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Christopher J Wieczorek
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Morgan J. Hurley
Editor-in-Chief

SFPE Handbook
of Fire Protection
Engineering
Fifth Edition
SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering
Morgan J. Hurley
Editor-in-Chief

SFPE Handbook
of Fire Protection
Engineering
Fifth Edition
Editor-in-Chief Editors
Morgan J. Hurley, P.E., FSFPE Daniel Gottuk, Ph.D., P.E.
Aon Fire Protection Engineering Hughes Associates
Greenbelt, MD, USA
John R. Hall Jr., Ph.D.
National Fire Protection Association
Kazunori Harada, Dr. Eng.
Kyoto University
Erica Kuligowski, Ph.D.
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Milosh Puchovsky, P.E., FSFPE
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
José Torero, Ph.D.
The University of Queensland
John M. Watts Jr., Ph.D., FSFPE
The Fire Safety Institute
Christopher Wieczorek, Ph.D.
FM Global

ISBN 978-1-4939-2564-3 ISBN 978-1-4939-2565-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015953225

Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

# Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York is part of Springer Science+Business Media
(www.springer.com)
This edition of the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering is dedicated to Philip DiNenno, who was the editor
in chief for the first four editions of this handbook. In the
mid-1980s, Phil DiNenno, Jack Watts, Doug Walton, Craig
Beyler, and Dick Custer had an idea to create a collection
of calculation methods for fire protection engineering.
From this idea emerged the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, which was first published in 1988.

No other single event had as significant an impact on

establishing the profession of fire protection engineering
as the publication of this handbook. As Vyto Babrauskas said:
“The field [of fire protection engineering] has made very
gratifying progress in these last four decades. . .. The most
remarkable positive achievement I think has been the SFPE
Handbook, published first in 1988. . . . [W]ith the publication
of the first edition of the SFPE Handbook in 1988, all of a
sudden we could properly describe this as a science-based
profession.” [Babrauskas, V. “Some Neglected Areas in Fire
Safety Engineering,” Fire Science and Technology
Vol. 32 No. 1 (2013) pp. 35–48.]

When they began creating the first edition, Phil and his
colleagues had no model other than handbooks used in other
professions. Phil contributed the leadership, vision, and moti-
vation necessary to develop the handbook, and he did so using
entirely volunteer resources. This would be an incredible
accomplishment for anyone. Phil did it before he turned 35.
Foreword

This edition marks a passing of the torch for the SFPE Handbook of Fire
Protection Engineering. All of the editors of the prior editions except for two
(Jack Watts and John Hall) have retired, and a new editorial team has taken
their place. Additionally, Springer has assumed the role of publisher begin-
ning with this edition.
For the first four editions, the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engi-
neering was published by the National Fire Protection Association. The
Society of Fire Protection Engineers owes a debt of gratitude to NFPA.
Without their encouragement and confidence, this handbook might never
have existed.
With a new editorial team emerge many changes. The chapters relevant to
human behavior in fire have been significantly refocused and augmented. The
fundamental engineering chapters have been revised to provide a better
foundation for the chapters that follow. Many new chapters related to fire
protection system selection and design have been added. The chapters
associated with fire resistance design have been modified to reflect advances
over the last decade. And, this edition includes several new chapters pertinent
to industrial fire protection.
The editors owe a debt of gratitude to those whom they follow. Continuing
a successful endeavor is much easier than launching it.

Acknowledgment of Past Authors

Name 1st edition 2nd edition 3rd edition 4th edition

Ahrens, Martha J. ✓ ✓
Alpert, Ronald L. ✓ ✓
Atreya, Arvind ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Babrauskas, Vytenis ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Back III, Gerard G. ✓ ✓
Barry, Thomas F. ✓ ✓ ✓
Beck, Vaughan R. ✓
Beever, Paula F. ✓ ✓
Beller, Douglas K. ✓ ✓
Berlin, Geoffrey N. ✓
(continued)
vii
viii Foreword

(continued)
Name 1st edition 2nd edition 3rd edition 4th edition
Beyler, Craig ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bowen, Jr., Jacob Van ✓
Bryan, John L. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Buchanan, Andy ✓ ✓
Bukowski, Richard W. ✓
Carpenter, Douglas ✓
Chang, Jeremy ✓
Chapman, Robert E. ✓ ✓
Charters, David ✓
Cooper, Leonard Y. ✓ ✓ ✓
Cox, Geoff ✓
Croce, Paul A. ✓ ✓
Custer, Richard L. P. ✓ ✓ ✓
Delichatsios, M. A. ✓ ✓
DiNenno, Philip J. ✓ ✓ ✓
Dodd, F. J. ✓
Donegan, H. A. ✓ ✓ ✓
Drysdale, D. D. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Emmons, Howard W. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Evans, David D. ✓ ✓
Fahy, Rita F. ✓ ✓
Fitzgerald, Robert W. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fleischmann, Charles ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fleming, Russell P. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Franssen, Jean-Marc ✓
Frantzich, Håkan ✓
Friedman, Raymond ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Gottuk, Daniel T. ✓ ✓ ✓
Grant, Casey C. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Gray, Brian ✓ ✓
Griffiths, John ✓
Gwynne, Steven ✓
Hadjisophocleous, George ✓
Hall, Jr., John R. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Harmathy, Tibor Z. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hasemi, Yuji ✓
Heskestad, Gunnar ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hickey, Harry E. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hinkley, Peter L. ✓ ✓
Hirschler, Marcelo M. ✓ ✓ ✓
Hu, Yu-Shu ✓
Hurley, Morgan ✓
Hyslop, J. S. ✓
Iwankiw, Nestor ✓
Jaluria, Yogesh ✓ ✓
Janssens, M. ✓ ✓ ✓
Jin, Tadahisa ✓ ✓
Joglar, Francisco ✓ ✓
Johnson, Peter ✓
(continued)
Foreword ix

(continued)
Name 1st edition 2nd edition 3rd edition 4th edition
Kandola, B. S. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kanury, A. Murty ✓ ✓ ✓
Kersken-Bradley, Marita ✓
Klote, John H. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kodur, V. K. R. ✓ ✓
Kuligowski, Erica ✓
Kumar, Suresh ✓
Lattimer, Brian Y. ✓ ✓
Lee, K. Y. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Lie, T. T. ✓ ✓ ✓
MacLennan, Hamish A. ✓ ✓
Mawhinney, Jack R. ✓ ✓
McCaffrey, Bernard ✓ ✓
McGrattan, Kevin ✓
Meacham, Brian J. ✓ ✓ ✓
Mehaffey, Jim ✓
Miles, Stewart ✓
Milke, James A. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Modarres, Mohammad ✓ ✓
Morgan, Alexander ✓
Mowrer, Frederick W. ✓ ✓
Mudan, Krishna S. ✓ ✓
Mulholland, George W. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Nelson, Harold E. ✓ ✓ ✓
Notarianni, Kathy A. ✓ ✓
Nowlen, Steven ✓
Ohlemiller, T. J. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Parry, Gareth ✓
Pauls, Jake ✓ ✓
Phillips, William G. B. ✓ ✓ ✓
Proulx, Guylène ✓ ✓
Purser, David A. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Quintiere, James G. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Ramachandran, G. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Roby, R. J. ✓
Rockett, John A. ✓ ✓ ✓
Rosenbaum, Eric ✓
Salisbury, Matthew ✓
Scheffey, Joseph L. ✓ ✓ ✓
Schifiliti, Robert P. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Simmons, Robert F. ✓ ✓ ✓
Siu, Nathan ✓ ✓
Stretton, A. J. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Stroup, David W. ✓
Tanaka, Takeyoshi ✓
Tewarson, Archibald ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Thomas, Ian ✓
Thomas, Philip H. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(continued)
x Foreword

(continued)
Name 1st edition 2nd edition 3rd edition 4th edition
Tien, C. L. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Titus, John J. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Torero, José ✓
Walton, William D. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Watts, Jr., John M. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
White, Derek A. ✓ ✓
White, Robert H. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Wickström, Ulf ✓
Wolski, Armin ✓
Wood, Christopher ✓
Yung, David ✓
Zalosh, Robert G. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Metrication

The editors of the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering have

worked toward the expanded use of SI units for this fifth edition. In some
instances, however, US customary units have been retained. For example,
when equations, correlations, or design methodologies have input variables
or constants that have been developed from data originally in US customary
units, those units are retained. This is also the case for certain tables, charts,
and nomographs. Where equations employing US customary units are used
in worked examples, the results are presented as SI units as well.

xi
Contents

Volume I

1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Bart Merci
2 Conduction of Heat in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Ofodike A. Ezekoye
3 Convection Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Arvind Atreya
4 Radiation Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Revised by C. Lautenberger, Original chapter
authored by C.L. Tien, K.Y. Lee, and A.J. Stretton
5 Thermochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
D.D. Drysdale
6 Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Raymond Friedman
7 Thermal Decomposition of Polymeric Materials . . . . . . . . 167
Artur Witkowski, Anna A. Stec, and T. Richard Hull
8 Structural Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Luke A. Bisby
9 Properties of Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
V.K.R. Kodur and T.Z. Harmathy
10 Chemical Kinetics and Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Gregory T. Linteris and John F. Griffiths
11 Diffusion Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Ali S. Rangwala
12 Fundamentals of Premixed Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Grunde Jomaas
13 Fire Plumes, Flame Height, and Air Entrainment . . . . . . . 396
Gunnar Heskestad

xiii
xiv Contents

14 Ceiling Jet Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Ronald L. Alpert
15 Vent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Takeyoshi Tanaka
16 Effect of Combustion Conditions on Species
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Daniel T. Gottuk and Brian Y. Lattimer
17 Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion
Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Craig Beyler
18 Ignition of Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
D.D. Drysdale
19 Smoldering Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Guillermo Rein
20 Spontaneous Combustion and Self-Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Brian F. Gray
21 Flaming Ignition of Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
José Torero
22 Electrical Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Vytenis Babrauskas
23 Surface Flame Spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Yuji Hasemi
24 Smoke Characterization and Damage Potentials . . . . . . . . 724
Jeffrey S. Newman, Geary G. Yee, and Paul Su
25 Heat Transfer from Fires to Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Brian Y. Lattimer
26 Heat Release Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
Vytenis Babrauskas
27 Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
Marc Janssens
28 The Cone Calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
Vytenis Babrauskas
29 Compartment Fire Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
James G. Quintiere and Colleen A. Wade
30 Estimating Temperatures in Compartment Fires . . . . . . . 996
William D. Walton, Philip H. Thomas,
and Yoshifumi Ohmiya
31 Zone Computer Fire Models for Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
William D. Walton, Douglas J. Carpenter,
and Christopher B. Wood
Contents xv

32 Modeling Fires Using Computational Fluid

Dynamics (CFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
Kevin McGrattan and Stewart Miles
33 Enclosure Smoke Filling and Fire-Generated
Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Frederick W. Mowrer
34 Methods for Predicting Temperatures
in Fire-Exposed Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
Ulf Wickström
35 Fire Load Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
Mario Fontana, Jochen Kohler, Katharina Fischer,
and Gianluca De Sanctis
36 Combustion Characteristics of Materials
and Generation of Fire Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
Mohammed M. Khan, Archibald Tewarson,
and Marcos Chaos

Volume II
37 Performance-Based Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
Morgan J. Hurley and Eric R. Rosenbaum
38 Fire Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
George V. Hadjisophocleous and Jim R. Mehaffey
39 Engineering Considerations for Fire Protection
System Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
Milosh Puchovsky and Craig Hofmeister
40 Design of Detection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1314
Robert P. Schifiliti, Richard L.P. Custer,
and Brian J. Meacham
41 Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378
Kenneth E. Isman
42 Automatic Sprinkler System Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423
Russell P. Fleming
43 Halon Design Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
Casey C. Grant
44 Clean Agent Total Flooding Fire
Extinguishing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483
Philip J. DiNenno and Eric W. Forssell
45 Carbon Dioxide Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531
Jeff Harrington and Joseph A. Senecal
46 Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587
Jack R. Mawhinney and Gerard G. Back III
xvi Contents

47 Foam Agents and AFFF System Design

Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1646
Joseph L. Scheffey
48 Foam System Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1707
Hamid R. Bahadori
49 Considerations for Coordinating and Interfacing
Fire Protection and Life Safety Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
David Jacoby, David LeBlanc, Jeffrey Tubbs,
and Andrew Woodward
50 Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1785
John H. Klote
51 Smoke Control by Mechanical Exhaust
or Natural Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824
James A. Milke
52 Structural Fire Engineering of Building
Assemblies and Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
Jean-Marc Franssen and Nestor Iwankiw
53 Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance
of Steel Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1909
James A. Milke
54 Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance
of Concrete Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1949
Charles Fleischmann, Andy Buchanan, and Anthony Abu
55 Analytical Methods for Determining Fire Resistance
of Timber Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
Robert H. White
56 Egress Concepts and Design Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2012
Richard W. Bukowski and Jeffrey S. Tubbs
57 Selecting Scenarios for Deterministic Fire Safety
Engineering Analysis: Life Safety for Occupants . . . . . . . 2047
Daniel Nilsson and Rita Fahy
58 Human Behavior in Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2070
Erica D. Kuligowski
59 Employing the Hydraulic Model in Assessing
Emergency Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
Steven M.V. Gwynne and Eric R. Rosenbaum
60 Computer Evacuation Models for Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . 2152
Erica D. Kuligowski
61 Visibility and Human Behavior in Fire Smoke . . . . . . . . . 2181
Tokiyoshi Yamada and Yuki Akizuki
Contents xvii

62 Combustion Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2207

David A. Purser

Volume III
63 Assessment of Hazards to Occupants from Smoke,
Toxic Gases, and Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2308
David A. Purser and Jamie L. McAllister
64 Engineering Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2429
S.M.V. Gwynne and K.E. Boyce
65 Liquid Fuel Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2552
D.T. Gottuk and D.A. White
66 Fire Hazard Calculations for Large, Open
Hydrocarbon Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2591
Craig L. Beyler
67 Vapor Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2664
Nicolas F. Ponchaut, Francesco Colella,
and Kevin C. Marr
68 Effects of Thermal Radiation on People:
Predicting 1st and 2nd Degree Skin Burns . . . . . . . . . . . . 2705
Christopher J. Wieczorek and Nicholas A. Dembsey
69 Flammable Gas and Vapor Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2738
Robert Zalosh
70 Dust Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2766
Robert Zalosh
71 BLEVES and Fireballs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2792
Alfonso Ibarreta, Hubert Biteau, and Jason Sutula
72 Introduction to Fire Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2817
John M. Watts Jr. and John R. Hall Jr.
73 Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2827
John R. Hall Jr. and Francisco Joglar
74 Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . 2875
Francisco Joglar
75 Building Fire Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2941
Brian J. Meacham, David Charters, Peter Johnson,
and Matthew Salisbury
76 Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2992
Kathy A. Notarianni and Gareth W. Parry
77 Decision Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3048
H.A. Donegan
xviii Contents

78 Data for Engineering Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3073

Marty Ahrens and John R. Hall Jr.
79 Measuring Consequences in Economic Terms . . . . . . . . . . 3098
G. Ramachandran and John R. Hall Jr.
80 Computer Simulation for Fire Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 3117
William G.B. Phillips and Rita F. Fahy
Revised by Douglas K. Beller
81 Engineering Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3137
John M. Watts, Jr. and Robert E. Chapman
82 Fire Risk Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3158
John M. Watts Jr.
83 Risk-Informed Industrial Fire Protection Engineering . . . 3183
Thomas F. Barry
84 Product Fire Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211
John R. Hall Jr.
85 Health Care Application of Quantitative Fire
Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3226
Håkan Frantzich
86 The Building Envelope: Fire Spread, Construction
Features and Loss Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3242
Daniel J. O’Connor
87 Wildland Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3283
Albert Simeoni
88 Fires in Vehicle Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3303
Ricky Carvel and Haukur Ingason
89 Fire Risk Analysis for Nuclear Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . 3326
Nathan O. Siu, Nicholas Melly, Steven P. Nowlen,
and Mardy Kazarians
90 Fire Risk in Mass Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3370
Armin Wolski and Jarrod Alston

Appendix 1 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3397

Appendix 2 Thermophysical Property Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3425
Appendix 3 Fuel Properties and Combustion Data . . . . . . . . 3437
Appendix 4 Configuration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3476
Appendix 5 Piping Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3483
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3493
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Bart Merci
Fluid Properties
In this section, a number of fluid properties are
defined. An implicit assumption in the classical
fluid mechanics is the ‘continuum hypothesis’,
implying that we treat fluids as continuous
media, not as an ensemble of individual
molecules [1]. This is justified in ‘normal’
circumstances. This way, the fluid and flow
quantities are continuous and local quantities to
be interpreted as averages over a volume V*
which is very small (but still very large when
compared to distances between molecules).
This assumption allows to define local fluid and
flow properties (e.g. velocity vectors). The con-
tinuum hypothesis is adopted here.
A fluid can be a liquid or a gas (vapour).
Density
The mass density is the amount of fluid mass
inside a volume:
m
ρ¼ : ð1:1Þ
V τ¼μ
Its unit is kg/m3.
In a variable density flow, the density can vary
in space and time and the local density at a
B. Merci (*)
Department of Flow, Heat and Combustion Mechanics,
Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
M.J. Hurley (ed.), SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0_1, # Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2016
1
certain time is defined as in Equation 1.1, taking
the local limit for a small volume.
In an incompressible flow, the density does
not vary. In general, liquids can be considered
‘incompressible’. In gases, the density can vary
due to variations in pressure or temperature (see
below: ideal gas law).
The reciprocal of density is the ‘specific vol-
ume’ (m3/kg).
Viscosity
Fluids can flow. The viscosity is the fluid prop-
erty that indicates how easily molecules can
move with respect to each other. Fluid particles
with different velocity have the tendency to
evolve to the same common velocity, through
exchange of momentum. In other words, fluid
layers with different velocities exert a shear
stress τ onto each other. Most technically rele-
vant fluids are ‘Newtonian’: the shear stress
increases linearly with the strain rate
(or velocity gradient):
dv
: ð1:2Þ
dy
The unit of τ is Pa (¼ N/m2).
The proportionality factor, relating the veloc-
ity gradient to the shear stress, is the dynamic
viscosity μ (unit: Pa.s).
In gases, μ typically increases with tempera-
ture, whereas in liquids it decreases with increas-
ing temperature.
1
2 B. Merci
Sometimes, the kinematic viscosity is used:
μ that the heat flux is always from high temperature
ν¼ : ð1:3Þ
ρ
Its unit is m2/s.
The shear stress, Equation 1.2, causes friction
losses in case of flow. The higher the viscosity,
the larger the flow losses become for the same
velocity gradient. In other words, the resistance
of the fluid against (imposed) flow increases with
increasing viscosity.
The viscosity of a fluid is never zero. The
important implication is that, whenever there is
a solid boundary, this boundary always exerts an
influence on the flow field (e.g. causing the
development of a boundary layer).
Specific Heat
The specific heat or thermal capacity, c, is the
amount of energy required to cause a temperature
rise of 1 K (or 1  C) in 1 kg of the fluid. Its unit is
J/(kg.K).
In gases the value of the specific heat depends
on the circumstances under which the energy is
supplied. If the pressure is kept constant, the
notation is cp. If the volume is kept constant,
the notation is cv. The difference between the
two values is called the gas constant R (also in
J/(kg.K)):
c p ¼ cV þ R: ð1:4Þ
For liquids and solids, cp  cv.
Conduction Coefficient
The conduction coefficient expresses how easily
heat flows inside a material. Its value indicates
the heat flux per unit area (W/m2) related to a
spatial temperature gradient (K/m):
! cally, the interpretation is that ν tries to make
q_ ¼ k∇T ¼ λ∇T: ð1:5Þ
This is Fourier’s law. The minus sign indicates
to low temperature.
The unit of the conduction coefficient (k or λ)
is W/(m.K).
The conduction coefficient, specific heat and
density can be combined to obtain the thermal
diffusivity:
k
α¼ ð1:6Þ
ρc
The unit of α is m2/s.
Diffusion Coefficient
In a mixture of fluids (see below), one species
can diffuse in the mixture due to concentration
gradients of that species in the mixture. It is
common practice to apply Fick’s law for many
flows:
!
J k ¼ ρDk ∇Y: ð1:7Þ
The diffusion coefficient D thus provides the
relation between the diffusion flux Jk (kg/(m2s))
of species k and the spatial gradient of the local
mass fraction Yk (i.e. the amount of mass of
species k per kg mixture) of that species. The
minus sign expresses that the diffusion flux is
always from higher concentration to lower
concentration.
The unit of D is m2/s.
Dimensionless Groups of Fluid
Properties
By combining the fluid properties, dimension-
less groups can be constructed. Indeed, the
units of ν, α and D are the same (m2/s). Physi-
the velocity field uniform inside a fluid
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 3

(through exchange of momentum), α tries to Internal Energy

make the temperature field uniform (through
heat exchange by conduction) and D tries to The local motion of molecules in a fluid is related
make the concentration field in a mixture to the internal energy (e or u, with unit J/kg). This
homogeneous (through concentration gradient is a measure for the thermal energy.
driven diffusion).
The resulting dimensionless groups read:
– The Prandtl number: Enthalpy
ν μc p μc p
Pr ¼ ¼ ¼ : ð1:8Þ The quantity (static) enthalpy (h, with unit J/kg)
α λ k
is related to the internal energy through addition
– The Schmidt number: of pressure, divided by mass density:
ν p p
Sc ¼ : ð1:9Þ h¼uþ ¼eþ : ð1:11Þ
D ρ ρ
– The Lewis number:
α Entropy
Le ¼ : ð1:10Þ
D
The entropy is a measure for the disorder in the
Clearly, these numbers are connected:
fluid. It is related to the second law of thermody-
Le ¼ Sc:Pr1 .
namics. This quantity is typically not particularly
It is important to note that the dimensionless
relevant for fire related issues.
numbers Equations 1.8, 1.9, and 1.10 are still
fluid properties, not flow properties.
As long as no mixtures are considered, the
Prandtl number is the most relevant dimension- Equation of State
less fluid property, when heat transfer is an issue.
Liquids

In liquids, the density is essentially constant,

State Properties
relatively very weakly dependent on pressure
and temperature. Yet, the general expression
State properties describe the state of the fluid, not
that provides the equation of state defines the
the material properties of the fluid.
relation between density, temperature and
pressure:
Pressure ρ ¼ f ð p; T Þ ð1:12Þ

The pressure (p) can be defined as the normal

force per unit area at a certain point. The unit is Gases: Ideal Gas Law
Pa. Pressure differences are the driving force for
fluid flows. In gases, it is common practice to specify Equa-
tion 1.12 as the ‘ideal gas law’:
Temperature p ¼ ρRT ð1:13Þ

The unit of temperature (T) is Kelvin (K). The For fire related flows, this is justified. Most gases
temperature must not be confused with heat (the behave as air would do and air behaves as an
unit of which is Joule, J). ideal gas (with the exception of extremely low or
4 B. Merci
high pressure or temperature, but this is not rele-
vant for real-life fire applications). The gas con-
stant R (J/(kg.K)) has been introduced in
Equation 1.4 and the temperature T is expressed
in Kelvin (K).
Mixtures
In fire related flows, the fluid can be a mixture.
Obvious examples are smoke or flames. A dis-
tinction must be made between chemical and
physical issues. If toxicity is an issue, chemical
aspects are important. As long as the flow itself is
concerned, the physical behaviour of many gas-
eous mixtures resembles very much the
behaviour of hot air. One reason is that the spe-
cies most often encountered, have comparable
diffusivities (with the important exception of
hydrogen, which has a much higher diffusivity).
Another reason is that typically by far mixtures
in fire related flows consist mainly of air.
As a consequence, the simplification is made
very commonly to treat a mixture of hot gases as
hot air, applying the ideal gas law (Equation 1.13)
with the gas constant for air and using the (tem-
perature dependent) viscosity for hot air. There-
fore, mixtures of gases do not receive much
attention when fluid mechanics aspects are con-
sidered in case of fire.
Yet, a few definitions are introduced here. The
mass fraction Yi of species i is the ratio of the
local amount of mass of species i to the local
amount of mass of mixture. It is therefore a
non-dimensional quantity. Conservation of mass
leads to the statement that, everywhere in physi-
cal space, the sum of all mass fractions of all
X
i¼1 Y i ¼ 1.
N
species equals unity:
Using the notion of mass fractions, the
fluid properties of mixtures can be determined
from the fluid properties of their constituent
species. E.g. the specific heat becomes
X the area of an infinitesimal part of the surface; n is the
c¼ N
i¼1 Y i ci .
Also state properties can be defined as such.
X
E.g. static enthalpy becomes: h ¼ N
i¼1 Y i hi .
Conservation Equations
Figure 1.1 visualises a streamline through a sur-
face of a (control) volume. This concept will be
used to develop the conservation equations in the
integral formulation. A streamline is defined
such that locally the velocity vector is tangent
to the streamline. A collection of streamlines is
called a stream tube.
Conservation of Mass—Continuity
Equation
Conservation of mass expresses the following
principle:
The amount of mass that flows into a station-
ary volume per unit time, equals the outflow of
mass per unit time out of that same volume plus
the amount of mass accumulation per unit time in
that same volume.
Mathematically, this is formulated as follows:
• The net outflow per unit time is given by a
closed surface integral over the entire area of
the manifold ∂V, enclosing the volume V:
ðð
!! !
ρ v : n dA; in this expression, v is the local
∂V
!
velocity vector at a certain position on ∂V, n
the local normal vector on the surface (i.e. the
vector with length equal to 1, locally perpen-
dicular to the surface and pointed outward)
and dA the area of an infinitesimal element
dA
v
θ
n
Fig. 1.1 Streamline through a surface. Notation: dA is
normal vector, with length equal to unity, perpendicular to
dA and pointing ‘outward’ of the control volume, spanned
by the surface; v is the local flow velocity vector at
position dA; θ is the angle between vectors n and v
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 5

!!
on the surface; note that the inner product v : n A2, v2, ρ2
!!
> 0 for outflow, while v : n < 0 for inflow; A1, v1, ρ1
• The accumulation of mass per unit time is
obtained from a derivation with respect to
time of the integral of the mass density over
∂
the entire volume: ∂t ∭ ρdV.
V
The conservation of mass thus reads: Fig. 1.2 Illustration of conservation of mass for steady
ðð flow (Equation 1.15) through a pipe expansion. Dashed
∂ !! lines: boundary of control volume. Bold vectors: normal
∭ ρdV þ ρ v : n dA ¼ 0: ð1:14Þ
∂t V vectors (unity length, perpendicular to surface and
∂V pointing outward). The other vectors indicate velocity
vectors
This equation is also called the continuity
equation.
An important simplification is found in the The integral in Equation 1.14 in fact refers to
case of permanent (or ‘steady’) motion. In that the total net mass flow rate (kg/s) through a
case, the time derivative disappears in surface with area A:
Equation 1.14: ðð
ðð !!
m_ ¼ ρ v : n dA ð1:17Þ
!!
ρ v : n dA ¼ 0: ð1:15Þ
A
∂V
If the mass density is not included, the total net
A further simplification concerns incompressible volume flow rate (m3/s) through a surface with
fluids (e.g. water in a pipe under normal area A is found:
conditions). In that case, density does not change, ðð
!!
so that not only Equation 1.15 applies, but it V_ ¼ v : n dA: ð1:18Þ
further simplifies to read:
A
ðð
!!
v : n dA ¼ 0: ð1:16Þ Expression (1.14) can also be formulated in dif-
∂V
ferential form, applying Green’s theorem:

A very simple illustration of Equation 1.15 is  !

provided on the basis of Fig. 1.2. There is no ∂ρ
þ ∇: ρ v ¼ 0: ð1:19Þ
flow through the solid boundaries (solid lines in ∂t
ðð
!!
Fig. 1.2), so the only contributions to ρ v : n dA The symbol ∇ is the divergence operator:
 
∂V ! ∂! ∂ ! ∂!  ! ! ! 
∇: v ¼ 1x þ 1 y þ 1 z : vx 1 x þ v y 1 y þ vz 1 z
stem from surfaces 1 and 2. In surface 1, the ∂x ∂y ∂z
velocity vector is pointing inward, while the ∂vx ∂v y ∂vz
¼ þ þ :
normal vector is by definition pointing outward, ∂x ∂y ∂z
so the contribution (under the simplified assump- ð1:20Þ
tion of uniform flow through the cross-section)
!
becomes: ρ1 v1 A1 . On surface 2, the velocity In Equation 1.20, 1 x is the notation for the unity
and the normal vectors are pointing outward, vector, i.e. a vector with length equal to unity, in
leading to: þρ2 v2 A2 . Equation 1.15 thus provides: the x-direction.
ρ1 v1 A1 þ ρ2 v2 A2 ¼ 0 ! ρ1 v1 A1 ¼ ρ2 v2 A2 . In Expression (1.15), for steady flow, reads in
case of incompressible flow (Equation 1.16) this differential form:
further simplifies to: v1 A1 ¼ v2 A2 .
6 B. Merci

 !
∇: ρ v ¼ 0; ð1:21Þ σyy (y+dy)
y
τyx (y+dy)
while expression (1.16), for incompressible
fluids, becomes:
! σxx (x) τxy (x+dx)
∇: v ¼ 0: ð1:22Þ dy

τxy (x) σxx (x+dx)

This shows that the velocity field for any flow of
an incompressible fluid is ‘divergence free’, or dx

‘solenoidal’. τyx (y)

σyy (y)
x

Total Momentum
Fig. 1.3 Definition of normal stresses and shear stresses
(2D)
Now the integral formulation for the conserva-
tion of total momentum is discussed. Figure 1.1
The total force consists of:
again serves as the basic sketch.
• Surface forces:
Conservation of total momentum refers to the
– Pressure (Pa);
expression of Newton’s second law, applied to
– Viscous stresses (Pa);
flows. The net change in momentum of a system
• Body forces:
per unit time in a certain sense and direction
– Gravity (N);
equals the net force on that system in that sense
– Others (not relevant for fire related flows).
and direction.
These forces are discussed now, in differential
Expressed for a stationary volume, this
formulation:
becomes:
8
The total force onto a stationary volume > ∂σ xx ∂τxy ∂τxz
>
> F ¼ þ þ þ ρgx
equals the sum of the net outflow of momentum > tot, x
> ∂x ∂y ∂z
>
>
per unit time out of that same volume plus the <
∂τ yx ∂σ yy ∂τ yz
accumulation of momentum per unit time in that Ftot, y ¼ þ þ þ ρg y ð1:25Þ
>
> ∂x ∂y ∂z
same volume. >
>
>
>
The local amount of momentum per unit vol- : Ftot, z ¼ ∂τzx þ ∂τzy þ ∂σ zz þ ρgz
>
! ∂x ∂y ∂z
ume is ρ v (kg/(m2s)). Newton’s second law thus
reads: The final terms in Equation 1.25 refer to
the gravity acceleration vector, multiplied with
ðð  
∂ ! ! !! ! the local mass density. Figure 1.3 shows how the
∭ ρ v dV þ ρ v v : n dA ¼ F tot : ð1:23Þ
∂t V normal stresses and shear stresses are defined.
∂V The shear stresses are found from Stokes’ law:
Note that Equation 1.19 is a vector equation,  
∂vx ∂v y
i.e. the equation is valid for each component/ τxy ¼ τ yx ¼ μ þ
∂y ∂x
direction individually.  
For a permanent (or ‘steady’) motion, expres- ∂vx ∂vz
τxz ¼ τzx ¼ μ þ ð1:26Þ
sion (1.19) simplifies to: ∂z ∂x
 
ðð   ∂vz ∂v y
! !! ! τ yz ¼ τzy ¼ μ þ :
ρ v v : n dA ¼ F tot : ð1:24Þ ∂y ∂z
∂V
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 7

 
The shear stresses are thus proportional to the 2 ∂vx 1 !
σ xx ¼  p þ μ  ∇: v
dynamic viscosity and the local velocity 3 ∂x 3
gradients.  
2 ∂v y 1 !
The normal stresses contain contributions σ yy ¼  p þ μ  ∇: v ð1:27Þ
3 ∂y 3
from stresses due to fluid dilatation (for variable  
density flows only) and pressure: 2 ∂vz 1 !
σ zz ¼  p þ μ  ∇: v :
3 ∂z 3

The above results in the Navier–Stokes

equations:

8   
> ∂ ∂vx ∂vx ∂vx ∂p 2 ∂ ∂vx 1 ! ∂τxy ∂τxz
>
> ðρvx Þ þ ρvx þ ρv y þ ρvz ¼ þ μ  ∇: v þ þ þ ρgx
>
> ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x 3 ∂x ∂x 3 ∂y ∂z
>
>
>
<   
∂  ∂v y ∂v y ∂v y ∂p 2 ∂ ∂v y 1 ! ∂τxy ∂τ yz
ρv y þ ρvx þ ρv y þ ρvz ¼ þ μ  ∇: v þ þ þ ρg y
>
> ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y 3 ∂y ∂y 3 ∂x ∂z
>
>   
>
>∂
>
> ∂vz ∂vz ∂vz ∂p 2 ∂ ∂vz 1 ! ∂τxz ∂τ yz
: ðρvz Þ þ ρvx þ ρv y þ ρvz ¼ þ μ  ∇: v þ þ þ ρgz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z 3 ∂z ∂z 3 ∂x ∂y
ð1:28Þ

Note that the presence of the gravity force is
essential in order to account for the Archimedes
force. This is essential for buoyancy-driven
forces, which is important in the context of fire.
Also note that pressure gradients (or pressure
differences) are the driving force for flows, not
the absolute pressure level.
Energy
Conservation of energy refers to the first law of
thermodynamics:
The change (per unit time) of the total internal
energy of a system equals the sum of the heat
added (per unit time) to the system and the work
(per unit time) exerted onto that system.
The total internal energy consists of:
• Static internal energy e (J/kg) or ρe (J/m3);
• Kinetic energy ρv2/2 (J/m3).
The mathematical formulation of the first law
of thermodynamics for a stationary open system
can be found in many textbooks (e.g. [2–9]).
It reads:

ð    !
!
∂ 1 1 !! !! ! ! !
ρe þ ρv2 dV ¼  ∮ ρe þ ρv2 v : n dS  ∮ p v : n dS þ ∮ τ : v :n dS
∂t 2 ∂V 2 ∂V ∂V
V
ð ð
!! !!
þ ρg : v dV þ ρSh dV  ∮ q : n dS ð1:29Þ
∂V
V V

The terms on the right hand side are: sign convection (see previous sections: the
• First term: Net inflow of total internal energy normal vector is pointing outward).
into the control volume (‘convection’); the • Second term: Work of the flow against pres-
minus sign is necessary to comply with the sure. This is work from a force (pressure),
8 B. Merci

exerted onto the surface. The work by the
pressure onto the flow is positive for inflow
and negative for outflow, which explains the
minus sign.
• Third term: Work by the viscous stresses. This
is work from a force (viscous stresses,
Equations 1.26 and 1.27, exerted onto the
surface. With the sign conventions used
(Fig. 1.3 and outward pointing normal vector),
this is a term with a plus sign.
• Fourth term: Work by gravity. This is work by
a volume force, exerted inside the volume.
This work is positive for a downward flow,
! !
so that with g ¼ g1 no minus sign is
y
required in this term (if the y-direction is
positive vertically upward).
• Fifth term: Volumetric source term of heat /
internal energy (e.g. radiation). This term can
be positive or negative.
• Final term: Net incoming flux of heat/internal
energy (e.g. conduction). The flux with the
flow cannot be added to this term (as it is
already included in the convection term).
The energy equation can also be formulated,
using enthalpy Equation 1.11:

ð   ð   !
!
∂ 1 ∂ 1 !! ! ! !
ρh þ ρv2 dV ¼ pdV  ∮ ρh þ ρv2 v : n dS þ ∮ τ : v :n dS
∂t 2 ∂t ∂CV 2 ∂CV
CV CV
ð ð
!! !!
þ ρ g : v dV þ ρSh dV  ∮ q : n dS: ð1:30Þ
∂CV
CV CV

In differential formulation, this reads:

      !
∂ 1 2 1 2 ! ∂p
!
!! XN
!! !
ρh þ ρv þ ∇: ρ h þ v v ¼ þ ∇: τ : v þ ρSh þ ρ Y i g : v i  ∇: q ð1:31Þ
∂t 2 2 ∂t i¼1

The (static) enthalpy is the mass-weighted sum combustion. Combustion reactions transform
of the enthalpies of species i: chemically bound enthalpy into sensible
enthalpy and as such cause a temperature rise,
X
N
but the sum of sensible and chemical enthalpy
h¼ Y i hi : ð1:32Þ
i¼1 does not change locally. If the energy equation is
expressed in terms of temperature (or sensible
The enthalpy hi is the sum of a reference enthalpy), a source term due to the combustion
enthalpy (the chemical standard formation heat release rate does appear.
enthalpy of species i) and a ‘sensible’ (thermal) The final term in Equation 1.31 reads:
enthalpy [5–9]. For ideal gases this reads:
!
ðT ! X
N

hi ðT Þ ¼ hre f , i þ c p, i ðT ÞdT; ð1:33Þ ∇: q ¼ ∇:ðλ∇T Þ  ∇: ρ hi Di ∇Y i þ D:E:

T re f i¼1

ð1:34Þ
with cp,i the specific heat of species i, defined
above.
The abbreviation ‘D.E.’ stands for the ‘Dufour
Note that in Equation 1.31, expressed in terms
effect’, i.e. and additional enthalpy flux due to
of enthalpy, the source term ρSh contains
species concentration differences. This effect is
e.g. radiation, but not a heat release rate due to
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 9

ignored in fire related flows. The first terms in
Equation 1.34 refer to Fourier’s law for heat
conduction, Equation 1.5. The middle terms
refer to an enthalpy flux due to diffusion, using
Fick’s law, Equation 1.7.
The general expression, Equation 1.31, can
often be simplified. Many fire-induced flows are
low-Mach number flows (note: this is not true for
explosions). The time derivative of pressure can
often be ignored. Also the work done by gravity,
by the viscous shear stresses and by the normal
stresses becomes very small and the kinetic
energy is negligible. Using Equations 1.8 and
1.9, the energy equation becomes:

!
 ! XN  
∂ μ 1 1
ðρhÞ þ ∇: ρh v ¼ ∇: ∇h þ μ  hi ∇Y i þ ρSh ð1:35Þ
∂t Pr i¼1
Sci Pr

For unity Lewis number (Lei ¼ 1 for all i, Buoyancy

Equation 1.10) fluids, this further simplifies to:
 ! μ  The main relevance of the fundamental law of
∂
ðρhÞ þ ∇: ρh v ¼ ∇: ∇h þ ρSh : hydrostatics, Equation 1.37, lies in the fact that in
∂t Pr many fire related flows, buoyancy plays a domi-
ð1:36Þ nant role. This can be learnt from the
Navier–Stokes equations, Equation 1.28, combin-
ing the forces due to pressure gradients and grav-
! !
Hydrostatics ity. In the vertical direction (still with g ¼ g1 y),
using Equation 1.38, the resulting force per unit
Hydrostatics area reads:
dp
From the general Navier–Stokes equations   ρg ¼ ðρamb  ρÞg: ð1:40Þ
(1.28), the basic law for hydrostatics is immedi- dy
ately recovered. Indeed, setting all velocities in a In the process of getting to expression (1.40),
certain environment equal to zero, the only terms the implicit assumption is made that pressure
remaining are: differences in the horizontal directions are
! small.
∇ p ¼ ρamb g : ð1:37Þ
Equation 1.40 reveals that the driving force in
Equation 1.37 is valid at any time (in the absence situations where buoyancy dominates, stems
! ! from density differences, in the presence of a
of motion). For the special case where g ¼ g1 y ,
gravity field. This is known as Archimedes’
with g ¼ 9.81 m/s2, Equation 1.37 reads (in the law. Note that, since gravity acts in the vertical
y-direction): direction only, buoyancy forces by definition
dp also act in the vertical direction only.
¼ ρamb g ð1:38Þ For small density differences, the approxima-
dy
tion ρ  ρamb is typically made in the
Note that Equation 1.37 in such circumstances Navier–Stokes equations, except that the differ-
also implies that pressure does not vary in the ence ðρamb  ρÞ is accounted for in combination
horizontal directions. with gravity (Equation 1.40). This is called
Equation 1.38 can be integrated: Boussinesq’s approximation. In the context of
  small density differences, expression (1.40) can
p ¼ pre f  ρamb g y  yre f : ð1:39Þ be developed further, using a Taylor series
10 B. Merci

  temperature correction. Using the thermal volu-

∂ρ
expansion: ρ ¼ ρðT; pÞ ) ρ  ρamb þ ∂T metric expansion coefficient:
  p
 
∂ρ
ðT  T amb Þþ ∂ p ð p  pamb Þ. Typically the 1 ∂ρ
T β¼ ; ð1:41Þ
pressure correction is much smaller than the ρ ∂T p
the Archimedes force becomes:

ðρamb  ρÞg ¼ ρamb βðT  T amb Þg , if βðT  T 1 Þ  1: ð1:42Þ

The basic expression is thus Equation 1.40, based number, which is the ratio of inertial forces to
on density differences, while Equation 1.42 is viscous forces:
only valid for small enough temperature
ρuL uL
differences. Re ¼ ¼ : ð1:43Þ
μ ν

The viscous forces tend to damp the inherent

Scaling Laws—Dimensionless Flow
Numbers
In this section, starting from the governing
equations, some scaling laws and non-
dimensional flow numbers are introduced. The
characteristic length scale is L, the characteristic
velocity is u.
instabilities in the non-linear convection terms
in the Navier–Stokes equations, while these
instabilities can evolve towards fully-developed
turbulence for large enough Reynolds number.
This is addressed in the next section.
When buoyancy is dominant, the
proportionality ρuL  Δρg leads to the Froude
2
number, which is the ratio of inertial forces to
the Archimedes force:

ρu2
Dimensionless Flow Numbers Fr ¼ : ð1:44Þ
ΔρgL

Examination of the terms in the Navier–Stokes

equations, Equations 1.28 and 1.26, leads to the
following proportionalities: ρut  ρuL  ΔLp  Δρg
2
 μLu2 . Several non-dimensional flow numbers
can be derived now, as follows. The importance
of each of the numbers mentioned, depends on
the importance of the corresponding terms in the
Navier–Stokes equations. The convection term/
inertia term is always important, as it
characterizes the flow. Depending on the flow
configuration, one or more terms are in competi-
tion with (or determine) the inertia term (or thus
the flow). This is explained next.
When the viscous stresses prevail, the
ρu2
proportionality L  μLu2 leads to the Reynolds
In the fire community, this is often simplified to:
u2
Fr ¼ : ð1:45Þ
gL
Expression (1.44) resembles the underlying
physics more than Equation 1.45. On the other
hand, the difference between expressions (1.44)
and (1.45) is no more than a numerical factor,
depending on the densities at hand. Moreover, in
many experiments it is much more straightfor-
ward to measure velocities than mass densities,
so that it is easier to characterize the experimen-
tal set-up through formulation (1.45). This
explains why the use of Equation 1.45 is popular
in diagrams and correlations.
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
If large (imposed) pressure differences occur,
sometimes the Euler number comes into play,
through ρuL  ΔLp:
2
Δp
Eu ¼ : ð1:46Þ
u2
In fire related flows, this is often not relevant.
In buoyancy driven flows, applying
Boussinesq’s hypothesis, the driving force
(Equation 1.42) can also be made dimensionless
as:
L3 gβΔT
Ra ¼ : ð1:47Þ
αν
This is the Rayleigh number. Alternatively, the
Grashof number can be used:
L3 gβΔT
Gr ¼ : ð1:48Þ
ν2
The relation between the two is: Ra ¼ Gr:Pr,
with the Prandtl number as defined in Equa-
tion 1.8. The Grashof number can be interpreted
as a ratio of buoyancy forces (with Boussinesq’s
approximation) to the viscous forces. This is
relevant in boundary layers (see below).
Scaling
In this section, scaling is briefly discussed in the
context of fluid mechanics. As such, only the
momentum equation is considered, albeit that at
the end of this section, some remarks are
formulated on the fire heat release rate (using
the energy equation) and the study of unsteady
phenomena (using the mass conservation equa-
tion). As a consequence, no comments are
formulated on e.g. convective heat transfer or
conduction through solids, nor on radiation. For
an extensive discussion on scaling, the reader is
referred to [10, 11].
The main non-dimensional numbers in
low-Mach number flows are the Reynolds num-
ber Equation 1.43 and the Froude number Equa-
tion 1.44 (or Equation 1.45). Firstly, it is
mentioned that the only way to preserve both
numbers when scaling (up or down) a flow in a
11
certain configuration, is through the use of differ-
ent fluids. Indeed, assume that the fluid does not
change (and that the densities do not change).
Then preservation of Re reveals that:
Re1 ¼ Re2 ) u1νL1 ¼ u2νL2 ) u2 ¼ uL1 L2 1 . Preserva-
tion of the Froude number (still with the assump-
tion that densities do not change) leads to:
qffiffiffiffi
u2 u2
Fr 1 ¼ Fr 2 ) gL11 ¼ gL22 ) u2 ¼ u1 LL21 . Clearly,
this is inconsistent with the requirement, stem-
ming from the preservation of the Reynolds num-
ber. Both numbers can be preserved if, starting
from the requirement for preservation of the
Froude number, the fluid’s viscosity is modified
such that also the Reynolds number is preserved.
This is not straightforward.
Fortunately, both the Reynolds number and
the Froude number have the property that, as
soon as they are large enough, their actual value
becomes irrelevant. In other words, as soon as
they are sufficiently high, the qualification ‘high’
is sufficient, not the exact number. This is due to
turbulence, overwhelming molecular phenomena
(see next section). This can also be understood
intuitively. The Reynolds number is the ratio of
inertia to viscous damping forces. Either the
damping force is strong enough to overcome
the inherent instabilities in the non-linear con-
vection terms in the Navier–Stokes equations
(laminar flow), almost strong enough (transi-
tional flow) or not strong enough (turbulent
flow). When turbulence is fully developed, the
strength of the viscous stress becomes irrelevant,
i.e. the true value of the Reynolds number
becomes irrelevant. For the Froude number, it is
most instructive to examine expression (1.44).
The driving force for buoyancy is in the denomi-
nator. If density differences become small, buoy-
ancy becomes irrelevant and the Froude number
is high. As such, high values of the Froude num-
ber implies that buoyancy is not important and
thus that the error is small when the Froude
number is not preserved (as long as it stays
sufficiently high).
Knowing this, it is instructive to examine the
order or magnitude of Reynolds number and
Froude number in fire related flows. Indeed, if
one of the numbers can be expected to be high,
12 B. Merci

that number need not be preserved in scaling. temporal evolution of quantities (e.g. tempera-
Typical dimensions are in the order of 1 m: ture) depends on the dimensions of the configu-
pffiffiffi
L ¼ OðmÞ. Typical velocities are in the order of ration as t  L. This is relevant when unsteady
1 m/s: u ¼ Oðm=sÞ. Densities are in the order of phenomena are studied.
1 kg/m3: ρ ¼ Oðkg=m3 Þ. The dynamic viscosity in
gases is in the order of 106 Pa.s: μ ¼
 
O 106 Pa:s . Using these numbers, the Reynolds
  Turbulence
number Equation 1.43 is: Re ¼ O 1:1:1 106
¼
 6 There are numerous text books on turbulence and
O 10 , while the Froude number Equation 1.44
 1:1  turbulent flows, e.g. [12, 13]. Only some intro-
is: Fr ¼ O 1:10:1 ¼ Oð0:1Þ. Obviously, these are
ductory comments are presented here.
rough order of magnitude analyses, but it is clear
that in fire related flows, the choice will be made to
preserve the Froude number, not the Reynolds
Reynolds Number
number, when scaling is applied.
The energy equation also provides informa-
In the previous section it has been mentioned that
tion regarding scaling laws. The simplified for-
the Reynolds number Equation 1.43 is the ratio
mulation (1.36) can be used for fire-related flows.
on inertia to viscous forces. It is well-known that
Yet, temperatures are very important in fire
the convection term in the Navier–Stokes
related flows, so the energy equation should be
equations (1.28) is inherently unstable and that
interpreted in terms of sensible enthalpy, in
the flow becomes turbulent when the viscous
which case the fire heat release rate ( Q, _ in W)
forces are not strong enough to damp the
comes into play. Knowing that, in terms of instabilities, i.e. when the Reynolds number
dimensions, (sensible) enthalpy differences can becomes sufficiently high. Below a certain
be re-written as the product of specific heat and threshold number, the flow remains ‘laminar’.
temperature differences, Equation 1.36 leads to There is no sudden change from ‘laminar’ to
ρc ΔT ρc ΔTu
the following proportionalities: pt  pL  ‘turbulent’: there is a ‘transition’ zone in
Q_ between.
L3
 kΔT
L2
.
This reveals that: Care must be taken in the definition of this
‘critical’ Reynolds number, in the sense that the
Q_  uρc p ΔTL2 : ð1:49Þ length scale must be defined. In flows over
flat plates, it is common practice to use the dis-
It is common practice to scale configurations such tance from the leading edge and Rec is in
that the temperatures remain the same. This also the order of 500.000. In pipe flows, it is
implies that densities do not change (if the same common practice to use the pipe diameter as
fluid is applied). As has just been explained, the characteristic length scale and Rec is in the
Froude number Equation 1.44 is preserved, so order of 2.000.
pffiffiffi
that the velocity scales as  L . As a conse- It is important to stress that the Reynolds
quence, the fire heat release rate scales as: number is a flow property, not a fluid property.
pffiffiffiffiffi 2 Turbulence is typically defined on the basis of
Q_ 1 L1 L
¼ pffiffiffiffiffi 12 ) Q_  L5=2 : ð1:50Þ a number of properties [13]:
_
Q2 L2 L2 • Randomness: there are fluctuations in the
flow;
Finally, it is noteworthy that the conservation of
• Three-dimensionality: even if the mean flow
mass, Equation 1.19, reveals that:
is 2D or axisymmetric, the vortices or ‘eddies’
t  L=u: ð1:51Þ are always three-dimensional;
• There is a wide range of length scales and
Applying Froude scaling, the velocity scales as time scales in the flow. The largest scales are
pffiffiffi
 L, so that expression (1.51) reveals that the determined by the configuration at hand,
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
while the smallest scales are determined by
the Reynolds number. The smallest scales can
easily be 10,000 times smaller than the largest
scales.
• Turbulent mixing is very effective.
• There is a lot of diffusion and dissipation.
Turbulence dies out quickly if not sustained
by velocity gradients in the mean flow.
• There is vortex stretching, transferring energy
from the mean flow to turbulent fluctuations.
It is instructive to briefly explain the
randomness in the flow. Indeed, knowing that
the Navier–Stokes equations (Equation 1.28)
are deterministic, one may pose the question
how it is possible that randomness occurs when
applying deterministic boundary and initial
conditions. The reason is that there are always
small fluctuations, i.e. the boundary and initial
conditions are never known with infinite preci-
sion. Due to the unstable convection terms in the
Navier–Stokes equations, turbulent flows are
extremely sensitive to details and this creates
randomness in the instantaneous flow fields.
This makes it impossible to make long-term
predictions of instantaneous turbulent flow fields
and explains why turbulent flows are tackled in
simulation through statistical approaches (see
below). Obviously, the mean flow can still be
deterministic (see below).
Reynolds Averaging
As mentioned in the previous section, the
fluctuations in a turbulent flow make a direct
analysis through the Navier–Stokes equations
(Equation 1.28) impossible. Therefore, a statis-
tical approach is adopted. The primary interest
is often the mean flow. To that purpose, the
Navier–Stokes equations are averaged. The
concept of Reynolds averaging is explained
first.
Consider a turbulent flow. Measuring a veloc-
ity component (or e.g. a temperature) at a certain
location will then yield a fluctuating signal, as
explained. One can now determine the ‘average’
of that signal. The true definition of a Reynolds
average [12, 13] is that many realizations of the
13
‘same’ turbulent flow are made, repetitive
measurements of the quantity are made at the
same location, and the average value of the
measurements is determined. In a simplified
manner, though, one can think of this procedure
as a time averaging, where the averaging period
Δt is sufficiently long, compared to the largest
turbulent time scales, but sufficiently short com-
pared to time scales associated with possible
variations in the mean flow:
ðt ðt
1 1
vx ðtÞ ¼ vx ðtÞdt; T ðtÞ ¼ T ðtÞdt:
Δt Δt
tΔt tΔt
ð1:52Þ
It is clear that this is only possible if the turbulent
time scales are short, compared to time scales in
the mean flow. The ‘integral’ turbulent time scale
is typically less than 1 s, so in many fire related
flows this concept of Reynolds averaging is
possible.
Using Equation 1.52, the instantaneous value
can be expressed as the sum of the (Reynolds)
averaged value and the instantaneous fluctuation
around that value:
vx ðtÞ ¼ vx ðtÞ þ v,x ðtÞ; T ðtÞ ¼ T ðtÞ þ T , ðtÞ:
ð1:53Þ
Note that:
v,x ðtÞ ¼ 0; T , ðtÞ ¼ 0; vx ðtÞ
¼ vx ðtÞ; T ðtÞ ¼ T ðtÞ: ð1:54Þ
Applying this averaging technique to the conser-
vation equations (1.19), (1.28) and (1.36), the
equations are obtained for the Reynolds-
averaged quantities. They are very similar to
the instantaneous equations, but some additional
terms appear:
• Reynolds stresses in the momentum
equations;
• Turbulent heat fluxes in the energy equation.
This is explained next. For the sake of ease,
the energy equation is simplified here: it is
expressed in terms of temperature and no chemi-
cal reactions, nor radiation, are considered. The
14 B. Merci

averaging of the chemical and radiative source Equations 1.28 and 1.36. The mean value of the
terms is a separate problem, not addressed here. product is not equal to the product of the mean
The additional terms appear as a consequence values:
of the presence of products in the instantaneous

  , , , , , ,
vx v y ¼ ðvx þ v,x Þ v y þ v,y ¼ vx v y þ vx v y þ vx v y þ vx v y ¼ vx v y þ vx v y
  ð1:55Þ
vx T ¼ ðvx þ v,x Þ T þ T , ¼ vx T þ vx T , þ v,x T þ v,x T , ¼ vx T þ v,x T , :

Simplifying further to a steady boundary layer the difference directions are statistically
flow of an incompressible fluid over a flat plate correlated. This is the case, explained from
without external pressure gradient, the main Fig. 1.4, showing a situation in a flow with a
remaining dominant terms are: mean velocity gradient. The discussion is given
here for the top left eddy, but it prevails for all
∂vx ∂v y
þ ¼0 eddies. At the left side of the top left eddy, the
∂x ∂y instantaneous motion is downward, as indicated
  by the arrow. Knowing that the mean velocity in
∂vx ∂vx ∂ ∂vx ∂
vx þ vy ¼ ν  ðv,x v,y Þ the vertical direction equals zero, this implies
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
that v’ < 0. In its downward motion, the eddy
ð1:56Þ brings along fluid with a higher (mean) velocity
  in the horizontal direction into a region with
∂T ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂  , ,
vx þ vy ¼ α  vyT lower (mean) velocity. Thus, the impact is a
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
local increase in horizontal velocity, in other
words u’ > 0. Clearly, from a statistical point
Clearly, the final terms, stemming from turbu- of view the velocity fluctuations in both
lence, are similar in nature to the molecular vis- directions are correlated, in such a manner that
cous stresses and the molecular thermal diffusion u0 v0 < 0. At the right side of the top left eddy, the
terms. The main question is now what the turbu- instantaneous motion is upward (v’ > 0) and
lent correlations look like. Indeed, terms like v,x v,y (in the mean) lower horizontal velocity is
are only non-zero if the velocity fluctuations in brought into a region with (in the mean) higher

Fig. 1.4 Sketch of U

turbulent fluctuations
(eddies) in a flow with a
mean velocity gradient v’ > 0
v’ < 0 v’ < 0

v’ > 0 v’ > 0
v’ < 0

x
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
horizontal velocity, causing u’ < 0. Thus, again
u0 v0 < 0. A similar reasoning can be built up for
the temperature fluxes.
Additionally, it is clear that the fluctuations,
caused by the turbulent eddy motion, will be
larger as the mean velocity (or temperature)
gradients are larger.
The above led to the following ‘eddy viscos-
ity’ modeling concept, introduced by
Boussinesq:
∂vx
v,x v,y ¼ νt ð1:57Þ
∂y
In other words, a ‘turbulent’ or ‘eddy’ viscosity
is simply added to the molecular viscosity in
Equation 1.56. This reflects the physical obser-
vation that momentum transfer increases in tur-
bulent flows through the turbulent motion of
eddies. These cause ‘large scale’ momentum
transfer.
Similarly, this concept can be applied to the
heat fluxes:
∂T
v,y T , ¼ αt ð1:58Þ
∂y
In other words, the addition of the turbulent
thermal diffusivity to the molecular thermal dif-
fusivity reflects the physical observation that heat
transfer increases in turbulent flows through the
turbulent motion of eddies. These cause ‘large
scale’ heat transfer.
Turbulence Modeling
As mentioned above, there is always a wide
range of length scales and time scales in turbu-
lent flows. The higher the Reynolds number, the
wider this range, because the smallest scales
become smaller and smaller.
The largest turbulence scales are called the
‘integral’ scales. The smallest scales are called
the ‘Kolmogorov’ scales. A detailed discussion
of the spectrum is considered beyond the scope
of this section, but it is important to appreciate
that most of the turbulent kinetic energy is in the
integral scale range (‘energy containing range’),
while turbulence is dissipated at scales around
15
the Kolmogorov scales. Indeed, at those scales,
viscous damping ‘kills’ turbulence, i.e. dissipates
the turbulent kinetic energy into heat.
The notion of energy cascade, introduced by
Richardson, is worth mentioning. The basic
mechanism is as follows:
• Energy is taken from the mean flow and trans-
ferred to kinetic energy of turbulent eddies;
this occurs around the integral scales;
• The turbulent eddies break up, transferring
their energy to the eddies of smaller scale;
only little energy is dissipated in this break-
up process;
• The break-up process of eddies continues
(‘cascade process’) until the eddies become
so small that they cannot survive the damping
action of viscosity anymore;
• The dissipation takes place at the smallest
turbulence scales.
It is important to appreciate that, whereas the
dissipation takes place at the smallest scales, the
dissipation rate is determined by the production
rate of turbulence from the mean flow in the
energy containing range (in equilibrium
conditions).
This phenomenology is reflected in the choice
for turbulence modeling in CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics). One extreme approach is not to
model turbulence, i.e. to completely resolve all
turbulent motions, down to the smallest scales.
Knowing that these small scales can easily be in
the order of 0.1 mm or less, and realizing that the
computational mesh needs to be sufficiently fine
to resolve the smallest eddies, it is immediately
clear that this approach is not feasible in typical
fire related flow simulations, where dimensions
are in the order of 1 m. Worse than that, in
addition to unacceptable computing time and
memory requirements, most of the time and
memory would be devoted to simulating the
smallest scales [13], whereas the primary interest
is typically in the large scale flow phenomena
(or in the mean flow).
The other extreme is RANS (Reynolds-
Averaged Navier–Stokes) turbulence modeling.
In this approach, Reynolds averaging (see previ-
ous section) is applied and all turbulent motions,
i.e. the entire turbulent spectrum, are modeled.
Only the mean flow is resolved. The k-ε model
16 B. Merci

belongs to this class of models. The advantages equations itself is modified, the results inevitably
of the RANS approach are clear: the computa- change. This is not the case in RANS
tional mesh only needs to be fine enough to simulations, where the results become indepen-
resolve the mean flows; the time step dent of the mesh applied, provided it is fine
(in transient calculations) can be chosen on the enough.
basis of mean flow phenomena; one immediately For more discussion on turbulence modeling,
gets a solution for the mean flow. There are in the context of reacting flows, the reader is also
major disadvantages, though. Firstly, all turbu- referred to [14].
lence is modeled. Knowing that the largest tur-
bulent scales are configuration dependent, it
cannot be expected that a single RANS model
Boundary Layers—External Flows
can deal with arbitrary configurations in a reli-
able manner. Second, in fire related flows large
In section “Scaling”, it was mentioned that the
scale flow unsteadiness often plays an important
absolute value of the Reynolds number Equa-
role, e.g. in the entrainment process of air into
tion 1.43 becomes irrelevant as Re becomes
flames or smoke. Such unsteadiness is not cap-
high. In other words, the flow can be considered
tured in (unsteady) RANS and must be modeled.
‘inviscid’, i.e. μ ¼ 0. Stated in another manner:
Again, being configuration dependent, RANS
viscosity becomes irrelevant in the
models cannot be expected to be as accurate as
Navier–Stokes equations. This, however, is only
approaches where this unsteadiness is resolved.
true in the absence of solid boundaries. Indeed,
This explains the popularity of the LES
since viscosity is never really equal to zero, there
(Large-Eddy Simulations) technique in CFD for
is a ‘no-slip’ boundary condition at any solid
fire related flows. In this technique, the large
boundary: due to the viscous forces, the fluid
scale eddies are resolved and only the effect of
locally takes the velocity of the solid boundary,
the small scale eddies is modeled. This technique
at the solid boundary. In fire-related flows, the
offers the advantage of resolving the large-scale
solid boundaries typically stand still, so that the
flow unsteadiness (and buoyancy effects). Also,
no-slip boundary condition implies that the fluid
the unacceptable fineness of the computational
velocity equals zero.
mesh as required in DNS is avoided. Yet, there is
In fire related flows, boundary layers appear
a very important caveat. Indeed, in order to guar-
as ‘external’ flows or in ‘internal flows’. ‘Inter-
antee the quality of LES results, 80 % of the
nal’ flows are discussed in the next section.
turbulent kinetic energy must be resolved
Examples of fire related boundary layers in
[13]. It is common practice to use the computa-
external flows are: the flow over surfaces (hori-
tional mesh as filter in the LES approach, i.e. the
zontal or vertical) with e.g. flame spread, flow of
size of the computational mesh cells determines
smoke underneath a ceiling, atmospheric bound-
the size of the eddies still resolved. In many CFD
ary layers in forest fires, etc. An ‘external flow’ is
simulations performed on today’s computers, the
a flow where a ‘free stream velocity’ can be
mesh size is in the order of 10 cm or more. Very
defined, i.e. a velocity that is not affected by the
often, it cannot be guaranteed that 80 % of the
presence of the solid boundary.
turbulent kinetic energy is effectively resolved,
Both the boundary layer flow itself and the
so that care must be taken in the interpretation of
corresponding (convective) heat transfer can be
the CFD results. In other words, blind belief in
of importance in the context of fire.
the exactness of under-resolved LES must be
Consider first the situation of a flow with free
avoided. Also, it must be understood that if the
stream velocity U1 over a smooth flat plate,
computational mesh is used as filter for the
without external pressure gradient, schematically
instantaneous Navier–Stokes equations, as is
shown in Fig. 1.5. At the flat plate, U ¼ 0 (no slip
common practice in the fire safety science com-
boundary condition), whereas ‘sufficiently far
munity, no grid independent results can be
away’ from the plate U ¼ U1. The notion
expected from LES. Indeed, as the filter of the
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 17

Fig. 1.5 Schematic representation of flow over a flat plate (Source: http://www.cortana.com)

‘sufficiently far away’ is related to the thickness Using x as characteristic distance, the follow-
of the boundary layer, which can be defined as: ing Reynolds number can be defined:
y ¼ δ : vx ¼ 0:99U 1 : ð1:59Þ U1 x
Rex ¼ : ð1:61Þ
ν
In words: the boundary layer thickness δ is the
distance from the plate where the velocity equals The viscous shear stress at the plate then
99 % of the free stream velocity. Other measures, becomes:
such as displacement thickness and momentum  
∂vx U1
thickness, can also be used to characterize the τs ¼ μ  ρν
∂y y¼0 δ
boundary layer thickness, but this is not essential
for the present discussion.  1=2
U1 x
Two flow regions can be defined:  ρU 21 : ð1:62Þ
ν
• y < δ: Strong velocity gradients and viscous
shear stresses; This can be expressed in a non-dimensional man-
• y > δ: Negligible velocity gradients and vis- ner, by introducing the friction coefficient:
cous shear stresses.  
From an order of magnitude analysis, in the τs, x U 1 x 1=2
C f,x ¼1 2  ¼ Re1=2 :
assumption that δ  x, with x the distance from 2ρU 1
ν x

the leading edge of the flat plate, and in the ð1:63Þ

assumption of laminar flow in the boundary
layer, it can be shown that the boundary layer The ‘Blasius’ solution for laminar boundary
thickness grows as: layers over smooth flat plates indeed yields:
 1=2 δlam ¼ 4:92xRe1=2 ; C f , x:lam ¼ 0:664Re1=2
μx x x
δlam  : ð1:60Þ
ρU 1 ð1:64Þ

In words: the laminar boundary layer thickness
grows with the square root of the distance from
the leading edge. It is thicker as the kinematic
viscosity is higher. The latter shows that the
influence region of the flat plate is larger for
fluids with higher viscosity.
However, as mentioned, there are inherent
instabilities in the convection terms in the
Navier–Stokes equations. These instabilities are
damped near the flat plate, primarily due to the
blocking effect and the viscous forces, so that
turbulent vortices (eddies) cannot develop.
18
However, as the laminar boundary layer thick-
ness grows with the distance from the leading
edge (Equation 1.60), turbulence can start to
develop. There is a critical Reynolds number
Rex,crit (Equation 1.61) beyond which there is
transition from laminar to turbulent flow. For a
smooth flat plate, Rex,crit is in the order of
500.000.
As mentioned in the previous section, the
momentum (and heat) transfer strongly increase
in turbulent motions, as compared to the aligned
laminar flow, since momentum (and heat) are
transferred on a larger scale through the turbulent
eddies. As a result, the surface friction (and heat
transfer) increase and the boundary layer
becomes thicker. It can be shown that:
τs
δturb ¼ 0:37xRe1=5 ; C f , x, turb ¼ 1 2
x
2ρU 1
¼ 0:0592Re1=5
x :
Thus, a turbulent boundary layer grows more
rapidly than a laminar boundary layer.
Before discussing the turbulent boundary
layer in more detail, it is worth mentioning that,
very similar to boundary layers at the level of
velocities, thermal boundary layers can be
defined. Indeed, the thermal diffusivity α plays
the same role for heat transfer as the kinematic
viscosity ν does for momentum transfer, as men-
tioned before. The thermal boundary layer thick-
ness is defined as:
y ¼ δT : T  T s ¼ 0:99ðT 1  T s Þ;
with Ts the surface temperature at the flat plate.
The Prandtl number (Equation 1.8) then
determines whether the thermal boundary layer
is thicker or not than the flow boundary layer:
• Pr ¼ 1: δ ¼ δT;
• Pr < 1: δ < δT; example: air;
• Pr > 1: δ > δT; example: water.
Now the turbulent layer is discussed in more
detail. Figure 1.6 presents a profile as measured
in a pipe (which is in fact an internal flow, see
next section), but the boundary layer near the
solid boundary is very similar.
The results are expressed in a nondimensional
manner, introducing the friction velocity:
B. Merci
rffiffiffiffi
τs
u* ¼ ; ð1:67Þ
ρ
and the non-dimensional distance from the solid
boundary, expressed in ‘viscous’ units:
yu*
yþ ¼ : ð1:68Þ
ν
Three regions can be distinguished inside the
boundary layer:
• Laminar (or ‘viscous’) sub-layer, y+ < 5:
very close to the solid boundary, all turbu-
lence is damped (due to blocking effect and
viscous forces) and the flow is essentially
laminar. The velocity increases linearly with
the distance from the solid boundary.
• Logarithmic layer, 30 < y+ < 300: the
motion is turbulent and there is a logarithmic
relation between the mean velocity and the
ð1:65Þ distance from the solid boundary.
• Buffer layer: 5 < y+ < 30: transitional region
between the laminar sub-layer and the loga-
rithmic layer.
It must be stressed that the discussion above
refers to smooth surfaces. Roughness on a sur-
face will affect the transition to turbulence and
the turbulent boundary layer structures. This can
be important, e.g. when the wind load on
buildings is considered in built environment or
when wind effects are considered in the context
of e.g. forest fires. This, however, is considered
beyond the scope of the present chapter.
ð1:66Þ
Internal Flows—Flows in Pipes—
Pressure Losses
A major difference from the previous section on
external flows, is that in internal flows the notion
‘free stream velocity’ does not exist. In fully
developed flow conditions, the flow is entirely
affected by the presence of the solid boundary
and, consequently, by the fluid’s viscosity. The
discussion is based here on flows through pipes,
since pipes are a common configuration (e.g. water
through pipes for sprinklers or water hoses in fire
service intervention). Some comments are
formulated for flows through ducts in the end.
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 19

35

Laminar Transition
30 sublayer buffer zone Turbulent core

25

20
u λu u yu
— log10 ——* —= 5.75 log10 ——*+ 5.5
u* v u* v
15

u yu*
— = —–
10 u* v

Nikuradse
5 Reichardt

1 2 3 4 5
yu
log10 ——*
v

Fig. 1.6 Turbulent velocity profiles as measured in a pipe: different regions in boundary layer

When the entrance region of a smooth pipe is When the cross-section is not round, the diam-
considered, a boundary layer develops from the eter D is replaced by the hydraulic diameter Dh,
solid boundary, very similar to what has been defines as four times the cross-sectional area
described in the previous section. However, divided by the cross-section perimeter:
since this boundary layer grows on the entire
surface, there is a point where the entire cross- 4A
section is covered by a ‘boundary layer’. This Dh ¼ : ð1:70Þ
P
point determines the ‘entrance length’. From that
point onward, the boundary layers do not evolve It is straightforward to show that for fully devel-
and the flow becomes fully developed. oped laminar flows, the following expressions
Depending on the Reynolds number, the flow is hold (with R ¼ D/2 the radius of the pipe and r
again laminar or turbulent. It is clear that the dis- the radial distance from the pipe symmetry axis):
tance from the entrance is not a useful characteris- • Parabolic velocity profile:
tic length, since in fully developed flow conditions, 
the velocity profiles are independent of that dis- u r 2
¼2 1 ; ð1:71Þ
tance. Clearly, the pipe diameter is a useful quan- Um R
tity. At the same time, there is no free stream • Wall shear stress (friction):
velocity. A mean velocity Um can be computed
from the volume flow rate and the cross-sectional ∂u Um
τs, lam ¼ μ ¼ 4μ ; ð1:72Þ
area. Thus, the Reynolds number is now defined as: ∂r r¼R R
Um D • Friction factor:
Re ¼ : ð1:69Þ
ν
The critical Reynolds number beyond which the τs, lam 16
f lam ¼ 1 2 ¼ ; ð1:73Þ
flow becomes turbulent is around Recrit ¼ 2300. 2ρU m
ReD
20 B. Merci

64
Laminar flow f = —
R
0.1
Laminar Critical Transition
0.09
flow zone zone
0.08 Complete turbulence, rough pipes
0.07 0.05
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.05 0.02
(Lv 2/D2g)
Friction factor f = —————

0.015
0.04

∈
hL

Relative roughness —
D
0.01
0.008
Rcr
0.006
0.03
0.004
0.025
0.002

0.02 0.001
∈ (ft) ∈(mm) 0.0008
0.0006
Riveted steel 0.003–0.03 0.9–9.0
0.0004
0.015 Concrete 0.001–0.01 0.3–3.0
Wood stove 0.0006–0.03 0.18–0.9 0.0002
Cast iron 0.00085 0.25
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15 0.0001
Asphalted cast iron 0.0004 0.12
Smooth pipes 0.000,05
0.01 Commercial steel 0.000,001
or wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
0.009 Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015
0.000,005

0.008 0.000,01
7 9 103 2(103) 3 4 5 6 7 9 104 2(104) 3 4 5 6 7 9 105 2(105) 3 4 5 6 7 9106 2(106) 3 4 5 67 9 107 2(107) 3 4 5 67 9 108
vD
Reynolds number R = —–
v

Fig. 1.7 Moody diagram

• Pressure loss over a distance L in the pipe: pressure loss is still linear with the length of
the pipe, but proportional to the mean velocity
1 4L
Δ plam ¼ f lam ρU 2m : ð1:74Þ squared and inversely proportional with the
2 D pipe diameter.
Note that the pressure loss is linear with the In duct flows, essentially the same reasoning
length of the pipe and, with Equation 1.73, linear holds. The major difference is in the values for
with the mean velocity and inversely propor- the friction factor f, important to estimate pres-
tional with the square of the pipe’s diameter. sure losses. Secondary flows appear in the
Recall that this is only true for laminar flows. corners of duct, transporting momentum from
For turbulent flows, the expressions become the center to the corners and leading to a relative
more complex. The velocity profile can be increase in velocity near the corners.
approximated as: It is instructive to quantify pressure losses for
 internal flows as:
u r 1=7 Um
¼ 1 , Umax ¼ : ð1:75Þ
U max R 0:817 1
Δ pL ¼ CL ρU 2m : ð1:76Þ
2
Expression (1.74) still holds for the pressure
losses, but the friction factor is no longer The loss coefficient CL must be defined,
obtained from Equation 1.73. The Moody dia- depending on the situation (geometry and flow
gram [14] (Fig. 1.7) reveals that, for large type—laminar/turbulent). All pressure losses
enough Reynolds number, the friction factor must be accounted for in the design. This holds
is determined by the relative roughness of the for e.g. the design of the piping system for
pipe, independent of the Reynolds number. As sprinklers (i.e. what pump must be chosen) or
a consequence, for turbulent flows, the the design of a smoke extraction system
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 21

(i.e. what extraction fans are required to over-

V
come all pressure losses, including the ones in
1
the exhaust system).
Some examples are briefly mentioned here: Static pressure hole
• Straight sections: Moody diagram, see above.
• Curves/bends: CL is determined by the total
angle and the radius of the bend
(e.g. CL ¼ 0.14 for an angle of 90o with radius
2D, but it is about 1.2 for the same angle of
90o but with radius ¼ 0, i.e. a sharp bend).
Curves and bends are always important to
consider in calculations of pressure losses.
 2
• Sudden pipe expansion: CL ¼ 1  AA12 . A (p1 – p)

special case concerns the flow into a large

space, i.e. A2 ! 1. Then CL ¼ 1.
• Sudden pipe constriction: the flow is
constricted and then widens again behind the
constriction. A good estimate for a sudden
constriction is CL ¼ 0.5, while CL goes
down to 0 for a very gentle constriction.
• Flows through openings: CL primarily
depends on the edges of the opening. The
most typical situation is that the edges are
Sharp. In that case CL typically varies
between the values CL ¼ 0.4 and CL ¼ 0.7.
Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation is of fundamental impor-
tance. The equation, valid on any streamline, has
been developed for incompressible flows (liquids).
Yet, it can also be applied to low-Mach number
flows where the density hardly changes (gas flows
in fire related flows, as long as the density along the
streamline does not vary strongly).
With the notation now that z is the height
(i.e. the z-direction is vertically upward),
Bernoulli’s equation reads:
1
p þ ρv2 þ ρgz ¼ const: ð1:77Þ
2 V_ ¼ A2
A few application examples are briefly
mentioned.
Application Example 1: Velocity Measurement
with a Pitot Tube Figure 1.8 shows the basic
Fig. 1.8 Sketch of Pitot tube
principle of a Pitot tube. The flow is stagnated.
By measuring the pressure increase cause by this
stagnation, the velocity can be computed. Indeed,
applying Bernoulli’s Equation 1.77 at constant
height z yields:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1 2ð ptot  pstat Þ
ptot þ ρ02 ¼ pstat þ ρv2 ) v ¼ :
2 2 ρ
ð1:78Þ
Application Example 2: Venturi Flowrate
Meter Figure 1.9 shows the basic principle of a
Venturi meter. It is essentially a converging
cone, from which the flowrate through a pipe
can be calculated. Indeed, applying Bernoulli’s
Equation 1.77 at constant height z yields:
1 1
p1 þ ρv21 ¼ p2 þ ρv22 : ð1:79Þ
2 2
Conservation of mass allows elimination of v1:
v1 ¼ v2 AA21 . Insertion in Equation 1.80 and
introducing V_ ¼ v2 A2 yields:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2A21 ð p1  p2 Þ
  : ð1:80Þ
ρ A21  A22
Application Example 3: Flow Out of a Large
Tank Figure 1.10 sketches the situation. A
large tank is considered, so that the liquid surface
can be approximated as standing still, i.e. v1 ¼ 0.
22
P1, V1 P2, V2
Manometer
Fig. 1.9 Sketch of Venturi meter
p1V1
1 streamline.
z1 p2,V2
z2 2 Wind is an important factor in fire protection
Datum
Fig. 1.10 Outflow out of a large tank
Approximating p1 ¼ p2 ¼ patm, the flow is
generated by the gravity force:
1 2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ρv2 ¼ ρgz ) v2 ¼ 2gz: ð1:81Þ
2
The assumption p1 ¼ p2 ¼ patm is a reasonable
assumption if the tank is open and if the liquid
density is much higher than the density of air (the
latter is practically always fulfilled).
Application Example 4: Flow Through
an Orifice In the previous example, the pressure
driving the fluid out of the tank stems from gravity.
In general, the pressure difference (Δp) over an
opening determines the flow through the opening.
From the (mean) velocity and the cross-sectional
area (A) of the opening, the volume flow rate
through that opening can be computed. A dis-
charge coefficient Cd is introduced, though:
B. Merci
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2Δ p
V_ ¼ Cd A : ð1:82Þ
ρ
This can be interpreted as a ‘correction’ to the
cross-section area that is effectively used for
outflow (or inflow). For an orifice, the value of
Cd is around 0.6 for e.g. open doors or windows,
going up to about 0.7 for flows through small
gaps [10].
Finally, it is mentioned that, when pressure
losses are considered (see previous section),
Bernoulli’s equation can be extended to:
1 1
p1 þ ρv21 þ ρgz1 ¼ p2 þ ρv22 þ ρgz2
2 2
þ Δ pL, 12 : ð1:83Þ
In Equation 1.84, the final term reflects the pres-
sure loss between points 1 and 2 on the
Wind
engineering. An obvious example is the effect
of wind on the development of forest fires,
where convection strongly affects the direction
and speed of fire spread. Another examples
concerns smoke and heat control (SHC) in case
of fire inside a building, where wind will exert a
pressure load onto the building. The distribution
of the load (positive and negative) affects the
performance of the SHC system. The wind can
also induce internal flows into the building,
depending on leakages or open windows or
doors.
It is common practice to consider steady wind
conditions. Clearly, wind gusts can have an
impact in the course of the fire. This is not con-
sidered in the discussion below.
Natural Wind Characteristics
A classical method to characterize the boundary
layer, when there is no detailed information of
surface roughness, is the use of a power law:
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 23

Fig. 1.11 Schematic

representation of wind
flow, interacting with a tall –
building

Plan Rear Eddy Wind

+ –

Side Wake

 α
  z under-pressure on all other sides (including
vðzÞ ¼ v zre f : ð1:84Þ
zre f
The exponent α is given the value α ¼ 1/7 for
‘smooth’ surfaces. This is related to turbulent
boundary layer velocity profiles. Other values
apply for ‘rough’ surfaces, i.e. when ‘obstacles’
such as trees or buildings disturb the boundary
layer. An alternative option is then the use of a
log law expression:
 
v* z
vðzÞ ¼ ln : ð1:85Þ
κ zo
In expression (1.86), v* is the friction velocity
Equation 1.67, κ is the von Karman coefficient
(κ ¼ 0.4) and zo is the aerodynamic roughness
length. The reader is referred to specialized liter-
ature for more details (e.g. [15]).
Interaction of Wind with Buildings
It is well-known that wind, impinging in a perpen-
dicular direction onto a rectangular building,
causes over-pressure on the windward side and
the roof). This is illustrated in Fig. 1.11. This
pressure load distribution affects the performance
of SHC systems and can cause internal flows
(e.g. through open windows or doors), as men-
tioned. However, it must be stressed that
Fig. 1.11 is a strong simplification of reality. Not
only is the wind assumed steady and perpendicular
to one side of the building, it is also not supposed to
be affected by the environment. In reality, tall
buildings are situated in a built environment, so
the oncoming wind profile need not obey
expressions like (1.85) or (1.86) and need not be
unidirectional. For obvious reasons, the direction
of the oncoming wind, even if not disturbed by the
environment, varies in time, depending on atmo-
spheric pressure distributions. Finally, modern
buildings are not necessarily rectangular in shape.
All these factors indicate the need for either small-
scale wind tunnel experiments or extensive CFD
studies. For the time being, since it is necessary to
consider many wind directions and velocities and
the (built) environment can be complex and hard
to characterize as boundary conditions in
CFD simulations, wind tunnel experiments seem
24 B. Merci

 
preferable. The model scale can then be built on a γ Ratio of specific heats γ ¼
Cp
Cv
table that can be turned around in the wind tunnel
to examine various angles of oncoming wind. ν Specific volume (m3.kg1)
To finalize this section, it is recalled that ρ Density (kg.m3)
wind-induced over-pressure and under-pressure
are proportional to the wind velocity squared. Subscripts
This is to be expected from Bernoulli’s equa-
tion 1.77. Clearly, the flow does not stagnate atm Atmospheric
entirely over the entire surface and thus pressure gas Gas
coefficients are introduced: liq Liquid

1
Δ pw ¼ Cw ρamb v2w : ð1:86Þ
2 References
The wind coefficient can be positive (over- 1. G.K. Batchelor (1967) An introduction to fluid dynam-
pressure at the windward side) or negative ics, Cambridge University Press.
(under-pressure). In e.g. [16] more info is found 2. H.D. Baehr (1978) Thermodynamik, Springer Verlag.
3. A. Bejan (1993) Heat transfer, John Wiley and Sons.
on this topic. 4. W.M. Rohsenhow, J.P. Hartnett and E.N. Ganić
(1985), Handbook of Heat Transfer Fundamentals
(2nd ed.), McGraw–Hill Book Company.
Nomenclature 5. K.K. Kuo (1986) Principles of combustion, John
Wiley and Sons.
6. T. Poinsot and D. Veynante (2001) Theoretical and
Av Vent area (m2) numerical combustion, Edwards.
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure (kJ. 7. P.A. Libby and F.A. Williams (1980) Turbulent
kg1.K1) reacting flows, Springer Verlag.
Cv 8. N. Peters (2000) Turbulent combustion, Cambridge
Specific heat at constant volume (kJ.
University Press.
kg1.K1) 9. G. Cox (1995) Combustion fundamentals of fire, Aca-
D Fireball diameter (m) demic Press.
Eav Total expansion energy (kJ) 10. B. Karlsson and J.G. Quintiere (2000) Enclosure fire
L Latent heat of vaporization (kJ.kg1) dynamics, CRC Press.
11. J.G. Quintiere (2006) Fundamentals of fire phenom-
m Flammable mass (kg) ena, John Wiley and Sons.
Mliq Liquid mass (kg) 12. H. Tennekes and J.L. Lumley (1972) A first course in
P Pressure (Pa) turbulence, MIT Press
R 13. S.B. Pope (2000) Turbulent flows, Cambridge Univer-
Distance from explosive material (m)
sity Press.
s Specific entropy (kJ.kg1.K1) 14. L.F. Moody (1944), “Friction factors for pipe flow”,
T Temperature (K) Transactions of the ASME 66 (8): 671–684.
td Duration of the fireball (s) 15. B. Blocken and J. Carmeliet (2004) “Pedestrian wind
u Internal energy (kJ.kg1) environment around buildings: Literature review and
practical examples.” Journal of Thermal Envelope
V Vessel volume (m3) and Building Science 28(2): 107-159.
WTNT Equivalent mass of TNT (kg) 16. J.H. Klote and J.A. Milke (2002) Principles of smoke
Xf Mass fraction of the initial liquid mass management, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
that flashes to vapor
Xg Mass fraction of the initial vapor mass
that does not condense during expansion Bart Merci is a Professor at Ghent University (Belgium).
He is Head of the research unit “Combustion, Fire and
Fire Safety”. Having completed a PhD (Ghent University,
Greek Symbols 2000) on turbulence modeling in CFD simulations of non-
premixed combustion, he is an expert in fluid mechanics
β Fraction of energy released converted into aspects in reacting flows, more particularly related to fire
the blast wave. and smoke dynamics.
 Conduction of Heat in Solids
Ofodike A. Ezekoye
Introduction
Heat transfer is an area of thermal engineering
that focuses on the transport, exchange, and
redistribution of thermal energy. The three
modes or ways that heat can be transferred have
been termed conduction, convection, and radia-
tion. In this chapter, the basic physics associated
with conduction heat transfer will be presented,
and it will be shown through examples how the
tools and analysis typically used for conduction
problems can be applied to design and analysis
when fire occurs.
Conduction heat transfer only occurs in a
medium. This is a distinction between conduction
and radiation, which does not require a medium.
The medium or state of matter in which conduc-
tion takes place can be a gas, liquid, or solid. The
distinction between conduction and convection
heat transfer is associated with whether the
medium has some ordered flow or bulk motion.
Heat transfer, when there is a mass averaged
velocity, is termed convection. Heat transfer that
takes place in a stationary frame of reference is
called conduction. More details will be presented
on the mechanisms that allow heat transfer to
occur in a stationary medium as we proceed
through this discussion. Solutions will be
provided for selected configurations and
O.A. Ezekoye (*)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Texas at Austin, ETC 7.130, MS C2200,
TX 78712, Austin
M.J. Hurley (ed.), SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0_2, # Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2016
2
scenarios. The treatise of Carslaw and Jaeger [1]
covers most solutions for conduction phenomena.
Other useful texts that discuss conduction phe-
nomena are readily available [2, 3]. It is useful to
build up this discussion by first identifying where
conduction heat transfer ties into overall energy
conservation and energy transfer.
Energy Conservation
The fundamental laws that allow us to analyze
and predict fire phenomena are often termed
conservation laws. Conservation laws are essen-
tially balance equations that allow us to model
how variables that describe the physical world
dynamically evolve. In fire systems, we typically
model the physical world using mass conserva-
tion, momentum conservation, energy conserva-
tion, and chemical species conservation. For this
chapter, we are interested in describing how heat
is transferred in media that are not deforming
(i.e., are in rigid body motion with no unbalanced
forces) or reacting (fixed chemical species and
mass). We do assume, however, that the medium
can possibly have heat transferred to it either
through interactions with its surrounding or
through some other energy input into it. Also,
we assume that the medium may have different
amounts of thermal energy stored within it at
different locations. To more precisely describe
energy transfer processes, we rely on the first law
of thermodynamics. The energy conservation
principle is the basis for heat transfer.
25
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Names and
places in the Old and New Testament and
Apocrypha, with their modern identifications
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Names and places in the Old and New Testament and
Apocrypha, with their modern identifications

Compiler: George Armstrong

Editor: C. R. Conder
Sir Charles William Wilson

Release date: March 7, 2024 [eBook #73117]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Alexander P. Watt, 1889

Credits: Brian Coe, Neil Mercer and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was
created from images of public domain material made
available by the University of Toronto Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAMES AND

PLACES IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT AND APOCRYPHA,
WITH THEIR MODERN IDENTIFICATIONS ***
 Transcriber's Note
The Arabic letter hamza is here
represented by the character ʾ
(MODIFIER LETTER RIGHT HALF
RING).
 NAMES AND PLACES
IN THE

Old and New Testament and

Apocrypha,
WITH THEIR MODERN IDENTIFICATIONS.

COMPILED BY

GEORGE ARMSTRONG,
AND

REVISED BY

COLONEL SIR CHARLES W. WILSON,

K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., D.C.L., R.E.,

AND

MAJOR CONDER, D.C.L., R.E.

PUBLISHED FOR THE

COMMITTEE OF THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND

 BY

A L E X A N D E R P. W A T T,
2, PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
1889.
All rights reserved.]
 PREFACE.

This Index has been compiled from the Old and New
Testament and Apocrypha, the alterations in the
Revised Version being noted in their places; from the
‘Memoirs and Name Lists of the Survey of Western
Palestine;’ from that portion which is completed (as
yet unpublished) of the ‘Memoirs and Name Lists of
the Survey of Eastern Palestine;’ from Smith’s ‘Bible
Dictionary;’ from the list drawn up by Sir George
Grove for Clarke’s ‘Bible Atlas’ (S.P.C.K.); and from
Conder’s ‘Handbook to the Bible’ and ‘Primer of Bible
Geography,’ with numerous references to the
‘Quarterly Statements.’ The identifications adopted
are those that will be found on the new maps (to be
issued about the end of this year) of the Old and New
Testament, covering both sides of the Jordan, and
authorized by Colonel Sir Charles Wilson and Major
Conder, R.E.
 The Index to the Old Testament Sites includes
upwards of 1,150 names of places in the Holy Land,
Mesopotamia, Edom, the Desert of Sinai, and Egypt;
being, it is believed, all those that are mentioned in
the Old Testament and the Apocrypha.
The Index to the New Testament Sites contains
162 names, with references to Josephus (Whiston’s),
in addition to those in the New Testament. Of these
names 144 are known, 10 uncertain, and 8 not
identified.
The identifications suggested by Major Conder as
due to the Survey are marked with a star.
There are still 290 places mentioned in the Old
Testament, in the East of Jordan, the Desert and
Western Palestine, which remain to be identified.
Reference is made in every case to the number of
the sheet of the large and small maps on which the
modern name will be found. Under the heading
‘Remarks,’ etc., will be found fuller particulars of the
proposed site from the ‘Memoirs of Western
Palestine.’
G. A.
1, Adam Street,
Adelphi,
March 22nd, 1888.
 OLD TESTAMENT SITES

(Including all the Names to Sites in the Bible and

Apocrypha.)

In the column ‘Modern Identification,’ those marked with a single ? are

doubtful; those with double ?? are very doubtful; those marked with a star
are due to the Survey. Abbreviations—‘R.V.’ is Revised Version; ‘A.V.’ is
Authorized (Old) Version; ‘Mem.,’ with the letters, refers to the Memoirs of
the Survey of Western Palestine; ‘Sh.’ is Sheet or Plan of the Large Map,
with the number where the name is found; ‘B. R.,’ Robinson’s Biblical
Researches.

No.
of Remarks,
Bible and Modern Sheet References, and No.
Refer­ences.
Apocrypha Name. Identifi­cation. on ⅜- of Sheet on Large
in. Map.
Map.

ABANA, River 2 Kings v. Nahr Abanias, 3 One of the rivers

(R.V. ABANAH 12 a branch of and of Damascus.
or AMANAH) the Nahr 4 Now called the
Barada Barada, rising in
the Anti-
Lebanon, near
Zebdany, flowing
through Suk
Wady, Barada,
receiving the
waters of the
copious spring of
ʾAin Fijeh, and
 continuing its
course through
Damascus on to
the great marsh
on the plain
called Bahret el
Kibliyeh.
ABARIM, Num. xxvii. The range of 15 Mountains
Mountains of 12; xxxiii. Neba (Nebo) beyond Jordan,
47, 48; the range of
Deut. Nebo.
xxxii. 49
ABDON Josh. xxi. Kh. ʾAbdeh 6 A city of Ashar, 10
30; 1 miles north of
Chron. vi. ʾAkka. (Mem. I.
74 170; Sh. III.)
ABEL, The 1 Sam. vi. Deîr ʾAbân (?) — Signifying ‘The
Great Stone 18 near Beth- great stone of
of shemesh the meadow’
(R.V.).—M.
Clermont-
Ganneau.
ABEL BETH- 2 Sam. xx. Abl 6 Now a village, 6½
MAACHAH, 14, 15, 18; miles west of
(R.V. ABEL 1 Kings Banias, in
BETH- xv. 20; 2 Naphtali; also
MAACAH) Kings xv. called Abel-
29 maim. (Mem. I.
85 & 107; Sh. II.)
ABEL- Judg. xi. 33 Not identified — A place east of
CERAMIM, Jordan, beyond
(R.V. ABEL- ‘Aroer.’
CHERAMIM)
ABEL-MAIM 2 Chron. Abl — Apparently
xvi. 4 identical with
 Abel Beth-
maachah.
(Compare with 1
Kings xv. 20.)
ABEL- Judges vii. ʾAin Helweh* 10 Jerome places it
MEHOLAH 22; 1 10 miles south of
Sam. xviii. Scythopolis, or
19; 2 at the present
Sam. xxi. ‘ʾAin Helweh,’
8; 1 Kings 9½ miles south
iv. 12; xix. of Beth-shean.
16 (Mem. II. 231;
Sh. XII.)—
Conder.

ABEL-MIZRAIM Gen. l. 11 Not identified — The threshing-

floor of Atad.
‘Beyond Jordan.’
Placed by
Jerome at Beth
Hoglah, on the
west bank.
ABEL-SHITTIM Num. xxxiii. Kefrein, at 14 Known in the
49 northern days of
margin of Josephus as
Ghôr es Abila; 60 stadia
Seîsebân from the river.
The town and
palms have
disappeared; but
an extensive
acacia-grove
and some ruins
still remain on
the plain now
called Seîsebân.
(Conder’s Heth
 and Moab, p.
148.)
ABEZ, Josh. xix. Kh. el Beida 6 A town of
(R.V. EBEZ) 20 (?)* Issachar, named
between Kishion
and Remeth.
Possibly the ruin
el Beida =
‘white,’ at north
limit of the plain
of Esdraelon.
(Mem. I. 309;
Sh. V.)—Conder.

ABRONAH Num. xxxiii. Not identified —

(Ebronah) 34, 35
ACCAD Gen. x. 10 Nisibis (??) — One of the cities
in the land of
Shinar. Nisibis, a
city on the
Khabour river at
the north-east
part of
Mesopotamia,
and midway
between Orfa
and Nineveh, is
generally
believed to
occupy the
ancient site.

ACCARON 1 Macc. x. — See Ekron.

89
ACCHO, Judg. i. 31 ʾAkka 6 St. Jean d’Acre.
(R.V. ACCO) The Ptolemais of
the 1st Book of
Maccabees. A
 seaport town.
(Mem. I. 145,
153, 160; Sh.
III.)
ACHOR, Valley Josh. vii. Wâdy Kelt 14 Now Wâdy Kelt,
of 24, 26; xv. the deep ravine
7; Is. lxv. south of Jericho.
10; Hos. ii. (Mem. III. 167;
15 Sh. XVIII.)
ACHSHAPH Josh. xi. 1; Kefr Yasîf (?)* 6 The present
xii. 20; xix. village, ‘Kefr
25 Yasîf,’ 6 miles
north-east of
‘Accho.’—
Conder. Named
between Beten
and
Alammelech, a
city in Asher. Kh.
Iksâf (Sh. II., p.
119), and Haifa
(Sh. V.), have
also been
proposed. (Mem.
I. 169; Sh. III.)

ACHZIB (1) Josh. xv. ʾAin Kezbeh 14 A city of Judah,

44; Micah (?)* named with
i. 14 ‘Keilah’ and
‘Mareshah.’—
Conder. See
Chezib.
ACHZIB (2) Josh. xix. ez Zîb — The Ecdippa of
29; Judg. Josephus. The
i. 31; v. 17 present town,
‘Ez Zîb,’ 8½
miles north of
 ‘Akka’ in ‘Asher.’
(Mem. I. 155;
Sh. III.)
ADADAH Josh. xv. 22 ʾAdʾadah 14 One of the cities
in the south of
Judah, named
with ‘Dimonah’
and ‘Kedesh.’
Probably the
present ruin
Adâdah in the
desert east of
Beersheba.

ADAM Josh. iii. 16 ed Dâmieh (?) 10 ‘A city on the

Jordan, beside
Zarthan.’ The
name is
probably
preserved in that
of Tell Dâmieh,
near the ford of
ed Dâmieh.
(Mem. II. 387;
Sh. XV.)

ADAMAH Josh. xix. ed Dâmieh* 6 One of the fenced

36 cities of
Naphtali. Now
the ruin ‘ed
Dâmieh,’ 5 miles
west of Tiberias.
(Mem. I. 365;
Sh. VI.)

ADAMI, Josh. xix. Kh. Admah* 10 A place named as

(R.V. ADAM- 33 being on the
NEKEB) border of
Naphtali. The
 present ruin
‘Admah,’ 5 miles
south-west of
the Sea of
Galilee. (Mem.
II. 89; Sh. IX.)—
Conder.
ADAR, or Josh. xv. 3; Not identified — A place on the
HAZAR 1 Macc. south boundary
ADDAR vii. 40–45 of Palestine.
(R.V. ADDAR) ‘Jebel Maderah,’
in the desert, is
proposed for this
site. (Quarterly
Statement, p.
61, 1881.)

ADASA Kh. ʾAdaseh 14 According to

Josephus (12
Ant. x. 5; 5 Wars
xi. 5) was 30
stadia from
Beth-horon. Now
the present ruin
ʾAdaseh, 8 miles
south of Jufna.
(Mem. III. 106;
Sh. XVII.)

ADDAN, or Ezra ii. 59; Not identified — One of the places

ADDON Neh. vii. from which some
61 of the Captivity
returned to
Judea, who
could not show
their pedigree.
ADIDA 1 Macc. xii. Hadîtheh 10 A town on an
38; xiii. 13 eminence (13