Lecture # 2 Date: 31-08-2023

Frictional Forces
Frictional forces are contact forces that resist the relative motion or the tendency of motion
between two objects that are in contact. They arise due to the microscopic irregularities on the
surfaces of objects. Friction plays a crucial role in everyday life and has both positive and
negative effects, as well as various applications.

Here's an overview of the different types of friction and their characteristics:

1. Static Friction:
 Static friction occurs when two objects are in contact but not yet moving relative to
each other.
 It prevents an object from starting to move when a force is applied to it.
 The force required to overcome static friction is called the "limiting friction."
 Once the applied force exceeds the limiting friction, the object starts moving, and static
friction is replaced by kinetic friction.
2. Kinetic Friction:
 Kinetic friction comes into play when two objects are in motion relative to each other.
 It opposes the motion and acts in the direction opposite to the velocity of the moving
object.
 The magnitude of kinetic friction is generally less than that of static friction.
3. Rolling Friction:
 Rolling friction is the frictional force that opposes the rolling motion of an object.
 It's typically smaller than kinetic friction, making it more efficient for transportation.
 Examples include the friction between tires and roads, or between a ball and the ground.
4. Fluid Friction (Drag or Air Resistance):
 Fluid friction, also known as drag or air resistance, occurs when an object moves
through a fluid (liquid or gas).
 It opposes the motion and increases with the speed of the object.
 Fluid friction is important in aerodynamics, as it affects the efficiency of vehicles
moving through air or water.
5. Factors Affecting Friction:
 The type of surfaces in contact: Rough surfaces generate more friction than smooth
surfaces.
 Normal force: Frictional force increases with the force pressing the surfaces together
(normal force).
 Nature of materials: Different materials have different coefficients of friction, which
determine the strength of friction.
6. Applications:
 Friction is essential for walking, gripping objects, and driving vehicles.
 It's used in brakes and tires to control motion and ensure safety.
 Friction is also harnessed in machines like conveyor belts, sanding tools, and clamps.
7. Reducing Friction:
 Lubrication: Introducing a lubricant (like oil or grease) between surfaces reduces
friction.
 Smoothing surfaces: Polishing or using smoother materials can minimize friction.
 Streamlining: Designing objects with aerodynamic shapes reduces air resistance.
 Lecture # 2 Date: 31-08-2023

In summary, frictional forces arise due to the interactions between surfaces and affect the
motion of objects. While friction can be limiting in some cases, it's also crucial for many
everyday activities and technological advancements.

Types of Energy
Energy exists in various forms and can be transformed from one type to another. Here are some
commonly encountered energy types:

1. Kinetic Energy:
 Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
 It depends on an object's mass and its velocity. The greater the mass and velocity, the
higher the kinetic energy.
 Example: A moving car, a swinging pendulum, a flying airplane.
2. Potential Energy:
 Potential energy is stored energy due to an object's position or condition.
 Gravitational potential energy: Based on an object's height above a reference point and
its mass.
 Elastic potential energy: Stored in compressed or stretched objects.
 Chemical potential energy: Stored in chemical bonds of substances.
 Example: A raised weight, a stretched spring, food.
3. Mechanical Energy:
 Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in a system.
 It's conserved in the absence of non-conservative forces like friction.
 Example: A swinging pendulum with both kinetic and potential energy.
4. Thermal Energy (Heat):
 Thermal energy is the internal energy of a substance due to the motion of its particles.
 It's related to temperature and contributes to changes in temperature.
 Example: Heat from a stove, warmth from sunlight.
5. Chemical Energy:
 Chemical energy is stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules in substances.
 It's released during chemical reactions, like combustion or digestion.
 Example: Food, gasoline, batteries.
6. Electrical Energy:
 Electrical energy is carried by moving charges (electric current).
 It's used to power electrical devices and systems.
 Example: Electricity from power outlets, batteries.
7. Nuclear Energy:
 Nuclear energy is released during nuclear reactions (fusion or fission) that involve
atomic nuclei.
 It has immense potential but also carries risks due to radioactivity.
 Example: Nuclear power plants, atomic bombs.
8. Sound Energy:
 Sound energy is produced by vibrations that create sound waves.
 It's transferred through a medium like air or water.
 Example: Musical instruments, talking, thunder.
9. Light (Radiant) Energy:
 Light energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in waves.
 It includes visible light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
 Example: Sunlight, light bulbs, lasers.
 Lecture # 2 Date: 31-08-2023

10. Gravitational Potential Energy:

 Gravitational potential energy is related to an object's height above a reference point
and its mass.
 It's relevant in situations involving gravity, such as lifting objects.
 Example: A raised weight or an object on a hill.

These are some of the major forms of energy, each with its own unique characteristics and
applications. Transformations between these forms of energy play a fundamental role in the
functioning of our universe and the technologies we use.