BMS1031 1

Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

BMS1031 Week 11 Workshop:

Nuclear Medicine | Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation:
Dosimetry and a Chernobyl Case Study

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Following this workshop, you should be able to:

● Be familiar with the electromagnetic spectrum, and understand the relationship between a
photon’s energy, frequency and wavelength
● Understand what is meant by ionising radiation
● Understand in which circumstances unstable nuclei give rise to α, β, and γ decays, and be able
to describe the resulting decay products
● Understand that nuclear decay is a stochastic process, characterised by activity and half-life
● Understand the different short and long-term effects of ionising radiation
● Be familiar with the different terminology used to calculate doses of radiation
● Understand the different short and long-term effects of ionising radiation

Readings:
Textbook: Introduction to Biological Physics
Chapter 32.1 & 32.2 | Questions: 32.1.
Chapter 38.2 | Questions: 38.1, 38.2, 38.3.
Chapter 39.1 & 39.2
Chapter 40.1, 40.2 & 40.3 | Questions: 40.3, 40.5, 40.7, 40.8, 40.9, 40.11, 40.13, 40.21.
Chapter 41.1, 41.2 & 41.4
Chapter 42.1 & 42.3 | Questions: 42.1, 42.3.
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Equations and Constants

Speed of light

Energy of a photon (J)

Planck’s constant

Electron-volt

X-ray Energy

Alpha decay

Beta decay (electron)

Beta decay (positron)

Gamma decay

Activity (Bq)

Radioactive decay number of atoms

Half life (s)

Absorbed dose (Gy) Energy of ionising radiation deposited in 1 Kg of

material

Equivalent dose (Sv)

Effective dose (Sv)

X-ray attenuation as a function of thickness, t

Radiation intensity for a point source at

distance r

Radiation Weighting Factors (wR)

Type of radiation wR
X-rays and γ-rays ~1
electrons ~1
Protons > 2 MeV 2-5
Neutrons (energy dependent) 5 - 20
Alpha particles and heavy ions Up to 20
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Organ Weighting Factors (wT)

Tissue wT
Bone marrow, colon, lung, stomach, breast, 0.12
Gonads
remaining tissues 0.08
Bladder, oesophagus, liver, thyroid 0.04
Bone surface, brain, salivary glands, skin 0.01

Activity 1: EM Spectrum and Photon Energy TIME: 10 MINUTES

Activity 1: Question 1

(a) Which would be a greater biological risk - exposure to a beam of x-rays or a beam of visible
light - if the total energy transferred to the body were the same in each case? Explain your
reasoning.

(b) What is the highest frequency (shortest wavelength) that could be emitted from a TV tube
which has an accelerating voltage of 2000 volts? What is the nature of this radiation? (Hint:
In the TV tube, an electron is accelerated by the voltage just as it is in an x-ray tube. What is
the maximum possible energy that it acquires?)
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Background Information
On Saturday the 26th of April, 1986 at 1.26 am, a sudden surge of power during a reactor systems
test destroyed the No. 4 reactor of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near the town of Pripyat in
northern Ukraine, former USSR. Thirty-one people were instantly killed. This nuclear disaster is
considered the worst in history, rated at seven, the maximum severity on the International Nuclear
Event Scale. The accident and the fire that followed released massive amounts of radioactive
material into the environment.
First responders to the accident at Chernobyl arrived at the scene at 1.28 am but without any
protective clothing. Local firefighters from the city of Pripyat arrived shortly after at 1.35 am. These
individuals were exposed to large doses of gamma radiation. Gamma rays, along with X-rays and
some UV rays, are forms of ionising radiation because these photons have sufficient energy to strip
atoms or molecules of electrons (i.e. create ions).

Activity 2: Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Fission TIME: 15 MINUTES

Activity 2: Question 1

The fuel (fission material) used at Chernobyl was U-235, in the form of enriched U-235 uranium
dioxide. Enriched U-235 uranium has a higher percentage of the U-235 isotope than in naturally
occurring uranium. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of U-238 (~99.3%), U-235 (0.7%) and
trace amounts of U-234. U-235 is the only nuclide existing in nature (in any appreciable amount) that
is fissile with thermal neutrons (relatively low energy neutrons) and is thus used for nuclear power
plants as well as nuclear weapons.
(a) As shown below, U-235 naturally decays eventually to Pb-207, a stable material, via multiple
intermediate steps. For the U-235 series shown below, identify the decay products at each
step (indicated by a black dot on the diagram). Note that each decay is indicated by a blue
arrow and you will need a periodic table to assist you. As an example, the first decay shown
is:
!%' !%&
#!𝑈 → #$𝑇ℎ + "!𝛼
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

(b) What do you notice about each type of decay identified in part (a)? (i.e. under what
circumstances does each type of decay occur?)

Activity 2: Question 2

Where did the gamma radiation that the initial workers were exposed to come from?
In a nuclear reactor, energy is produced by fission, or splitting. The U-235 nucleus can capture
thermal neutrons, resulting in highly unstable U-236. The U-236 nucleus splits, releasing large
amounts of energy as well as smaller daughter nuclei and neutrons. There are multiple fission
reactions possible, and the resulting daughter nuclei are often highly radioactive themselves.
(a) What are X, A and Z in the following fission reaction?
𝑛 + !%'
#!𝑈 →
&"&
'*𝐵𝑎 + )(𝑋 + 3𝑛

(b) Two of the most important fission products from the Chernobyl reactor explosion from a
radiation hazard standpoint are 131I and 137Cs. Identify the decay processes in the following
reactions:
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Activity 3: Activity and Half-Lives TIME: 15 MINUTES

The figure below shows the contribution of various fission products released by the reactor
explosion to the atmospheric absorbed dose. Some radioactive nuclides have relatively short half-
lives, e.g. Te-132, T1/2 = 78 hours, so their contribution to the overall radiation level diminishes quite
quickly. Others such as Cs-137, contribute an increasingly significant fraction over time due to their
much longer half-lives. It is important to note that the effect of any given radionuclide also depends
on its chemical form as well as its biological uptake. For example, Sr-90 substitutes for calcium, and
thus is sequestered in bone. Cs-137 and Sr-90 are decay products from some of the noble gas fission
products (Xe-137, Kr-90), and can be found long distances from the site of the reactor.

Activity 3: Question 1

A radioactive isotope has a decay constant of 0.01 s-1. Initially, there are 100 x 1010 radioactive atoms
in the sample (t = 0).

For the following time points:

(i) t=0s
(ii) t=1s
(iii) t=2s
(iv) t = 100 s

(a) What percentage of those radioactive atoms will decay in the subsequent second?
(b) What is the activity of the sample?
(c) What is the half-life of the sample?
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Activity 4: Interactions with Matter TIME: 20 MINUTES

Activity 4: Question 1

Why do gamma particles penetrate matter more easily than beta particles do?

Activity 4: Question 2

Would you rather spend a day in a room with 10 g of Radon-222 or 10 g of Uranium-235?

Refer to the data below in discussing your answer.

Isotope Decay Type Half-life

Radon-222 α 3.82 days

Uranium-235 α 7.0 x 108 years

Activity 4: Question 3

Different materials absorb ionising radiation with different effectiveness. The following table shows
different absorbers and the penetration depth of beta radiation through the material.

For beta radiation, arrange the following according to their ability to act as radiation shields, with
the best first and worst last. Explain your ordering in terms of how radiation loses its energy in
matter. (Assume same thickness for all, and same number of gas atoms in b) and c).)
a) A solid material with low density composed of low-mass atoms.
b) A gas (at 1 atm) composed of high-mass atoms.
c) A gas (at 1 atm) composed of low-mass atoms.
d) A solid with high density composed of high-mass atoms.
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Activity 5: Dosimetry TIME: 20 MINUTES

Activity 5: Question 1

What is the equivalent dose for:

(a) A 0.1 Gy x-ray
(b) 1.5 mGy of α exposure?

Activity 5: Question 2
(a) How many Gy of exposure is needed to give a brain tumour an effective dose of 80 Sv if it is
exposed to γ-radiation during radiotherapy?
(b) If proton therapy was used instead, how many Gy of exposure is needed to deliver the
same effective dose?
(c) Which type of radiation is preferred for treating sensitive areas of the body such as the
brain, spinal cord, eyes, and nerves? Why?
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Activity 5: Question 3

Cs-137 is the predominant source of radiation in the fallout from the Chernobyl explosion. Fission
products settled close to the reactor site due to the reactor explosion, but Cs-137 also spread across
Europe due to prevailing winds carrying parent nuclides (see map above). Cs-137 accumulates in the
food chain, and ultimately predominantly in the soft tissues, having a similar biological behaviour to
potassium. It continues to be particularly hazardous because of this biological behaviour and its
relatively long half-life of 30.17 years.
(a) A liquidator near the reactor receives a whole body dose of 2 Sv in 1 minute. Assuming this
dose arises only from the γ particles resulting from Cs-137 decay (neglect β decays in the
decay scheme shown), and the liquidator weighs 75 kg:
(i) What is the absorbed dose?

(ii) How much energy has been absorbed by the liquidator?

(iii) What is the activity of the source material?

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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

Activity 6: Post-workshop quiz TIME: 20 MINUTES

(a) The energy of a photon depends on…
A. the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation.
B. the phase of the electromagnetic wave.
C. the frequency of the electromagnetic wave.
D. the velocity of the electromagnetic wave.

(b) Photon A has half the energy of photon B. How do the corresponding wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation compare?
A. Wavelength A is half of wavelength B.
B. Wavelength A is the same as wavelength B.
C. Wavelength A is double wavelength B.
D. Wavelength A is quadruple wavelength B.

(c) Which has the greatest energy?

A. A photon of infrared radiation (wavelength = 800 nm).
B. A photon of green light (wavelength = 500 nm).
C. A photon of UV light (wavelength = 400 nm).
D. All these photons have the same energy.

(d) Consider radioactive samples each containing the same number of nuclei, but of materials
with different half-lives. The activity will be…
A. unpredictable.
B. largest for the largest half-life.
C. largest for the smallest half-life.
D. the same for all samples.

(e) What happens to the half-life of a radioactive substance as it decays?

A. It remains constant.
B. It increases.
C. It decreases.
D. It could do any of these.

(f) Which of the following statements about dose is correct?

A. The absorbed dose is measured in sievert (Sv)
B. The dose equivalent varies with the type of tissue
C. The dose equivalent varies with the type of radiation
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

D. The effective dose is the amount of energy from radiation absorbed by matter

(g) 1 joule of energy in the form of radiation is directed towards some biological material. The
dose equivalent will be smaller for:
A. gamma rather than alpha radiation
B. smaller absorbing mass of biological material
C. larger RBE of the radiation
D. ionising rather than non-ionising radiation

(h) Which of the following factors determine the impact of exposure to radioactivity?
A. Distance from source
B. Duration of exposure
C. Type of radiation
D. All of the above

Activity 7: Optional Case Studies

Activity 7: Question 1

In the immediate aftermath of the Chernobyl reactor explosion, human liquidators were sent to the
roof to clear debris. At first, workers tried clearing the radioactive debris from the roof using West
German, Japanese and Russian robots, but the machines could not cope with the extreme radiation
levels so authorities decided to use humans instead. In some areas, workers could not stay any
longer than 40 seconds before the radiation they received reached the maximum authorised dose a
human being should receive in their lifetime.
As the army did not have uniforms adapted for radioactive conditions, the liquidators made their
own protective aprons from lead sheet, to be worn over cotton clothing. With reference to the types
of radiation present (α, β, γ), comment on the adequacy of the protective clothing shown in the
photo below. Which types of particles present the most hazard to the workers (α, β, γ)?
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Figure 1: https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2019/06/chernobyl-disaster-photos-1986/590878/#img03

Activity 7: Question 2

In the early 20th Century, the US Radium Corporation was engaged in the extraction and purification
of radium from carnotite ore in order to produce luminous paints. Their factories across the US and
Canada employed thousands of workers, mostly female, who were tasked with painting watch and
clock faces using the radium-lit paint. The women were told that the paint was harmless and
subsequently ingested deadly amounts of radium after being instructed to point their brushes on
their lips to give the strokes a finer tip (and to save paintbrush costs). As the true nature of radium
was kept hidden from the workers, some also painted their fingernails, face and teeth with the
glowing substance for fun.
Many of the women began to suffer nausea, vomiting, dizziness, headaches, anaemia, bone
fractures and necrosis of the jaw. The US Radium Corporation and other watch-dial companies
rejected claims that these workers were suffering from exposure to radium and this claim was, for
some time, corroborated by medical professionals who complied with requests from the companies
not to release their data. Instead, syphilis, a common sexually transmitted infection at the time, was
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Week 11 Workshop: Ionising Radiation, Nuclear Medicine

often cited as the cause of their ailments in attempts to smear the reputation of these workers.
Many of these workers sued the companies, winning damages and setting a precedent for the labour
rights movement. These women are known as the Radium Girls.
Consider the symptoms that these women experienced and your knowledge of the radioactive decay
of radium to explain why these women suffered from radiation sickness. The radium decay scheme
and image below are provided to assist you in your response:
!!* !!!
++𝑅𝑎 → +*𝑅𝑛 + "!𝛼

Activity 7: Question 3

In 2008, Christina Applegate, a famous American actress, was diagnosed with early-stage breast
cancer. After the diagnosis, it was discovered that she also carried a genetic mutation known as
BRCA1, which significantly increases a woman’s chance of developing both breast and ovarian
cancers. She underwent a double mastectomy and years later had her ovaries and fallopian tubes
removed as well.
(a) Following a mastectomy, it is common for patients such as Christina to undergo radiation
therapy. Explain why this is common practice.

(b) How is radiation therapy delivered to patients?