ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS

Electrostatic Force

𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
Coulombic Law, 𝐹𝐹⃗ ∝ 𝑟𝑟 2
1 𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑟𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟⃗ 2

Principle of Superposition,
𝐹𝐹⃗𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹⃗01 + 𝐹𝐹⃗02 + 𝐹𝐹⃗03 … + 𝐹𝐹⃗0𝑛𝑛
 ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS

Electric Field
For Point charge
𝐹𝐹⃗ 1 𝑞𝑞 1
𝐸𝐸 = = 𝑟𝑟̂ 𝐸𝐸 ∝
Force equilibrium 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟⃗ 2 𝑟𝑟 2
 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑄𝑄𝑄 + 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑄𝑄2 = 0 For Line charge
 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑄𝑄𝑄 + 𝐹𝐹⃗12 = 0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 1 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸∥2 + 𝐸𝐸⊥2 =
2𝑘𝑘𝑄𝑄 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑄𝑄𝑄 + 𝐹𝐹⃗12 = 0 𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟+𝐿𝐿

At axial point At equatorial point

 ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS

Electric Field
For Point charge
𝐹𝐹⃗ 1 𝑞𝑞 1
𝐸𝐸 = = 𝑟𝑟̂ 𝐸𝐸 ∝
𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟⃗ 2 𝑟𝑟 2

For Line charge

2𝑘𝑘𝑄𝑄 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1
−
1 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸∥2 + 𝐸𝐸⊥2 =
𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟+𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

At axial point At equatorial point

For Ring
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 3 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0
𝑟𝑟 2 + 2
𝑅𝑅 2
At a point on axis At centre
 ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS

Electric Field
For Circular Arc (At centre)

2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝛼𝛼 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 − angle

𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = sin = sin subtended by
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2 𝑅𝑅 2 arc at centre

Flux Through Different Bodies

𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝜙𝜙cylinder = 𝜙𝜙semi−cylinder =
𝜀𝜀0 2𝜀𝜀0

𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝜙𝜙cube = 𝜙𝜙each cubic face =
𝜀𝜀0 6𝜀𝜀0

𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝜙𝜙sphere = 𝜙𝜙hemi−sphere =
𝜀𝜀0 2𝜀𝜀0
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL

Applications of Gauss’s Law Electric Potential

E.F. due to long uniformly charged wire Due to point charge

𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝜆𝜆 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∞→𝐴𝐴 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐸𝐸 = = 𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = =
2𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞0 𝑟𝑟
Due to a system of point charges

𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞1 𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞2 𝑘𝑘(−𝑞𝑞3 ) 𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = + + +. . … .
E.F. due to long uniformly charged wire 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟3 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐸𝐸 𝜎𝜎 =
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝜎𝜎
= 𝐸𝐸
2𝜀𝜀0
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Electric Potential

Due to uniformly charged Ring

𝑘𝑘𝑄𝑄 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉 =
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅

At axial point At Centre

Due to uniformly
charged Disc

2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 2
1
𝑉𝑉 = 2 [ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅0
2 − 𝑥𝑥]
𝑅𝑅0
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Electric Potential

Due to extended charges

𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �
𝑟𝑟

Due to uniformly charged Rod

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Electric Potential Due to Dipole (at any point)

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑉𝑉 =
𝑥𝑥 2
On Axial line, 𝜃𝜃 = 0°
On Equatorial line, 𝜃𝜃 = 90°

Potential Energy due to dipole in uniform electric field

𝑈𝑈𝜃𝜃 = −𝑝𝑝.
⃗ 𝐸𝐸

Case 1. 𝜃𝜃 = 90°
𝑈𝑈 = 0 (No Equilibrium)
Case 2. 𝜃𝜃 = 0° Case 3. 𝜃𝜃 = 90°
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
(Unstable Equilibrium) (Stable Equilibrium)
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Electric Potential Energy

𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟𝑟

Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field

𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

Δ𝑉𝑉 = −𝐸𝐸. ∆𝑟𝑟⃗ = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝐸𝐸. 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗

𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝐸𝐸 = − 𝚤𝚤̂ + − 𝚥𝚥̂ + − 𝑘𝑘�
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS &
POTENTIAL
Electric Potential due to Hollowed Sphere

Electric Potential Due to Solid Non - Conducting Sphere

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 =
𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Outside (𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅) At surface (𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅) Inside (𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 3− 2
𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Electric Potential Due to Solid Conducting Sphere

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 =
𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Outside (𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅) At surface (𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅) Inside (𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅)
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Conductor Capacitance of an Isolated Parallel plate capacitor

𝐴𝐴𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴 = Area of plates used
𝐶𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑 = spacing between plates

𝑅𝑅

Capacitance of an Isolated Cylindrical Conductor

2𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝐶 = b
ln 𝑎𝑎
a
 ELECTRIC CHARGES , FIELDS & POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Combination of capacitors

Case 1.Series combination

Case 2. Parallel combination

 Current Electricity

Electric Current
∆𝑄𝑄
𝐼𝐼 = = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇)
∆𝑡𝑡

𝐼𝐼 = 𝐽𝐽.⃗ 𝐴𝐴⃗ 𝐼𝐼 = ∫ 𝚥𝚥⃗. 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇)

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
̅ =− 𝜏𝜏
𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒𝜏𝜏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜇𝜇 = =
𝐸𝐸 𝑚𝑚

∆𝑉𝑉 ∝ 𝐼𝐼 ∆𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐸𝐸 = 𝜌𝜌 𝐽𝐽⃗ 𝐽𝐽⃗ = 𝜎𝜎𝐸𝐸

Electrical Resistance

𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 = = = 𝜌𝜌 ∴ 𝑅𝑅 ∝ 𝑙𝑙 ; 𝑅𝑅 ∝ 𝜌𝜌 = = Resistivity = Ω𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
 Current Electricity

Kirchoff’s Laws
Incoming Current = Outgoing Current
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2

𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉3 = 0

Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0

Combination of Resistors
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + … … … + 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛
 Current Electricity

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
=
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅4

𝑉𝑉 = E − 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉𝑉 < 𝐸𝐸
During discharging

𝑉𝑉 = E + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ⇒ 𝑉𝑉 > 𝐸𝐸
During charging

ε1 + ε2 + ε3 + ⋯ ε𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 + ⋯ 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟3 + ⋯ 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛

 Current Electricity

𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 2 𝑡𝑡
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅

𝜀𝜀1 𝜀𝜀2 𝜀𝜀3 𝜀𝜀

+ + + ⋯ 𝑛𝑛 1 1 1 1 1
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟3 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛 = + + +⋯
𝜀𝜀𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟3 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛
1 1 1 1
+ + +⋯
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟3 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛

𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛 Number of cells in series

= =
𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚 Number of rows in parallel

Condition for maximum current: 𝑚𝑚𝑅𝑅 = 𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝜀𝜀 𝑚𝑚𝜀𝜀 𝑛𝑛𝜀𝜀
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖max = =
𝑚𝑚𝑅𝑅 + 𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 2𝑟𝑟 2𝑅𝑅
 Current Electricity

Galvanometer

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 × 𝐺𝐺 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆 + 𝐺𝐺
𝑖𝑖 − 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 𝑆𝑆 ≈ 0
⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 → 0

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 (𝐺𝐺 + 𝑆𝑆)

For an ideal Voltmeter 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 = 0

𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 = =0
𝐺𝐺 + 𝑆𝑆
 Current Electricity

Meter Bridge
𝑆𝑆𝑙𝑙1
𝑅𝑅 =
100 − 𝑙𝑙1

Potentiometer
𝑉𝑉
Potential gradient 𝐾𝐾 =
𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Potential drop across length 𝑥𝑥 is
𝐿𝐿
 Current Electricity

Potentiometer
𝑉𝑉
Potential gradient 𝐾𝐾 =
𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Potential drop across length 𝑥𝑥 is
𝐿𝐿

𝜀𝜀1 𝑙𝑙1
=
𝜀𝜀2 𝑙𝑙2

𝑙𝑙1
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅 −1
𝑙𝑙2
 Magnetism

Biot-Savart’s Law Magnetic field due to loops

𝜇𝜇0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃)
Scalar Form 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 2 Circular loop 𝐵𝐵𝑂𝑂 =
2 𝑎𝑎
𝜇𝜇0 𝑖𝑖(𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙⃗ × 𝑟𝑟)
⃗
Vector Form 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟 3
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
Magnetic Field
Semi-circular loop 𝐵𝐵𝑂𝑂 =
4 𝑎𝑎
Straight current carrying finite wire

𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 = sin 𝛷𝛷1 + sin 𝛷𝛷2 𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
4𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎 Quarter arc 𝐵𝐵𝑂𝑂 =
8 𝑎𝑎
Infinite wire
𝜇𝜇0 2𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎

Semi infinite wire

𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎
 Magnetism

Axial point 𝑃𝑃 at a distance 𝑑𝑑 from the centre of Ampere’s Circuital Law

the loop:
The line integral of 𝐵𝐵. 𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙⃗ along any closed path in a region is equal
𝜇𝜇0 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎2 to 𝜇𝜇0 times the total current crossing the enclosed area.
𝐵𝐵𝑋𝑋 = 𝐵𝐵𝑌𝑌 = 0
2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑑 2 3/2

For a coil of 𝑛𝑛 turns � 𝐵𝐵. 𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙⃗ = 𝜇𝜇0 . 𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎2
𝐵𝐵 =
2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑑 2 3/2

For a point far away (𝑑𝑑 ≫ 𝑎𝑎):

𝜇𝜇0 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎2
𝐵𝐵 =
2𝑑𝑑 3
 Magnetism

Case 1: Current is flowing on the surface of Case 2: Current is flowing uniformly through the
conductor conductor
𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
Inside the wire: 𝐵𝐵 = 0 Inside the wire: 𝐵𝐵 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2

𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
Outside the wire: 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 Outside the wire: 𝐵𝐵 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
For 𝑑𝑑 > 𝑅𝑅; For 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅; For 𝑑𝑑 > 𝑅𝑅;
For 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅; 𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼 𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼 𝐵𝐵 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵 =
𝐵𝐵 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜇𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
=
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

For 𝑑𝑑 < 𝑅𝑅;

For 𝑑𝑑 < 𝑅𝑅; 𝜇𝜇𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐵𝐵 = 0
𝐵𝐵 =
2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2
 Magnetism

Solenoid Toroid

𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝜇𝜇0 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

𝐵𝐵 = cos 𝜃𝜃1 − cos 𝜃𝜃2 𝐵𝐵 =
2 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

Magnetic field due to ideal toroid

Magnetic field at edge: 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛/2
𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Magnetic field due to ideal solenoid 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
(Infinitely long, 𝑙𝑙 >> 𝑅𝑅)
Magnetism

Path of charged particle in a uniform magnetic field

Force on a charge in magnetic field
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Radius of circular path 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
= 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
= 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Time Period of One revolution. 𝑇𝑇 =
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

In vector form,
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
Angular frequency 𝜔𝜔 =
𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝑞(𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝐵𝐵) 𝑚𝑚

Time spent in magnetic field Angle of emergence

𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅
𝜃𝜃
90° − 𝜃𝜃
 Magnetism

Force between two parallel

Force on straight current carrying wire current carrying infinite wires
𝐹𝐹⃗𝑀𝑀 = 𝑖𝑖(𝐿𝐿 × 𝐵𝐵) Current flowing in same direction

𝐹𝐹21 𝜇𝜇0 2𝑖𝑖1 𝑖𝑖2

Case 1 : When 𝜃𝜃 = 0° 𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 = 0 =
𝑙𝑙 4𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑
Case 2 : When 𝜃𝜃 = 180° 𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 = 0
Case 3 : When 𝜃𝜃 = 90° 𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐹𝐹12 𝜇𝜇0 2𝑖𝑖1 𝑖𝑖2
=
𝑙𝑙 4𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑

Maximum force 𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

Current flowing in opposite direction

For an arbitrary shaped current carrying wire 𝐹𝐹21 𝜇𝜇0 2𝑖𝑖1 𝑖𝑖2
=
𝑙𝑙 4𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹⃗𝑀𝑀 = 𝑖𝑖(𝐿𝐿𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵)
𝐹𝐹12 𝜇𝜇0 2𝑖𝑖1 𝑖𝑖2
=
For a closed current carrying wire 𝑙𝑙 4𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑

𝐹𝐹𝑀𝑀 = � 𝐹𝐹⃗ = 0 𝐹𝐹 𝜇𝜇0 2𝑖𝑖1 𝑖𝑖2

Force of attraction =
𝑙𝑙 4𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑
 Magnetism

Definition of one ampere

“1 Ampere is that current which when flows in two
parallel infinite wires kept at 1 𝑚𝑚 apart in air or vacuum,
produces a force of attraction per unit length between
them of 2 × 10−7 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚”
𝑀𝑀
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑅𝑅 2
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑅𝑅 2
3 =
4
𝑀𝑀 = 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴⃗

Valid for all the uniformly charged and

uniformly dense bodies.

𝜔𝜔
𝑀𝑀
𝑄𝑄
+ + + + + + + +
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑙𝑙 2
+ + + + + + + + =
6
𝑙𝑙 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑅𝑅 2
𝑀𝑀 =
5
Uniformly charged rod
 Electromagnetic Induction
∆𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵
A v e r a g e e m f ( 𝜀𝜀 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) , 𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑁𝑁
M agnetic ∆𝑡𝑡
Flux:
𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵 ∝ 𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵
A v e r a g e e m f ( 𝜀𝜀 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) , 𝜀𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑁𝑁
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵 ∝ 𝐴𝐴
M agnitude of Induced current:
𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵. 𝐴𝐴⃗
∆𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵
𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝜀𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑁𝑁 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
SI Unit : Weber (𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊) 𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵 = � 𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 𝑖𝑖𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 𝑖𝑖𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction :
Faraday’s First Law
Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked
with a conductor, an emf is induced in conductor.

∆𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵
Faraday’s Second Law 𝜀𝜀 ∝
∆𝑡𝑡
 Electromagnetic Induction
Relative motion of coil and magnet
M agnitude of Induced current:

∆𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵
𝜀𝜀𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝜀𝜀𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑁𝑁
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 𝑖𝑖𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟

Total charge flow

Δ𝜙𝜙𝐵𝐵
Δ𝑞𝑞 = 𝑁𝑁
𝑟𝑟

M otional Emf
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜀𝜀 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
Induced current 𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑟𝑟
 Electromagnetic Induction
R O TA T I N G M otional EMF at different angles
R O TA T I N G
CONDUCTING ROD CONDUCTING DISC
𝐸𝐸 = −(𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝐵𝐵)

M otional EMF

If 𝐵𝐵, 𝑣𝑣⃗ & 𝑙𝑙⃗ are mutually perpendicular. 𝜀𝜀 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

If any two of 𝐵𝐵, 𝑣𝑣⃗ & 𝑙𝑙⃗ are 𝜀𝜀 = 0

parallel.
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑙𝑙 2 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟 2 If 𝐵𝐵, 𝑣𝑣⃗ & 𝑙𝑙⃗ are at some angle. 𝜀𝜀 = 𝑣𝑣⃗ × 𝐵𝐵 . 𝑙𝑙⃗
𝜀𝜀 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑉𝑉𝑋𝑋 = 𝜀𝜀 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 − 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 =
2 2

A R O TA T I N G A R B I TA R Y S H A P E D C O N D U C T I N G W I R E

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑙𝑙 2 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑙𝑙 2
𝜀𝜀 = 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂 − 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 =
2 2
Alternating Current: It is defined as electric current which periodically reverses
direction and changes its magnitude continuously with time.

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖

𝑂𝑂 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇/2 𝑇𝑇
𝑡𝑡
𝑂𝑂
𝑇𝑇/2 𝑇𝑇
AC Source +
−

DC Source
Phasor Diagram: A diagram that represents alternating current and voltage of same
frequency as rotating vectors (phasors) along with proper phase difference between them.

Phasor Diagram for : 𝜖𝜖 = ϵ 0 s i n ( 𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔 )

𝑦𝑦

𝜔𝜔
𝜀𝜀 0
𝜀𝜀
𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔
𝑥𝑥
 𝑦𝑦 Phase difference = Phase of 𝑖𝑖 − Phase of 𝜀𝜀
= (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑖𝑖 0

𝜀𝜀 0
𝑖𝑖
𝜀𝜀 𝜙𝜙
𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔
𝑥𝑥

Projection on 𝑦𝑦 − axis →
Instantaneous Value Length of arrow → Peak Value
 Impedance is defined as the opposition by any circuit when voltage is applied to it.

Purely Resistive Circuit Purely Capacitive Circuit Purely Inductive Circuit

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍 = 1/𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑍𝑍 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
 LR Combination in AC circuits

• Impedance: 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2

𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
• Phase angle: tan 𝜙𝜙 =
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑅𝑅

• Current: 𝑖𝑖 =
ℰ0
𝑍𝑍
sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜙𝜙)
𝜖𝜖0 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• Steady state current: 𝑖𝑖0 =
ℰ0
𝑍𝑍
=
ℰ0
𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2

ε
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝜙𝜙 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝜙𝜙

𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅
Power in AC Circuit

Total work done in a cycle is:

1
𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅
𝑊𝑊 = 𝜖𝜖0 𝑖𝑖0 𝑇𝑇 cos 𝜙𝜙
2
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
Average power delivered in a cycle is: ϵ = ϵ0 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑇𝑇

1
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 = ϵ 𝑖𝑖 c o s 𝜙𝜙
2 0 0
𝜖𝜖0 𝑖𝑖 0
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 = c o s 𝜙𝜙
2 2

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 = ϵ𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 c o s 𝜙𝜙 Power Factor

Power in AC Circuit
𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜙𝜙
𝜖𝜖
𝜙𝜙
• Apparent power (𝑆𝑆) is the total power
flowing in the circuit. Current in phase

𝑆𝑆 = 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼

𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜙𝜙
Current out of phase
• Reactive power (𝑄𝑄) is the portion of the power
which flows back and forth in the circuit.
𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜙𝜙 is called Wattless
component of current.
𝑄𝑄 = 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 s i n 𝜙𝜙

• Active power (𝑃𝑃) is the portion of the

power absorbed by the load.

𝑃𝑃 = 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 c o s 𝜙𝜙

Resonance
Impedance
Capacitive Inductive
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 > 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
• Condition for resonance: 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

1
• Resonant frequency: 𝑓𝑓0 =
2𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑅𝑅

• Impedance is minimum (𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 02 = 𝑅𝑅) and At resonance,

the circuit behave like a purely resistive circuit. 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 Frequency

• Current is maximum. (𝑖𝑖0 = 𝑉𝑉0 /𝑅𝑅)

 Quality Factor

𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔0 𝜔𝜔0 𝐿𝐿 1
𝑄𝑄 = = =
2∆𝜔𝜔 𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔0 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2 2∆𝜔𝜔

𝜔𝜔0 𝜔𝜔 (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠)
 Ray Optics
Reflection (Spherical Mirror)

Reflection (Plane Mirror)

Law of reflection
∠𝑖𝑖 = ∠𝑟𝑟
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, 𝑁𝑁 & 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 all lie on same plane
Relation between 𝑓𝑓 & 𝑅𝑅
Angle of Deviation
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓 − focal length of the mirror
𝛿𝛿 = 180° − 2𝑖𝑖 (𝑖𝑖 − angle of incidence) 𝑓𝑓 = − sec 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅 − Raidus of Curvature
2 2
For one mirror 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟
𝑅𝑅
For small aperture, 𝜃𝜃 − very small ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 = 2
𝛿𝛿 = 360° − 2𝑖𝑖 (𝜃𝜃 − angle between two mirrors)
For two Mirrors
Velocity of Image in Plane Mirror

𝑣𝑣⃗𝑜𝑜 = −𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖 Object moves ⊥ to the mirror

𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖 = 2𝑣𝑣⃗𝑚𝑚 Mirror moves towards the object

𝑣𝑣⃗𝑜𝑜 ⊥ + 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖 ⊥ Object moves ⊥ to the mirror &

𝑣𝑣⃗𝑚𝑚 ⊥ =
2 mirror moves towards the object
𝑣𝑣⃗𝑜𝑜 = 𝑣𝑣⃗𝑖𝑖 Object moves ∥ to the mirror
 Ray Optics
Reflection (Spherical Mirror)
Newton’s Formula of Magnification
Reflection (Spherical Mirror)
−𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2
𝑚𝑚 = =
𝑥𝑥1 −𝑓𝑓
Mirror Formula
1 1 1 Velocity of Image in Spherical Mirror
= +
𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢
𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼/𝑀𝑀 = − 𝑚𝑚2 ⋅ 𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂/𝑀𝑀 Object moves along the
Magnification 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝐼𝐼/𝑀𝑀 = 𝑚𝑚 ⋅ 𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂/𝑀𝑀 Object moves perpendicular to the
𝑚𝑚 = =− = = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓

Longitudinal Magnification
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖 ) Δ𝑣𝑣
𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙 = =
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜(𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜 ) Δ𝑢𝑢

For Small Objects

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙 = = − 2 = −𝑚𝑚2 ; 𝑚𝑚 − magnification
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢
 Ray Optics

Refractive Index
𝜇𝜇1 − refractive index of medium 1 Refraction
𝑐𝑐 𝜇𝜇2 − refractive index of medium 2
𝜇𝜇 = Shift through a Glass Slab
𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐 − speed of light in vacuum
𝜇𝜇2 𝑣𝑣1 𝜆𝜆1 𝑣𝑣 − speed of light in medium 1
𝜇𝜇21 = = = 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑡𝑡 1 −
𝜇𝜇1 𝑣𝑣2 𝜆𝜆2 𝜇𝜇
Normal Shift
Laws of Refraction
𝐼𝐼. 𝑅𝑅. , 𝑅𝑅. 𝑅𝑅. & 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁, all 𝑆𝑆𝑙𝑙 = 𝑡𝑡 sec 𝑟𝑟 sin(𝑖𝑖 − 𝑟𝑟)
lie on the same plane Lateral Shift
sin 𝑖𝑖
= 𝜇𝜇 Snell’s
sin 𝑟𝑟
Law

Real and Apparent depth

𝜇𝜇2 𝑢𝑢 Real Depth Object is in denser medium 𝜇𝜇2 and
= = Observer is in rarer medium 𝜇𝜇1
𝜇𝜇1 𝑣𝑣 Apparent Depth

𝜇𝜇2 𝑢𝑢 Real height Object is in rarer medium 𝜇𝜇2 and

= = Observer is in denser medium 𝜇𝜇1
𝜇𝜇1 𝑣𝑣 Apparent height
 Ray Optics
Angular Dispersion

TIR (Critical Angle) 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛿𝛿𝑉𝑉 − 𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇𝑉𝑉 − 𝜇𝜇𝑅𝑅

1 sin 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑐 = sin−1 = 𝜇𝜇
𝜇𝜇𝑑𝑑 sin 𝑟𝑟

Refraction (through Lens)

Lens Maker’s Formula
Refraction (Through Prism)
Angle of Prism and
Angle of Deviation
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑟2
𝛿𝛿 = 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑒𝑒 − 𝐴𝐴
1 𝜇𝜇l 1 1
= −1 −
For Minimum Deviation 𝑓𝑓 𝜇𝜇𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

∠𝑖𝑖 = ∠𝑒𝑒 and ∠𝑟𝑟1 = ∠𝑟𝑟2

𝛿𝛿 + 𝐴𝐴
sin 𝑚𝑚 2
𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝 =
𝐴𝐴
sin 2
 Ray Optics

Power of Lens
Refraction (through Lens) 1 1
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃 = −
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓
Lens Formula For Lens For Mirror
1 1 1
= − Power of Combination of Lenses
𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢
Magnification 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 + 𝑃𝑃4 + ⋯

ℎ𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣 1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑚 = = = = with sign 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = + + + +⋯
ℎ𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓2 𝑓𝑓3 𝑓𝑓4

Combination of Lens
1 1 1
= +
𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓1 𝑓𝑓2
 Wave Optics

Huygens Principle
Wavefront
Wavefront is the locus of all
points of a medium which are
Every point on wavefront acts as a point
vibrating in the same phase at a
source called secondary wave source and
given instant.
generates secondary wavelets.
The common tangent to the secondary wavelets
Point Source in the forward direction gives the secondary
wavefront.
Law of reflection
∠𝑖𝑖 = ∠𝑟𝑟
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, 𝑁𝑁 & 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 all lie on
same plane
Types of Wavefront Law of refraction
Source at infinity

sin 𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣1 𝑛𝑛2

Linear source sin 𝑟𝑟
=
𝑣𝑣2
=
𝑛𝑛1
= Constant
 Wave Optics
Superposition Principle of wave

Interference of waves When two or more waves cross at a

point, the displacement at that point
is equal to the vector sum of the
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐴𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
displacements of the individual waves.
𝑦𝑦2 = 𝐴𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝜙𝜙)
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴12 + 𝐴𝐴22 + 2𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜙𝜙
𝐴𝐴2 sin 𝜙𝜙
tan 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝛼𝛼
𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜙𝜙

Constructive interference
cos 𝜙𝜙 = 1 ⇒ 𝜙𝜙 = 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑦𝑦⃗𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑦𝑦⃗1 + 𝑦𝑦⃗2 + 𝑦𝑦⃗3 … … + 𝑦𝑦⃗𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴12 + 𝐴𝐴22 + 2𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜙𝜙

𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) Same frequency

𝑦𝑦 = 2𝐴𝐴 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) Same wavelength
𝑦𝑦2 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) Constant phase difference
Path difference = ∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Destructive interference
cos 𝜙𝜙 = −1 ⇒ 𝜙𝜙 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝜋𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐴𝐴12 + 𝐴𝐴22 + 2𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜙𝜙

𝑦𝑦2 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
𝜆𝜆
Path difference = ∆𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 1
2
 Wave Optics

Young’s double slit experiment

Intensities of resultant wave 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
∆𝑥𝑥 =
𝐷𝐷
Constructive interference Destructive interference
cos 𝜙𝜙 = 1 cos 𝜙𝜙 = −1 2𝜋𝜋 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
∆∅ =
𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 2 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 − 2 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 𝜆𝜆 𝐷𝐷
𝜆𝜆
∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑛𝑛 + 1
2
∆𝜙𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋𝜋, ±4𝜋𝜋. . ∆𝜙𝜙 = ±𝜋𝜋, ±3𝜋𝜋, ±5𝜋𝜋. . 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 bright : (𝑛𝑛 )𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 bright : 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
Doppler Effect (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝜆𝜆
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 dark : (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 dark: 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛 =
The apparent change in 𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑
frequency of the wave
caused by relative 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝜆𝜆
𝛽𝛽 = 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝜃𝜃(𝑛𝑛−1)𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
motion b/w source of the 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
wave and the observer is
called Doppler Effect.
Δ𝑓𝑓 Δ𝜆𝜆 −𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 → relative velocity of the
=− = source relative to the observer
𝑓𝑓 𝜆𝜆 𝑐𝑐

𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (when the source is

moving away from the observer)

𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 (when the source

is moving towards from the
observer)
 Wave Optics
Polarization
Fraunhofer Diffraction Unpoolarized light
Diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction
Plane Polarized light
𝑡𝑡𝑡
for 𝑛𝑛 secondary max Condition for 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 minimum
2𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝜆𝜆
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = ( 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3. . ) 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ( 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3. . )
2
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 dark : 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛 =
𝑎𝑎
𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 bright :
(2𝑛𝑛 + 1 )𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 Malus law
𝜃𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛 = 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 dark : 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 =
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼0 cos2 𝜃𝜃
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑡 bright :
Brewster law
(2𝑛𝑛 + 1 )𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = tan 𝑖𝑖𝑝𝑝 = 𝜇𝜇
𝑎𝑎
𝑖𝑖𝑝𝑝 + 𝑟𝑟 = 900
Angular width
2𝜆𝜆
2𝜃𝜃 =
𝑎𝑎
Matter Waves
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
Wavelength
ℎ = Planck's constant (6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽) ℎ
ℎ ℎ ∆𝑥𝑥 × ∆𝑝𝑝 ≥
𝜆𝜆 = = 4𝜋𝜋
𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑝 = Momentum of particle

Kinetic Energy & Momentum

𝑝𝑝2 ℎ ℎ
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = ⇒ 𝑝𝑝 = 2𝑚𝑚 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. ⇒ 𝜆𝜆 = =
2𝑚𝑚 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.𝐸𝐸. 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
ℎ ℎ
De - Broglie Wavelength 𝜆𝜆 = =
2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.𝐸𝐸. 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Bragg’s Law For Waves

2𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝜆𝜆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 1.66 Å
𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1.67 Å
Photon theory of Light Radiation Pressure

Energy of Photon 𝐹𝐹 𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃

𝑃𝑃 = = (1 + 𝑟𝑟)
ℎ𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐
𝐸𝐸 = = ℎ𝑣𝑣
𝜆𝜆
𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 = 1 For Normal incidence, 𝜃𝜃 = 0°
12400
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 For complete Absorption, 𝑟𝑟 = 0 For complete reflection, 𝑟𝑟 = 1
𝜆𝜆(Å) Speed of light 𝑐𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
For partial Absorption and Reflection, 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1; 0 < 𝑟𝑟 < 1
Planck’s constant ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽
= 4.14
Momentum of Photon × 10−15 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐸𝐸 ℎ
𝑃𝑃 = =
𝑐𝑐 𝜆𝜆

Photon Count
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝜆𝜆
𝑛𝑛 = = =
𝐸𝐸 ℎ𝑐𝑐 ℎ𝑐𝑐

Intensity = 𝐼𝐼 Energy = 𝐸𝐸
Power = 𝑃𝑃 Wavelength of photon = 𝜆𝜆
 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸.𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜈𝜈 Graph
Photoelectric Effect
Slope = ℎ𝑐𝑐
Threshold frequency and threshold wavelength
𝑐𝑐 ℎ𝑐𝑐 ℎ𝑐𝑐
𝜐𝜐0 = 𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −
𝜆𝜆0 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆0
Momentum of Photon
ℎ𝑐𝑐 12400
𝜙𝜙 = = ℎ𝜐𝜐0 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸.𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜈𝜈 Graph
𝜆𝜆0 𝜆𝜆0

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

ℎ𝑐𝑐 ℎ𝑐𝑐
1 2 𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −
ℎ𝜐𝜐 − 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚v𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆0
2

𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸.𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝜈𝜈 Graph

Slope = ℎ
𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 − ℎ𝜈𝜈0
 Effect of Intensity and frequency on
Photoelectric Effect
Stopping Potential
Effect of Intensity of Light on Photo Current

Photocurrent ∝ Intensity of light

Saturation Current and Stopping Potential

Photoelectric Effect

Stopping potential vs Frequency graph

𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑒𝑒𝑉𝑉0
ℎ 𝜙𝜙
𝑉𝑉0 = 𝜈𝜈 −
𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
 Atoms

Atomic Model
Atomic Model Rutherford’s
Dalton’s Atomic Model Model of Atom

Thomson’s Atomic Model

 Atoms

Atomic Model
Atomic Model Bohr’s Model of Atom
Rutherford’s
Model of Atom

Distance of Closest Approach

 Atoms
Bohr’s Model of Atom

Bohr’s Model of Atom Kinetic Energy of electron in 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

Radius of 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

Potential Energy of electron in 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

Velocity of electron in 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

Total Energy of electron in 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

Time period of electron in 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

1
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = −𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = 2 𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝐸.

Frequency of electron in 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 orbit

 Atoms

Hydrogen Spectrum

Wavelength of radiation

(Rydberg constant)
Spectral
Series Initial state Final state Wavelength formula 𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
region

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 1 1 1
Lyman 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 = 1 = 𝑅𝑅 2 − 2 911 Å 1216 Å UV Region
2,3,4….. 𝜆𝜆 1 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 1 1 1 Visible
Balmer 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 = 2 = 𝑅𝑅 2 − 2 3646 Å 6563 Å
3,4,5….. 𝜆𝜆 2 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 Region

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 1 1 1
Paschen 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 = 3 = 𝑅𝑅 2 − 2 8204 Å 18753 Å IR Region
= 4,5,6….. 𝜆𝜆 3 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 1 1 1
Brackett 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 = 4 = 𝑅𝑅 2 − 2 14585 Å 40515 Å IR Region
= 5,6,7….. 𝜆𝜆 4 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 1 1 1 Far IR
Pfund 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 = 5 = 𝑅𝑅 2 − 2 22790 Å 74583 Å
= 6,7,8….. 𝜆𝜆 5 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 Region
 Nuclei

𝑁𝑁
Nuclei For light stable nuclides, 𝑍𝑍 = 1.
𝑁𝑁
= 1.6 for the heaviest stable nuclides.
𝑍𝑍

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 126𝐶𝐶 12𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝

1 𝑢𝑢 = = ≃ 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
12 12 Mass Defect(∆𝑚𝑚) = 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − 𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

same number of protons, but different number of 1 𝑢𝑢 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

neutrons. 𝐸𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑚 × 931. 5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Having same number of neutrons but different number of 1 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
protons.
Having same mass number but different atomic number.

mass of nucleons
Density of nucleus = = 3 × 1017 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
volume of nucleus

Nuclear force is the reason for the stability of nucleus

Nuclear force 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛−𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃−𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃−𝑃𝑃

 Nuclei
Radioactivity

Nuclei

Radioactivity
 Nuclei
Radioactivity

Radioactivity
In nuclear fission, heavy nuclei (𝐴𝐴 > 200) break up into
two or more fragments of comparable masses.

Some unstable light nuclei (𝐴𝐴 < 20) fuse together, the binding energy
per nucleon increases and hence the excess energy is released.

𝑁𝑁′ = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜 (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 ) 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 −𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆

𝑛𝑛
0.693 1 (Number of nuclei
𝑡𝑡1/2 = 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜
𝜆𝜆 2 present after 𝑛𝑛 half
lives)

1
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
Sum of lifespan of all the nuclei 𝜆𝜆
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
Total number of nuclei
SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic Semiconductor Valence Band

Energy
A pure semiconductor is called as an Energy band containing
intrinsic semiconductor. valance electron
In intrinsic semiconductors.
Conduction Band
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 𝑛𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 Energy band in which
Extrinsic Semiconductor free electrons exist.
Semiconductors with small amount of
chemical impurity added to the intrinsic
semiconductors.
N-type Semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor with pentavalent
impurities.

P-type Semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor with trivalent
impurities.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Diode 𝐼𝐼 − 𝑉𝑉 Characteristics
An electronic device in which the electric
current flows in one direction only

Anode Cathode
Forward Bias

Reverse Bias
SEMICONDUCTOR
Half Wave Rectifier

Full-Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

SEMICONDUCTOR
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor
device that is designed to operate in the reverse
bias and that too in the breakdown region.

Zener Diode for Voltage Regulation

 Magnetic field due to
a Bar magnet

Axial Point Equatorial Point General Point

𝜇𝜇0 2𝑀𝑀 𝜇𝜇0 −𝑀𝑀 𝜇𝜇0 |𝑀𝑀|

𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = |𝐵𝐵𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 | = 3
1 + 3 cos2 𝜃𝜃
4𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 3 4𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥 3 4𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥
The angle between true north (the line towards geographic north pole) and the direction towards which
a compa s s points (a long horizonta l compone nt of the ma gne tic fie ld) is ca lle d ma gne tic de clina tion.

Ge ogra phic
North pole
Ma gne tic
North pole
 Components of Earth’s Magnetic Field

Angle of
De clina tion Geographic
Meridian
Horizonta l compone nt of Ea rth’s
𝜃𝜃 ma gne tic fie ld is :
𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼 Angle of 𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸 = 𝐵𝐵𝐸𝐸 cos 𝐼𝐼
Dip
Ve rtica l compone nt of Ea rth’s
Magnetic ma gne tic fie ld is :
Meridian
𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸 𝐵𝐵𝐸𝐸 𝑉𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝐵𝐵𝐸𝐸 sin 𝐼𝐼
(Ea rth’s
Ma gne tic
Fie ld)
 Magnetic Inclination (Angle of Dip)

Angle that is made by the Earth’s magnetic field lines with the horizontal is called angle of dip.

−𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
+𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

At pole s : 𝐼𝐼 = ±90°

At e qua tor: 𝐼𝐼 = 0°

In northe rn he mis phe re : 𝐼𝐼 = +𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

In s outhe rn he mis phe re : 𝐼𝐼 = −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

DIRECTION OF electromagnetic wave
DIRECTION OF electromagnetic wave

𝑥𝑥
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 sin 2𝜋𝜋 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝜆𝜆
DIRECTION OF electromagnetic wave