of something trivial.
c. using very few items to reduce the risk of mistakes.
d. constructing items with complicated words and phrases.
65. Which of the following is NOT likely to undermine the reliability of a survey?
a. entering data into a database incorrectly after collection
b. the immediate state of the participant
c. the mood of the experimenter
d. aggregation of responses to different items
66. In simple language, questions about reliability concern ________, whereas questions about validity concern
________.
a. accuracy; consistency c. stability; dependability
b. consistency; dependability d. consistency; accuracy
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity
67. Validity is the degree to which a measurement

a. is consistent and stable.
b. provides the same result if repeated.
c. actually reflects or measures what you think it does.
d. is reliable.
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity
68. According to Cronbach and Meehl’s (1955) terminology, psychological attributes such as intelligence and
sociability are examples of ________, whereas an IQ test and an extraversion questionnaire are examples of specific
tests or measurements.
a. constructs c. assessments
b. valid ideas d. manifest factors
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity
69. Janelle recently completed a new test that was designed to measure her IQ. She took the test twice and each time
received the same score. The test administrator told her that her scores indicate she is extremely intelligent.
However, Janelle scored well below average when she completed the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS), two well-established intelligence tests. Based on this pattern of results, it appears that the
new measure of IQ was a
a. valid measure of intelligence.
b. valid but unreliable measure of intelligence.
c. reliable but not valid measure of intelligence.
d. more accurate measure of intelligence than the Stanford-Binet or the WAIS.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity
70. Reliability is ________ for validity.

a. a necessary and sufficient condition
b. a necessary but not sufficient condition
c. a sufficient condition
d. not at all relevant
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity
71. A research strategy that involves gathering as many different measurements as you can of a particular construct and
determining if those measurements correlate is called
a. construct validation. c. generalization.
b. aggregation validation. d. internal validation.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity
72. Many psychologists tend to use college students as participants in their research and then assume that what they
learn applies to people in general. However, this common practice may limit the
a. ecological reliability of their research. c. generalizability of their findings.
b. internal validity of their studies. d. construct validity of their studies.
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability
73. Reliability and validity are actually both aspects of a broader concept called
a. factorial invariance. c. measurement equivalence.
b. systematic bias. d. generalizability.
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability
74. The fact that much of modern empirical research in psychology has been based on white, middle-class college
sophomores may reduce the ________ of psychological research.
a. generalizability c. validity
b. reliability d. statistical significance
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability
75. Which of the following sampling methods affords a researcher the greatest generalizability?
a. randomly selecting a sample of introductory psychology students
b. randomly selecting a sample of both high school and college students
c. recruiting all the executives at a large company to participate
d. collaborating with researchers from other countries to recruit participants from outside the country
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability
76. According to the text, which of the following would NOT be a threat to the generalizability of personality research?
a. More women than men participate in research.
b. Participants who show up for research studies are more conventional than individuals who do not
show up.
c. Personality researchers strive to study multiple cohorts.
d. Much personality research is based on samples of college students.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability
77. Narrative psychology is an example of the ________ method.

a. case study c. experimental
b. correlational d. behavioral
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Research Design: Case Method
78. What is the big disadvantage of the case study method?

a. It describes isolated variables, not the whole phenomenon.
b. It is rarely the source of testable hypotheses.
c. It does not usually apply to particular individuals, only to groups.
d. It is not generalizable.
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Research Design: Case Method
79. The major difference between the experimental and correlational methods is that in the experimental method the
presumed causal variable is ________, whereas in the correlational method the same variable is ________.
a. externally derived; internally derived c. manipulated; measured
b. significant; important d. reliable; valid
ANS: C DIF: Moderate
REF: Research Design: Comparing the Experimental and Correlational Methods
80. The strongest advantage of the experimental method is that

a. it allows the assessment of causality.
b. it allows the study of naturally occurring individual differences that already exist in the participants.
c. participants are always randomly sampled from the general population.
d. it can take advantage of extreme levels of the independent variable.
ANS: A DIF: Easy
81. Random assignment allows researchers to

a. ignore problems of measurement biases in self-report personality assessments.
b. assume that groups of participants are more or less equivalent on preexisting conditions.
c. ignore ethical constraints on research that may otherwise limit their ability to conduct research.
d. control for the selective attrition of participants who have dropped out of the study.
82. If test scores decrease as anxiety increases, then
a. test scores and anxiety are positively correlated.
b. test scores and anxiety are negatively correlated.
c. test scores and anxiety are unrelated.
d. the correlation between test scores and anxiety must be 1.0.
83. Dr. Low is interested in studying the effect mood has on the willingness to help a stranger. She randomly assigns
half of her participants to the pleasant mood condition and shows them funny film clips. The other half of her
participants is assigned to the unpleasant mood condition and is forced to watch boring film clips. She then gives
every participant an opportunity to donate money to a homeless stranger. Dr. Low is using a(n) ________ design.
a. experimental c. case study
b. correlational d. repeated measures
ANS: A DIF: Moderate
84. To conduct an experimental study of the causal effect smoking has on physical health, we would have to
a. find a group of smokers and compare their physical health to a group of nonsmokers.
b. randomly assign some people to a smoking condition and some others to a control condition.
c. compare the physical health of a heavy smoker to the physical health of a person who has never
smoked.
d. teach one group of people to adopt good health habits and see if they are more likely to begin
smoking than a group of people who have not been taught good health habits.
85. Dr. Liao is interested in studying the relation between mood and willingness to help a stranger. Every participant in
her study completes a mood-rating questionnaire and is then given an opportunity to donate money to a homeless
stranger. Dr. Liao is using a(n) ________ design.
86. Which design is best suited for addressing the third-variable problem?
ANS: A DIF: Difficult
87. A researcher is interested in investigating what people do to make others happy on a daily basis. To do so, she asks
participants to provide an account of their prosocial behavior at the end of each day. This is an example of ________
data.
a. S c. B
b. I d. L
88. The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) is a recording device worn in participants’ pockets that records
samples of audio the participant hears throughout the day. The EAR collects what type of data?
a. B data c. S data
b. I data d. L data
89. According to the text, L data can be difficult to interpret because life outcomes can have many causes. In other
words, L data may be subject to
a. the expectancy effect. c. multidetermination.
b. construct validation. d. self-verification.
90. Technicians-in-training focus on ________, whereas scientists-in-training focus on ________.

a. writing; reading
b. memorizing what is already known; questioning what is already known
c. the philosophical components of their field; mechanical components of their field
d. teaching undergraduate students; teaching graduate students
91. Based on what you know about the distinction between technicians and scientists, a therapist would require
________ training, whereas a research psychologist would require ________ training.
a. technical; scientific c. data collection; data analysis
b. scientific; technical d. data analysis; data collection
ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Psychology’s Emphasis on Method
92. Dr. Lane has just created a new measure to assess individuals’ levels of optimism. To make sure her measure is
actually assessing optimism, she gives a set of participants her measure, and then asks each of the participant’s
friends to rate how optimistic they are on the same scale. Dr. Lane is testing the ________ of her new measure.
a. reliability c. generalizability
b. face validity d. construct validity
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data
93. What is a major advantage of conducting a case study above all other methods?
a. It describes the whole phenomenon and not just isolated variables.
b. It uses statistics to assess how two constructs are related to one another.
c. It increases the generalizability of a psychological phenomenon.
d. It introduces a great degree of situational control.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Research Design: Case Method
94. Which of the following is NOT an example of something that can limit how reliable a measure is?
a. A research assistant dozes off when they should be observing participants’ behavior.
b. A study is conducted during finals and all college student participants are sleep-deprived.
c. After comparing the self-report to informant reports, a researcher realizes their measure isn’t
accurate.
d. A fire alarm goes off in the middle of an experiment.
95. According to the text, correlational and experimental methods are not entirely different. For example, they both
a. always use S data.
b. assess the relationship between two variables.
c. assess causality.
d. focus on one phenomenon in depth.
MATCHING
Match the most applicable type of data with each piece of information.
a. B data
b. L data
c. I data
d. S data
e. T data
f. E data
1. Your own responses to the statement, “I consider myself a nervous person”
2. A therapist’s description of her client
3. The number of times someone has been arrested
4. Reaction times to photographs
5. A father’s report on his daughter’s talkativeness
1. ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

2. ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
3. ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
4. ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
5. ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues
Match the most relevant term with each definition.

a. Reliable
b. Valid
c. Generalizable
d. Measurement error
e. Aggregation
f. Precision
6. The cumulative effect random influences have on the outcome of interest
7. A method or instrument that provides the same information repeatedly
8. An instrument actually reflects the construct of interest
9. A result applies beyond the context of the current study
10. Combining many items in a test to eliminate idiosyncrasies of any one item
6. ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data

OBJ: 2.7 | 2.8 MSC: Understanding
7. ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data
8. ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data
9. ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data
10. ANS: E DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data
SHORT ANSWER
1. Why does Funder believe there are no perfect indicators of personality? What strategies can researchers use to deal
with this concern?
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Understanding
2. Explain why Funder considers answers to the items on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to
be an example of B data.
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

3. Consider the construct of delay of gratification. Explain how you could obtain S, I, B, and L data for measuring
delay of gratification. Identify and describe one advantage and one disadvantage for each of your examples of S, I,
B, and L data.
ANS:
Answers will vary.

OBJ: 2.3 | 2.4 MSC: Applying
4. What is face validity, and how does it apply to S and B data? What is a limitation of face validity for evaluating the
quality of B data? Do you think this concern also applies to S data?
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

OBJ: 2.4 MSC: Evaluating
5. Consider the trait of courage. Describe the advantages and limitations of obtaining informant report data for this
trait.
ANS:
Answers will vary.

OBJ: 2.4 MSC: Evaluating
6. Why would you recommend aggregation to a researcher interested in measuring shyness? Explain why aggregation
improves the reliability of psychological assessments such as measures of shyness.
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability

OBJ: 2.7 | 2.8 MSC: Evaluating
7. Consider the construct of intelligence. What steps would researchers do to validate measures of this construct? Why
is validity harder to establish and evaluate than reliability?
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity

OBJ: 2.7 | 2.8 MSC: Evaluating
8. Recently, a group of researchers raised concerns about the use of so-called WEIRD participants in the majority of
psychological studies. Who are WEIRD participants? Why is this issue a potential concern to psychological
researchers (e.g., do WEIRD participants hurt reliability)? What steps can be taken to address the concerns about
WEIRD participants?
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability

OBJ: 2.7 | 2.8 | 2.9 MSC: Evaluating
9. What is generalizability? What are the facets of generalizability described in the book, and how does each one relate
to the broad idea of generalizability?
ANS:
Answers will vary.
DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability

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despotically ruled both the Duke of Bourbon and France. But one
thing disquieted her: the young King’s health was delicate. If he
should die suddenly, the crown would revert to the Orleans branch,
between which family and the Duke of Bourbon there existed a
thoroughgoing enmity. In 1725 the Infanta, the betrothed of Louis
XV., was only seven years old. Several years must elapse, therefore,
before the marriage could be consummated. Now, there was no
repose possible for the Duke and his favorite so long as the King had
no direct heir. The Duke slept at Versailles in an apartment directly
under that of the King. One night he thought he heard more noise
and movement than usual. He rose precipitately and went up stairs
in a great fright and his dressing gown. The first surgeon, Maréchal,
astonished to see him appear in this guise, asked the cause of his
alarm. The Duke, beside himself, could only stammer: “I heard some
noise—the King is sick—what will become of me?” Somewhat
reassured by Maréchal, he consented to go down again to his
apartment, but he was overheard muttering to himself: “I would never
get back here again. If he recovers, we must marry him.” It was
resolved to send back the Infanta on account of her youth. Her
father, Philip V., was indignant at such an outrage. “There is not
blood enough in all Spain to avenge such an insult,” said he. At
Madrid the shouting populace were allowed to drag an effigy of Louis
XV. through the streets, and the shepherds of the Spanish Pyrenees
came into the pasture lands of French valleys to hamstring the cattle.
Two Princesses of Orleans were then in Spain. They were both
daughters of the regent, and had been sent to Madrid at the time
when Marie Anne Victoire, the betrothed of Louis XV., had come to
France.[5] One of them, Mademoiselle de Montpensier, born in 1709,
married the Prince of the Asturias, eldest son of Philip V. The other,
Mademoiselle de Beaujolais, born in 1714, was affianced to Don
Carlos, brother to the Prince of the Asturias. The first was sad, cross,
and whimsical; the second, on the contrary, was a delightful child, as
pretty as she was intelligent. When she arrived in Spain, she was
seven years old, the same age as Don Carlos, and Queen Elizabeth
Farnese wrote to the Duke of Orleans: “Her little husband is in
transports of joy over her, and is only too happy to have such a
charming Princess.”
When Philip V. abdicated in 1724, in favor of the Prince of the
Asturias (Louis I.), Mademoiselle de Montpensier became Queen.
But the new King died at the end of eight months. Philip V. resumed
the crown, and the widow remained without any influence at court.
As soon as it was known at Madrid that Louis XV. was not to marry
the Infanta, Marie Anne Victoire, it was determined by way of
reprisals that the widow of King Louis and Mademoiselle de
Beaujolais, the betrothed of Don Carlos, should be immediately sent
back to Versailles. Spain saw the Queen, who was not at all
sympathetic, depart without regret; but people were grieved at the
departure of Mademoiselle de Beaujolais, who at the age of nine
years was already charming, and who, appearing like a ray of light in
the sombre Escurial, had made herself beloved by her little
betrothed.
In France, too, the sending back of the Infanta, who was by
anticipation already styled the Queen, did not occur without exciting
some regret. The little Princess, now seven years old, had been
confided to the care of Madame de Ventadour, the former governess
of Louis XV., who loved her fondly. The great-granddaughter of Louis
XIV. already knew how to nod graciously in response to the homage
of the crowd, and everybody admired her pretty ways. But Louis XV.,
who was in his sixteenth year, and precocious, was hardly satisfied
with so young a fiancée. He was pleased therefore with the breaking
off of a marriage whose consummation he must have waited for so
long, and, according to Voltaire’s expression, he was like a bird
whose cage has been changed when he saw the Infanta depart.
Beautiful presents, however, were made to the young Princess, and
it was determined that her return should be accomplished with a
respectful magnificence and ceremony. She left Versailles April 5,
1725, and on reaching the frontier, she was exchanged at Saint-
Jean-Pied-de-Port for the two Princesses of Orleans (the widow of
King Louis and Mademoiselle de Beaujolais). Married in 1729 to
Joseph Emanuel, then Prince, afterwards King of Portugal, “she
gave that sovereign,” says Voltaire, “the children she was not
allowed to give to Louis XV. and was not happier on account of it.”
As to the two Princesses of Orleans, their destiny was unhappy: the
queen dowager of Spain, who died in 1742, lived in poverty, with a
barren title and the simulacrum of a court. Her two families had but
one thought,—that of ridding themselves of the support of this
unfortunate young woman. Spain showed excessive negligence in
the payment of her pension, and after having reigned over one of the
principal kingdoms of the world, she was obliged, by economical
reasons, to spend three consecutive years with the Carmelites of
Paris. Still living, she was treated as if already dead. Her sister,
Mademoiselle de Beaujolais, so amiable, sweet, and attractive,
retained a tender memory of her former betrothed, Don Carlos (the
future Charles III.), who, on his side, did not forget her. Possibly a
means of renewing their engagement might have been found. But
the young girl died in 1734, carrying her faithful regret with her to the
tomb. She was not yet twenty.
The rupture of the marriage of Louis XV. was not a fortunate
event. The Prince was only fifteen years old. He might easily have
waited several years longer before marrying. His studies and his
energy would both have been the gainers by it. Moreover, it was an
evil thing to insult a great nation like Spain. It was not alone the
Spanish people that were outraged, but the glorious memory of the
Infanta’s great-grandfather, the grand King who had said: “There are
no more Pyrenees.” A fatal lesson was given to the young sovereign
when he was thus taught to violate sworn faith, and habituated from
his adolescence to those culpable caprices, those egotistic
desertions of which his reign was to afford more than one example.
II
THE MARRIAGE OF MARIE LECZINSKA
I n the year 1725, a poor exiled king and his family were living in a
dilapidated old commandery in Wissemburg, a little town of Alsace.
This king without a kingdom, this fugitive who dignified his poverty
by the resignation with which he endured misfortune, was the Pole,
Stanislas Leczinski, the protégé of Charles XII. of Sweden. Driven
from Poland after a very short reign, Stanislas had found an asylum
in France, and lived in Wissemburg in complete retirement with his
mother, his wife, his daughter, and several gentlemen who had been
faithful to him in misfortune. His daughter, Marie, born in Breslau,
June 23, 1703, was at this time twenty-two years old. Pious, gentle,
and sympathetic, she was the joy of the exiles. When they spoke to
her of projected marriages, she would say to her parents: “Do not
think you can make me happy by sending me away; it would be far
sweeter to me to share your ill-fortune than to enjoy, at a distance, a
happiness which would not be yours.” Her education had been as
intelligent as it was austere. She spent the time not occupied in
prayer and study in working for the poor of the city or embroidering
ornaments for churches. She was a true Christian, one of those
admirable young girls whose charm has in it something evangelic,
and who make virtue lovable.
One day Stanislas, much moved, entered the room where his wife
and daughter were. “Let us kneel down,” he exclaimed, “and return
thanks to God!”—“Father,” said Marie, “have you been called back to
the throne of Poland?”—“Ah! daughter,” he replied, “Heaven is far
more favorable to us than that. You are Queen of France.” It was not
a dream. The exile’s daughter, the poor and obscure Princess, living
on alms from the French court, who, but the day before, would have
been happy to marry one of those who were now to be her principal
officials, ascended as if by miracle the greatest throne in the world.
How had she happened to be preferred to the ninety-nine
marriageable princesses, a list of whom had been drawn up at
Versailles? There was but this simple remark below her name in the
list: “Nothing disadvantageous is known concerning this family.”
Louis XV. who had sent back the daughter of a King of Spain could
choose among the wealthiest and most highly placed princesses in
Europe. How did they contrive to make him marry this poor Polish
girl who brought him no dot and who was seven years his senior (in
an inverse sense, the same difference of age that existed between
him and the Infanta, his first betrothed)? It is true that a former
secretary of embassy, Lozillières, whom the Duke of Bourbon had
sent to make inquiries about twenty-seven princesses, had thus
drawn the portrait of Marie Leczinska: “This Princess, as simple as
the daughter of Alcinoüs, who knows no cosmetics but water and
snow, and, seated between her mother and her grandmother,
embroiders altar-cloths, recalls to us, in the commandery of
Wissemburg, the artlessness of heroic times.” Was it this
mythological style which affected sceptical and depraved souls like
those of the Duke of Bourbon and his mistress, Madame de Prie?
It was not this, at all events, which chiefly preoccupied them. If
they selected Marie Leczinska, it was because they fancied that,
owing her elevation solely to their caprice, she would esteem herself
in their debt and be their tool. What pleased them in her was that she
had no resources; that a price had been set upon her father’s head;
that the exile, dispossessed of his throne for thirteen years, had
wandered from asylum to asylum, in Turkey, in Sweden, in the
principality of Deux-Ponts, and in Alsace; that the young girl was
merely agreeable without being beautiful; that she was seven years
older than Louis XV.; and that in calling her to the throne in the most
unforeseen and inconceivable manner, the Duke and Madame de
Prie would create for themselves exceptional claims upon her
gratitude.
Louis XV. was at this time the most beautiful youth in the kingdom.
An ideal lustre illuminated his charming visage, and when they were
praising the graces of her young betrothed to Marie Leczinska:
“Alas!” said she, “you redouble my alarms.”
One should read in the sympathetic work of the Countess
d’Armaillé,[6] the story of the beginnings of this union which was at
first to be so happy. Louis XV. made his official request for the hand
of Marie Leczinska through Cardinal de Rohan, Bishop of Strasburg.
She contented herself with responding: “I am penetrated with
gratitude, Monsieur the Cardinal, for the honor done me by the King
of France. My will belongs to my parents, and their consent will be
mine.” The marriage by proxy took place at Strasburg, August 14,
1725. The King was represented by the Duke of Orleans. After
having received her parents’ blessing, and distributed souvenirs to
the faithful companions of her exile, Marie went to join Louis XV. She
was greeted everywhere she went with extravagant laudations.
“There is nothing which the good French people do not do to divert
me,” she wrote at the time to Stanislas Leczinski. “They say the
finest things in the world to me, but nobody says that you may be
near me. Perhaps they will say so presently, for I am journeying in
fairyland, and am veritably under their magical dominion. At every
instant I undergo transformations, of which one is more brilliant than
the other. Sometimes I am fairer than the Graces; again, I belong to
the family of the Nine Sisters; here, I have the virtues of an angel;
there, the sight of me makes people happy. Yesterday I was the
wonder of the world; to-day I am the lucky star. Every one does his
best to deify me, and doubtless I shall be placed among the
immortals to-morrow. To dispel the illusion, I lay my hand on my
head, and instantly find again her whom you love, and who loves you
very tenderly.” The new Queen of France signed this letter with the
Polish diminutive of her name: Maruchna.
At Sézanne, September 3, a page, the Prince of Conti, brought
her a bouquet from Louis XV. Near Moret, the next day, she saw her
husband for the first time. As soon as he appeared she threw herself
on her knees on a cushion; the King raised her at once and
embraced her affectionately. The royal pair made their entry at
Fontainebleau September 5, and were crowned the following day.
“The Queen,” wrote Voltaire, “makes a very good appearance,
although her face is not at all pretty. Everybody is enchanted with her
virtue and her politeness. The first thing she did was to distribute
among the princesses and ladies of the palace all the magnificent
trinkets composing what is called her corbeille, which consisted of
jewels of every sort except diamonds. When she saw the casket in
which they had been placed: ‘This is the first time in my life,’ said
she, ‘that I have been able to make presents.’ She wore a little rouge
on her wedding day, just enough to prevent her from looking pale.
She fainted for an instant in the chapel, but only for form’s sake.
There was a comedy performed the same day. I had prepared a little
entertainment which M. de Mortemart would not execute. In place of
it they gave Amphion and Le Médecin malgré lui, which did not seem
very appropriate. After supper there were fireworks with many
rockets and very little invention and variety.... For the rest, there is a
frightful noise, racket, crowd, and tumult here.”
The Queen pleased everybody by her extreme affability. What
they admired was neither the magnificence of her costume, the
Sancy that sparkled on her corsage, nor the Regent that glittered on
her chaste forehead, but her modesty, her benevolence, her
gentleness, the grace which is still more beautiful than beauty.
Voltaire was in the front rank of the courtiers of this new star which
shed so soft a lustre. But he did not find his rôle as flatterer rewarded
by sufficient gratuities. Hence he wrote from Fontainebleau: “I have
been very well received by the Queen. She wept over Marianne, she
laughed over L’Indiscret; she often talks to me, she calls me her poor
Voltaire. A blockhead would be satisfied with all this; but,
unfortunately, I think soundly enough to feel that praise does not
amount to much, and that the rôle of a poet at court always entails
upon him something slightly ridiculous. You would not believe, my
dear Thiriot, how tired I am of my life as a courtier. Henri IV. is very
stupidly sacrificed at the court of Louis XV. I bewail the moments I
rob him of. The poor child ought to have appeared already in quarto,
with fine paper, fine margins, and fine type. That will surely come this
winter, whatever may happen. I think you will find this work
somewhat more finished than Marianne. The epic is my forte, or I am
very much mistaken.... The Queen is constantly assassinated with
Pindaric odes, sonnets, epistles, and epithalamiums. I fancy she
takes the poets for court-fools; and in this case she is quite right, for
it is great folly for a man of letters to be here. They give no pleasure
and receive none.”[7]
By dint of compliments in prose and verse, Voltaire obtained a
pension of 1500 livres, which made him write to la présidente de
Bernières, November 13, 1725: “I count on the friendliness of
Madame de Prie. I no longer complain of court life, I begin to have
reasonable expectations.”
Some days afterwards (December 1, 1725), Marie Leczinska left
Fontainebleau and went to Versailles. She installed herself in what
were called the Queen’s apartments, and slept in the chamber which
had been successively occupied by Marie Thérèse, the Bavarian
Dauphiness, the Duchess of Burgundy, and the Infanta Marie Anne
Victoire. There she brought her ten children into the world, and it was
there she was to die.
The early days of the marriage were very happy; at that time
Louis XV. was a model youth. The counsels of his former preceptor,
the Bishop of Fréjus; the sense of duty; religious beliefs; the timidity
inseparable from adolescence,—all these contributed to keep in the
paths of wisdom the young monarch who dreamed of being a good
husband and father, a good king, and working out his own salvation
along with the welfare of his subjects. Naturally inclined to the
pleasures of the senses, he attached himself to Marie Leczinska with
the ardor of an innocent young man who loves for the first time.
Notwithstanding the shamelessness of many of them, the court
beauties did not yet venture to raise their eyes toward this royal
adolescent, who made even the most audacious respectful, by his
gentleness and his reserve. Nothing, at this time, announced the
disorders to which the young monarch was one day to yield himself.
The roués of the Regency could not console themselves for having
so calm and virtuous a master; they awaited with impatience the
moment when they could thrust him over the declivity of scandal,
and, like real demons, they lay in wait for their prey.
III
THE DISGRACE OF THE MARQUISE DE PRIE
T he Marquise de Prie congratulated herself upon having brought

Marie Leczinska to the throne. It was, in fact, as D’Argenson has
remarked, an excellent choice, according to the views of the
Marquise: “Fecundity, piety, sweetness, humanity, and, above all, a
great incapacity for affairs. This court policy required, moreover, a
woman without attractions and without coquetry, who could only
retain her husband through the sense of duty and the necessity of
giving heirs to the crown.” The Duke and his favorite had found in the
Queen all the gratitude and complaisance they had counted on. As
to the King, amused by the chase, festivities, journeys to Marly,
Chantilly, and Rambouillet, he occupied himself with politics very
little. The prime minister could flatter himself on being a real mayor
of the palace. But he had reckoned without a prelate of seventy-four
years, to whom ambition had come with age, and who was about to
cast down with a breath all this scaffolding of intrigues and
calculations.
Fleury, Bishop of Fréjus, the preceptor of Louis XV., was of
humble origin, having been the son of a tithe-collector[8] in the
diocese of Fréjus. Appointed chaplain to Queen Marie Thérèse in
1680, “he was,” says Saint-Simon, “received at the ministers’ houses
where, in fact, he was of as little importance as he was elsewhere,
and often supplied the place of a bell before such things had been
invented.” He was selected as preceptor for the little Prince, who
was to be styled Louis XV., and gained his pupil’s good-will by his
easy, gentle, and insinuating character, his perfect calmness, and his
mingled veneration and tenderness for a child who, thinking himself
always menaced, felt that this assiduous and obsequious devotion
protected him. The secret of his affection for Fleury was that Fleury
never opposed him. He affected, moreover, an absolute
disinterestedness, and seemed to be making a sacrifice to the King
by remaining at court instead of taking refuge in a convent. The
Bishop was always one of the party when the young King was
working, or pretending to work, with his Ministers. In appearance he
guarded the most humble, most insignificant attitude; but, in reality,
he exerted an influence which exasperated the Duke, and still more
Madame de Prie. The Queen herself was jealous of the confidence
enjoyed by this silent old man who followed the King like his shadow,
and who seemed likely to monopolize everything in spite of his
modest airs. The Marquise, who had constant access to the Queen
in her capacity as lady of the palace, contrived a real plot with her. It
was a question of getting rid of this troublesome third person who
was always putting himself between the King and the Prime Minister.
“In order to deliver herself from the old Bishop, Madame de Prie
devised a scheme by which she might take his place, and enter
almost openly into the council of State. She persuaded her lover to
induce the King to work in the apartments of the Queen whom he
loved, at least with that love which every young man feels for the first
woman he possesses. The preceptor, having no lessons to give
there, would not follow his pupil, so that, without being pushed too
rudely he would slip out of his place, and, naturally, find himself on
the ground. Then the Marquise, relying on the good-nature of the
Queen, would introduce herself as a fourth, and from that time on
would govern the State. Although the plan seemed to her an
admirable one, yet its success was not equally so.”[9]
The little conspiracy, however, had been conducted with great
vigor. One evening, the Queen, who happened to be with the Duke
of Bourbon, sent the King a request to come to her. Louis XV.
complied, and the Prime Minister handed him a letter from Cardinal
de Polignac containing violent accusations against the Bishop of
Fréjus. This was the first time that Fleury had not been present when
the King and the Duke were together. Convinced that his exclusion
was henceforth determined, he went at once to his own apartment,
and after writing a very mournful but tender and respectful letter in
which he took leave of his young master, he departed at once for the
Sulpician convent at Issy. The Duke and Madame de Prie thought
themselves sure of victory, but they were in too great haste to
triumph. On reading the letter of his former preceptor the King began
to weep. He dared not avow the cause of his chagrin, however, and
being always timid and irresolute, he kept silence. His first
gentleman, the Duke de Mortemart, at last emboldened him. “What!
Sire, are you not the master?” said he. “Have the Duke told to send a
messenger at once for Monseigneur de Fréjus, and you will see him
again.” This was no sooner said than done. The Bishop returned,
and hid his success at first under the appearance of modesty. He
pretended to desire nothing for himself, and showed profound
deference toward the Duke, but the Prime Minister and his favorite
were doomed.
The little King, with his seventeen years, was about to show that
he was master. With that dissimulation which from infancy he had
been accustomed to consider a quality indispensable to princes, he
silently prepared the Duke’s downfall. As he was getting into his
carriage to go to Rambouillet, June 11, 1727, he said to his Prime
Minister with the most gracious air in the world: “I expect you to
supper this evening.” The Duke re-entered the château in perfect
confidence. But what was his surprise when, three hours later, he
received a royal letter in these terms:—
“I order you, under pain of disobedience, to repair to Chantilly, and
to remain there until further orders.” This was a veritable exile. The
Duke submitted without a murmur. At the same time, the Queen
received this laconic billet from Louis XV.: “I beg you, Madame, and if
necessary, I order you, to do all that the Bishop of Fréjus shall tell
you from me as if he were myself.” The poor Queen wept and
resigned herself. As to Madame de Prie, she was struck at the same
time as her lover, and relegated to her estate of Courbépine in
Normandy. M. de Prie was startled at this disgrace. He went about
asking people with an affectation which made everybody smile: “But
what is there in common between the Duke and my wife?” Those
who but yesterday were at the feet of the Duke and his favorite now
overwhelmed them with gibes and sarcasms. The people lighted
bonfires, and the walls were covered with posters whereon might be
read: “A hundred pistoles’ reward for whoever finds a valuable mare
accustomed to follow a one-eyed horse.”[10]
M. Michelet, usually so severe and merciless toward the court of
Louis XV., speaks with a certain complacency of the Marquise de
Prie. “Though history ought to be severe toward this female tyrant,”
says he, “it is, nevertheless, a duty to own the vigor with which she
supported the bold attempts of Duverney. This rude government,
thoroughly violent and shameless as it was, had, nevertheless,
instincts of life which one may regret in the mortal torpor of the
asphyxia which followed it.” One hardly comprehends this
indulgence, for there was nothing moral, nothing great in the
ephemeral reign of the Duke and his mistress.
It is not an easy thing for a coquettish, ambitious woman,
accustomed to have her caprices accepted as laws, to endure
disgrace, humiliation, and retirement. Madame de Prie was at first
under an illusion. She thought she would be speedily recalled to
Versailles, but when she saw she was mistaken, and that her place
as lady of the palace had been given to the Marquise d’Arlincourt,
her disappointment was cruel. According to M. Michelet: “She
devoured her own heart, and could not conceal it. No caged lion or
tiger ever was so restless. She was furious, and talked nonsense.
She hoped to die, and later on she tried to kill herself by furious
excesses; but in vain. She lost nothing by it but her health, her
freshness, and her beauty. In extremis she still retained a lover and a
friend in her desert. The latter, very malicious, very corrupt, a real
cat, was Madame du Deffand, and the two friends scratched each
other every day between their caresses. The lover, a young man of
merit, persisted in loving her, bad as she was. She was hopelessly
dried up, and her last punishment was that she could not resume life
through love. She was devoured by pride. She no longer desired
anything but to die like a Roman woman, like Petronia.”
All this seems to us exaggerated. We believe Madame de Prie
was too frivolous to experience such despair. She had not waited for
her exile in order to know those alternations of sadness and folly
which accompany vice even when it has the air of being happy. For
some time, already, the taste for intrigue, the thirst for pleasure, the
ardor of ambition, had kindled in her veins a fever which undermined
her strength. Her plumpness had been succeeded by an excessive
lankness. Struggling against ill-health with extreme energy, she tried
to build herself up, to put a good face on everything, to shake off
trouble, and find amusement. Though her body was so much
weakened, says the Marquis d’Argenson, her mind and temper were
still as gay, shrewd, merry, and frivolous as in the times of her
greatest prosperity. Even in her misfortune she had courtiers who
deceived her. She had become ugly, and her flatterers continued to
tell her she was adorable. She was hopelessly ill, and her physicians
told her she was doing very well. Two days before her death she
played in a comedy, and recited three hundred lines with as much
sentiment as memory. Nevertheless, she had predicted her
approaching death. People thought, however, that this was but a
jest, a pleasantry. Hence, when she breathed her last, October 6,
1728, after such convulsions that her toes were turned towards her
heels, a rumor that she had poisoned herself got abroad. Such a
suicide is improbable, and not easily reconcilable with the superficial
character of Madame de Prie. M. Michelet adds that she made a
farcical confession (bouffonna une confession)—these are the
expressions employed by an historian who is often too fanciful. What
can M. Michelet know about it? Why does he affirm that she did not
repent of her faults and errors? Greater sinners than she have been
illuminated at the last moment by a ray of light. It is certain, at all
events, that the sudden and terrible death of this young woman of
only twenty-nine years, who expiated so cruelly her shameful
successes, was a striking lesson for her contemporaries. Was
Madame de Prie’s death-bed conversion sincere? God only knows.
IV
THE KING FAITHFUL TO THE QUEEN
F or several years Louis XV. gave no scandal. Faithful to his

religious duties, he lived like a good Christian and good husband.
The courtiers, habituated to the manners of the Regency, did not
conceal their surprise and annoyance. One day, in January, 1729,
when there had been several sleighing excursions, old Marshal de
Villars wrote: “These sleighing parties give the ladies some hopes
that things are going to be rather livelier. There was dancing after
supper, and if that happens often, it is not impossible that some
courageous beauty may lay hold of the King.” But this daring beauty
was not to be found. The intimidating politeness and freezing glance
of the young sovereign kept all women at a distance. Louis XV. did
not yield. People wondered whether pride or timidity, goodness or
egotism, wisdom or ennui, was what gave its predominating
character to his attitude of taciturnity and extreme reserve.
The character of the King, who as yet did not know himself, was
an enigma to the court. Versailles, under the direction of an aged
priest, resembled an Escurial, and the small apartments destined to
so scandalous a future had at this time the tranquillity of a convent or
a sanctuary. If any one mentioned a woman famous for her beauty to
the monarch, he would merely say: “She is not more beautiful than
the Queen.” Marie Leczinska kept her spouse within the bounds of
duty by her exquisite goodness, her remoteness from all intrigue, her
submissive and gentle spirit. Loving neither luxury nor racket, she
lived like a worthy citizeness, charitable, modest, and entirely
occupied with her salvation. She arrived in France in September,
1725, and for three years she did not see Paris. A sort of votive
pilgrimage took her there for the first time on October 4, 1728. She
had brought twin daughters into the world the previous year, Louise
Elizabeth and Henriette of France; this time she desired a son, and
to obtain one from Heaven she came to invoke the intercession of
the Blessed Virgin in the Parisian churches. Barbier, the advocate,
thus describes in his Journal Marie Leczinska’s pious excursion:—
“October.—Monday, 4, our good Queen has seen Paris. She
came to Notre Dame to ask a dauphin from the Virgin, and from
there she went to Saint-Geneviève with the same end in view. She
made this journey incognita after a fashion; that is to say, it was not a
formal entry. She had only her usual suite, which consists of four
carriages with eight horses apiece.... As to the person of the Queen,
she is little, rather slender than stout, not pretty without being
disagreeable, and looks good-natured and gentle, which does not
impart the majesty needful in a queen. She went about a good deal
in Paris and saw astonishing crowds of people. They say that money
to the extent of twelve thousand livres was scattered from the door of
her carriage.”
Marie Leczinska’s prayer was heard. The next year she had a son
(September 4, 1729). She gave the King ten children in ten years
(1727–1737). And yet there was no real intimacy between the
married pair. During the daytime they scarcely addressed a word to
each other. One might have said they never came together but from
a sense of duty, for the welfare of the State. Cold, polite, reserved,
they mutually intimidated each other.
Was the Queen as clever as she ought to have been in order to
keep Louis XV. in the straight path? One may be permitted to doubt
it. Her frank and simple nature knew neither astuteness nor
diplomacy. The secrets of feminine coquetry were completely foreign
to her. If D’Argenson is to be believed, she was not adroit. He says
she was too prudish with her husband, thinking she had noticed that
in France it was considered in good taste to be so. He accuses her
of overdoing the matter, and then lamenting her mistake with bitter
tears when it was past all remedy. He says, too, that she did not do
all that was in her power to make her society agreeable to her
husband. “At the beginning of his marriage,” he writes, “the King
wanted to spend his evenings in the Queen’s apartments, playing
cards and chatting. The Queen, instead of attracting him thither,
putting him at his ease, and amusing him, played the disdainful.
Hence the King grew disgusted, accustomed himself to pass the
evenings in his own apartments, at first with men and afterwards with
women, his cousin Charolais, the Countess of Toulouse. The King is
naturally very timid and seeks for those with whom he can be at his
ease. When he once meets them, it is plain to what degree he is a
man of habitudes.”
The Queen would have tried in vain to use the language of
passion to her husband or treat him to jealous scenes. Louis XV. had
a horror of everything that seemed to him exaggerated. In his wife’s
chagrin he would have seen a freak, a forgetfulness of etiquette, a
want of deference. Already, in 1726, Marshal de Villars had
recommended calmness and resignation to Marie Leczinska. He
says in his Memoirs: “The Queen led me into her cabinet, and spoke
to me with keen sorrow of the changes she observed in the King’s
affection. Her tears flowed abundantly. I replied: ‘I think, Madame,
that the King’s heart is far removed from what is called love; you are
not the same with regard to him; but, believe me, it is best not to
display your passion too much; don’t let any one see that you fear a
diminution in his sentiments, lest the many fine eyes that are ogling
him continually should risk everything in order to profit by this
change. For the rest, it is all the better for you that the King’s heart is
not much inclined to tenderness, because where passion is
concerned, natural coldness is less cruel than abandonment.’”
What is to become of this undecided, timid, vacillating king? In
which direction will this young man go, who, like Hercules in the
fable, is hesitating between Virtue and Pleasure? Will he be a saint
or a debauchee? He wants to do what is right, but will he have the
courage? Everything conspires to thrust him into the evil way. His
morality is begrudged him. The air he breathes is poisonous. The
women, who incessantly provoke him, rival each other in glances
and coquetries. His former preceptor, now become directing minister,
dares not venture a counsel. His first valet de chambre, Bachelier,
already dreams of playing the pander, and great lords, with the Duke
de Richelieu at their head, likewise aspire to those sorry but lucrative
functions. Who would dare to reprimand the monarch if he gave a
scandalous example? The clergy hold their peace. The nobles
demand but one thing from the King: to choose his mistress among
women of quality. Shame needs a blazon. The bourgeoisie will be
too prudent to meddle with the secrets of the gods. D’Argenson and
Barbier, the nobleman and the advocate, will rival each other in
indulgent judgments on adultery.
In D’Argenson’s eyes the sole fault of favorites is their propensity
to meddle with State affairs. He adds: “I approve of private persons
confiding in a mistress in whose affection they believe; it makes little
scandal, and is even edification and honesty, according to the
present relaxation of manners, which are coming closer and closer to
nature.” Barbier, the lawyer, goes farther still. He says in his Journal,
with an astonishing mixture of cynicism and naïveté: “Fifteen out of
twenty nobles of the court do not live with their wives, and do have
mistresses; nothing is so common even among private persons. It is
ridiculous, then, that the King, who is certainly the master, should be
in worse condition than his predecessors.”
The courtiers could not accustom themselves to the absence of a
royal mistress. It seemed to them as if there was a place vacant, a
post to which some one ought to be appointed. How could any one
fancy Henri IV. without la belle Gabrielle, Louis XIV. without La
Vallière and Montespan? And what! said they with indignation, shall
Louis XV. confine himself to his wife, that Polish woman without
beauty, and seven years older than himself? In their eyes this would
be to derogate from all the traditions of French gallantry. The military
men, impatient of peace, fancied that a favorite might be an Agnes
Sorel, who would rouse this new Charles VIII. from his torpor, and
lead him to victory. Fashionable young people were persuaded that
Versailles would become animated, that there would be feasts,
suppers, diversions, pleasures of every kind.
The enemies of Cardinal Fleury, all those in search of places,
money, or credit, thought that a mistress would bring about the
downfall of the old minister, so careful of the State funds. Ah! if the
monarch yields, if he succumbs to temptation, the guilty ones will be
the counsellors, the cynical, corrupt egotists, who persuade him to
evil, who deify his caprices, who exalt his adulteries; they will be
Richelieu, the official go-between; Voltaire, the laureate in prose and
verse of the reign of the favorites; the women who entreat the
Christian Sultan to throw them the handkerchief; the entire century,
still more responsible and blameworthy than the King.

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Test Bank for The Personality Puzzle

8th Edition, by David C. Funder

Test Bank for The Personality Puzzle, Seventh Edition

Test Bank for Perspectives on Personality, 8th Edition

Test Bank for Fundamental Statistics for the Behavioral

Test Bank for Life: The Science of Biology, 8th

Solution Manual for Fundamental Statistics for the

Test Bank for Theories of Personality 11th Edition by

Test Bank for Exploring Psychology in Modules, 10th

Test Bank for Personality Psychology: Domains of

Personality Research Methods

2.2. Recognize and classify instances of B, L, I, and S data.

2.3. Define and distinguish B, L, I, and S data.

2.4. Identify strengths and weaknesses of B, L, I, and S data.

2.6. Differentiate the goals of scientific training from technical training.

2.7. Define and distinguish reliability and validity.

2.9. Identify a variety of issues related to generalizability.

2.10. Compare and contrast different types of research designs.

2. According to the text, the goal of a scientific education is to

5. Researchers must use clues to personality in their research because personality

6. When gathering data or clues about personality, the best policy is to

12. I data are

13. I data essentially measure

19. To obtain S data, a psychologist can

29. Records of employee absenteeism are what type of data?

31. Which of the following would be an example of natural B data?

33. Which of the following is LEAST likely to be considered B data?

35. Which kind of data is the LEAST expensive to collect?

40. A major advantage of S data is that

46. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of I data?

47. A major disadvantage of L data is that

48. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of B data?

53. A behavioroid measure is a combination of which two types of data?

55. If measurement errors are truly random, then they should

56. Which formula in psychometrics quantifies the principle of aggregation?

58. The technical meaning of reliability refers to

62. At the heart of aggregation is the idea that

64. A researcher can increase the reliability of a personality test by

67. Validity is the degree to which a measurement

70. Reliability is ________ for validity.

77. Narrative psychology is an example of the ________ method.

78. What is the big disadvantage of the case study method?

80. The strongest advantage of the experimental method is that

81. Random assignment allows researchers to

90. Technicians-in-training focus on ________, whereas scientists-in-training focus on ________.

1. ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

Match the most relevant term with each definition.

6. ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data

DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data OBJ: 2.1

DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Four Kinds of Clues

DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Reliability

DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Validity

DIF: Difficult REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability

DIF: Moderate REF: Personality Data: Quality of Data: Generalizability

T he Marquise de Prie congratulated herself upon having brought

F or several years Louis XV. gave no scandal. Faithful to his

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90. Technicians-in-training focus on , whereas scientists-in-training focus on .