BUILDING SERVICE SYSTEM DRAINAGE SYSTEM - All the piping within a public or private premises which conveys sewage,
DRAINAGE SYSTEM - All the piping within a public or private premises which conveys sewage, rainwater or other liquid to a point of disposal. A
Lighting - refers to the process of illuminating a home, workplace, or street to make it livable through different technologies such as light bulbs, kerosene
lanterns, charcoal burners, or through daylighting. Its spaces uses a significant amount of energy and can release a large amount of emissions, but the amount
of light that can be obtained for a certain amount of energy varies depending on the fuel used.
Lighting System
1. Basic Light Source - Incandescent, fluorescent, high intensity discharge (HID) etc. 2 . Illumination - Light levels, color rendering controls. 3. Light
fixtures - in offices and other work spaces. 4. Architectural Light - interface between architect, light and/ot electrical consultant on public or special spaces.
5. Introduction of daylight - Fenestration, skylight etc. 6. Exit Lighting - Exit signs, and exit way (evacuation route) light . 7. Exterior Lights - Site,
landscape, building facade, aircrafts warning lights etc.
Lighting Building Sites
 The reasons for installing a system of artificial lighting on a construction site are as follows:
1. Inclement weather, particularly in winter, when a reduction of natural daylight is such that the carrying out of work becomes impracticable.
2. Without adequate light, all activities on construction sites carry an increased risk of accident and injury.
3. Reduces the wastage of labour and materials that often results from working in poor light.
4. Avoids short-time working due to the inability to see clearly enough for accurate and safe working.
5. Improves the general security of the site 6. By enabling work to proceed, losses in productivity can be reduced.
 The following benefits may be obtained by installing and using a system of artificial lighting on a construction site:
1. Site activities will be independent of the availability of natural daylight, and therefore the activities can be arranged to suit the needs of the contract, the
availability of materials, and the personnel involved
2. Overtime and extra shifts can be worked to overcome delays that might occur from any cause
3. Deliveries and collection of materials or plant can be made outside normal site working hours, thus helping to avoid delays and/or congestion.
4. The amount of spoilt material and the consequent rectification caused by working under inadequate light can be reduced.
5. Contractual relationships will be improved by ensuring regular working hours and thus regular earnings.
6. It provides an effective deterrent to the would-be trespasser or pilferer
Planning the lighting requirements depends on: 1. site layout 2. size of site 3. shape of site 4. geographical location 5. availability of an electrical supply
6. and the planned activities for the winter period
When deciding on the type of installation to be used, two factors need to be considered: 1. type of lamp to be used; 2. nature and type of area under
consideration
ILLUMINATION - It can be considered as the measure of light or illuminance falling on a surface. • It is expressed in lux, which is one lumen of light
falling on 1 m^2 of surface, and this can be measured with a small portable lightmeter, which consists of a light-sensitive cell generating a small current
proportional to the light falling on it.
Six (6) Various Types of Lamp
1. Tungsten filament lamp - Ideal for short periods, such as a total of 200 hours during the winter period. • Cheap to buy but are relatively expensive to run.
2. Tungsten halogen lamp - Generally have a life of twice that of filament lamps, and quartz lamps have a higher degree of resistance to thermal shock than
glass filament lamps. • They are dearer than filament lamps and are still relatively expensive to run but should be considered if the running time is in the
region of 1,500 hours annually.
3. Mercury tungsten lamps - Compact, efficient, with a good lamp life, and do not need the expensive starting gear of the vapour discharge lamps.
4. Mercury discharge lamps - Can be used for area lighting where lamps are mounted above 9.000 m high. • Costs for lamps and control gear are high but
the running costs are low.
5. Tubular fluorescent lamps - Uniformly bright in all directions. • Used when a great concentration of light is not required; efficient, with a range of colour
values.
6. High-pressure sodium discharge lamps - Compact, efficient, with a long life. For the best coverage without glare they should be mounted above 13.500
m high. • Cost for lamp and control gear is high but running costs are low, which makes them suitable for area lighting
SITE LIGHTING INSTALLATIONS
These aspects can be considered under the following headings:
1. external and large circulation areas; Areas of local danger such as excavations and obstructions should, however, be marked separately with red warning
lights or amber flashing lamps. • Large areas are generally illuminated by using large, high-mounted lamps, whereas small areas and narrow sites use a
greater number of smaller fittings.
2. beam floodlighting; The beam of light is intense, producing high glare, and it should therefore be installed to point downwards towards the working areas.
• Generally the lamps are selected direct from the manufacturer’s catalogue without calculations.
3. walkway lighting; Tungsten filament and fluorescent lamps can be used to illuminate access routes such as stairs, corridors and scaffolds. • Bulkhead
fittings that can be safely installed with adequate protection to the wiring can be run off a mains voltage of 230 V single-phase, but if they are in a position
where they can be handled a reduced voltage of 110 V single-phase should be used. • Festoon lighting is the readywired lampholders are moulded to the
cable itself, can also be used.
4. Local lightning means a light fixture or array of fixtures that provides illumination over a small area such as a service counter in a warehouse, without
providing any significant general lighting in the surrounding area.
MECHANICAL SYSTEM IN BUILDING INCLUDING VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION - Any building service using machine. Mechanical system
in a building is all about the machines and system that help the building operate smoothly. It basically helps something to move such as water, gas, or
electricity
VARIOUS TYPES OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
1. ELEVATOR An elevator is a conveying device used to move people or freight vertically, usually between floors of a building
TWO BASIC TYPES OF ELEVATOR TECHNOLOGIES.
HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS use a fluid-driven hydraulic jack to lift the elevator car
TRACTION ELEVATORS shave a drive machine with an electric motorand pulley-like (grooved) drive sheavethat holds cables
thatmove the elevator car up or down.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ELEVATORS
PASSENGER ELEVATOR are designed to carry people and small packages. They typically have capacities from 1500 to 5000 lb
(680 to 2300 kg), in 500 lb (230 kg) increments.
FREIGHT ELEVATORS used to carry material, goods, equipment, and vehicles, rather than people from 5000 to 10 000 lb (2300 to
4500 kg), but can be up to 13 tons/26 000 lb (11 700 kg) weight capacity.
2. ESCALATORS a power-driven, continuously moving stair-way system used for transporting people. Moving staircase used as
transportation between floors or levels in subways, building and other mass pedestrian areas
A Moving walkway is a power-driven, continuous, slow-moving conveyor belt that transports people horizontally.
An Inclined moving walkway, also called amoving ramp or power ramp, is a moving walkway that transports people on an incline,
up to a 12° angle of inclination.
COMMON ESCALATOR ARRANGEMENTS
Pallet-type is a continuous series of flat metal plates, called pallets, that are joined together to form a walkway.
Moving belt are comprised of a mesh metal or rubber belt with a rubber walking surface that move over metal rollers
Lift - mechanical device used to raise elements or mechanical lift objects from ground level to a certain height to perform a specific
work with maximum load and minimum efforts.
THREE TYPES OF LIFT – wheelchair, platform, paternoster
PLUMBING SYSTEM DESIGN system of pipes and fixtures installed in a building for the distribution and use of potable (drinkable) water and the
removal of waterborne wastes. the art and tehnique of installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatuses in buildings for bringing in the supply and removing
them inc udes all potable water supply and distribution pipes, all plumbing fixtures and traps; all sanitary and storm drainage systems.
AIRCONDITIONED - The control of temperature, humidity, purity and motion of the air in an enclosed space, independent of outside conditions.
HEATING - process and system of raising the temperature of an enclosed space for the primary purpose of ensuring the comfort of the occupants. By
regulating the ambient temperature, heating also serve to maintain a building structural, mechanical and electrical system.
VENTILATING - Natural or mechanically induced movement of fresh air into or through an enclosed space
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM - system in plumbing which provides and distributes water to the different parts of the building or structure, for purposes such
as drinking, cleaning , washing, culinary use etc. It includes the water distribution pipes control devices, equipment, and other oppurtenances.
FIXTURES - a device that uses water (sink, toilet, dishwasher, etc.
WATER HEATER - large insulated tanks that heat cold water to be distributed in the hot water supply lines
TRUNK LINES - Hot or cold water pipes that serve many fixture
BRUNCH LINES - Hot or cold water pipes that serve only one or two fixtures.
WATER MAIN - supply pipe installed and maintained by a public entity and on public property.
WATER SERVICE - Pipe from the water main to the building supply pipes
METER - Measures the amount of water transported through water service
VALVE - a fitting used to control water flow (located next to the meter)
drainage system does not include the mains of public sewer systems or a private or public sewage treatment or disposal plant
SANITARY DRAINAGE AND VENT PIPING SYSTEM Installed by the plumber to remove wastewater and water-borne wastes from the plumbing
fixtures and appliances, and to provide circulation of air within the drainage piping
SANITARY DRAINAGE Pipes installed to remove the wastewater and water-borne wastes from plumbing fixtures and convey these to the sanitary sewer
and other point of disposal. Part of the drainage system that extend from the end of the building drain and conveys its discharge to the public sewer, private
sewer, or other appropriate point of disposal
PART OF SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEM
1) INTERCEPTORS Device design and installed to separate and retain deleterious, hazardous, or undesirable matter from normal waste
and permit normal sewage or liquid waste to discharge into the disposal terminal gravity.
2) SUMPS AND EJECTORS A sump is a tank or a pit which receives sewage or liquid waste, located below the normal grade of the
gravity system, and must be emptied by a mechanical means. Sewage ejectors may be motor-driven centrifugal pumps, or they may ve
operated by compressed ai
A backwater valve closes to prevent reverse flow from a sewer to low facilities when there is a heavy drainage load for short periods that can
caused building up and overflow of wastes.
Roof Drain is a receptacle design to collect surface or rainwater from an open area and discharge to catch basin. Floor Drain is any pipe which
carries water or waterborne waste in a building drainage system.
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS
HOUSE SEWER It extends from the public sewer to the private sewage-disposal tank to the wall of the building structure and is entirely outside the
building
HOUSE DRAIN The horizontal main inti which the vertical soul and waste stacks discharge. It connects directly to the house sewer.
HOUSE TRAP House traps are an outdated plumbing feature that were originally intended to keep sewer gasses out of your living area. To do this, a house
trap collects water to block odors from escaping through the drains.
FRESH AIR INLET It is intended to admit fresh air to drainage system so that there will be a free circulation without compression throughout the house
drain and stacks discharging above the roof.
SOIL AND WASTE STACKS The soil and waste stack collects the sewage from the fixtures through their branches.
FIXTURES BRANCHES Connects the fixtures with the stack. Waste or soil branches are connected to the trap of each fixtures
TRAPS Traps catches water after each discharge from a fixture to not to allow unpleasant and obnoxious gases in a sanitary drainage system to escape
through the fixture
VENTS Are the extension of soil and waste stack through the roof and a system of pipes largely paralleling the drainage system for the admission of air and
discharging of gases
VENTILLATION SYSTEM A system of pipes, fittings and their devices installed for the purpose of providing circulation of air and creating balanced
atmospheric condition within the system thereby preventing siphonage and backpressure.
SOIL PIPE - A pipe that conveys the discharge of water closets or similar fixtures containing fecal matter, with or without the discharge of other. Fixtures to
the building drain or building sewer.
WASTE PIPE - A pipe that coveys only liquid waste free of fecal matter. Also, a waste pipe is generally smaller that a soil pipe because of the nature of
matter being discharge into the system. A waste pipe may be connected directly or indirectly depending on the type of fixture.
3 BASIC TYPES OF PLUMBING SYSTEM - SUPPLY LINES, FIXTURE, DRAIN
PLUMBING AND SANITATION SYSTEM
SEWAGE DISPOSAL - Sewage disposal system means sanitary drainage systems, septic tanks, leaching pits, surface and subsurface leaching filter beds,
and appurtenances, or other approved facilities for the disposal of sewage by means other than through a public sewer.
SANITARY SEWER A system of underground pipes that carries sewage from bathrooms, sinks, kitchens, and other plumbing components to a wastewater
treatment plant where it is filtered, treated and discharged.
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT - type of wastewater treatment which aims to remove contaminants from sewage to produce an effluent that is suitable to
discharge to the surrounding environment or an intended reuse application, thereby preventing water pollution from raw sewage discharges. The stages of
sewage treatment include pretreatment, primary, secondary and tertiary sewage treatment
SEPTIC TANK - s an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for basic sewage
treatment.
ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION, AND SECURITY
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE SYSTEM
ELECTRICAL SERVICE SYSTEM An electrical service is a type of electrical circuit. It consists of a pipe, meter, wires, electrical panel, and grounding
system. The amount of electricity flowing through the pipe is measured in Amps. A typical residential service size is 60, 100, or 200 Amps. The electrical
service panel is an integral part of the home’s electrical system.
ELECTRICAL SUPPLY Electrical power is provided to the building by the Government. Electricity is distributed in small towns and villages by overhead
wires. But in large cities and towns, the distribution is done through underground cables
THREE MAIN PARTS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM ; POWER SOURCE - a device or machine that supplies electric power to a system.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM- helps to distribute that energy to the various loads LOAD DEVICES - uses the energy from the system, such as lights,
appliances, and motors.
SYSTEM USED FOR DISTRIBUTION OF POWER • Single Phase – Two wire system (230v) • Three Phase – Three wire system (440v)
ACCESSORIES OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
1. CABLES It consist of copper or aluminium conductors surrounded by insulation. Aluminium conductors are used to reducing the cost
but they are inferior in quality compared to copper cables. Now-a-days stranded wires are commonly used for better performance.
Rubber or PVC insulation may be made. In moist or wet conditions PVC insulation may fare better than rubber.
2. FUSES Basically, a fuse protects appliances and cables from damage by electrical faults. The current rating of fuses should be lower
than that of the cable it has to protect. Two types of fuses are in use, viz., Rewirable or semi-enclosed fuses and cartridge fuses.
3. CIRCUIT BREAKER is an overcurrent protective device also designed to function as a switch. It is equipped with an automatic
tripping device to protect the branch circuit from overload and ground fault.
4. BRANCH CIRCUIT Is defined as the circuit conductors between the final overcurrent device protecting the circuit and the outlets.
This means that the branch circuit is only the wiring between the circuit overcurrent protection device such as fuses or circuit breaker
and the outlets.
5. PANELBOARD is a single panel or group of panel units designed for assembly in the form of a single panel. This includes buses,
automatic overcurrent protective devices, and with or without switches for the control of light, heat or power circuit. It is designed to
be placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or against a wall or partition and accessible only from the front
IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER WHEN BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE SYSTEM
OVERHEAD SERVICE-DROP CONDUCTOR -This is the overhead service conductor from the last pole or other aerial support to and including the splices
if any, connecting the service entrance conductors at the building or other structure
UNDERGROUND SERVICE-LATERAL CONDUCTOR This is the underground service conductor between the street main, including any risers at a
pole or other structure or from transformers, and the first point of any connection to the service-entrance conductors in a terminal box or meter or other
enclosure with adequate space, inside or outside the building wall
INSULATION Service-lateral conductor shall withstand exposure to atmospheric and other conditions of use without detrimental leakage of current
SERVICE ENTRANCE It is the conductor and equipment for delivering energy from the electricity supply system to the wiring system of the premises
served
KINDS OF LOCATION TO CONSIDER BEFORE BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE SYSTEM
DAMP LOCATION - Partially protected locations under canopies, marquees, roofed open porches, and likelocations, and interior locations subjected to
moderate degree of moisture, such as some basements, some barns, and some cold-storage warehouses.
DRY LOCATION- A location not normally subject to dampness or wetness. A location classified as dry may be temporarily subject to dampness or wetness,
as in the case of a building under construction.
WET LOCATION - Installations underground or in concrete slabs or masonry in direct contact with the earth, and location subject to saturation with water
or other liquids, such as vehicle washing areas, and locations exposed to weather and unprotected. HAZARDOUS (CLASSIFIED) LOCATIONS -
Locations where fire or explosion hazards may exist due to flammable gases or vapors, flammable liquids, combustible dust, or ignitable fibers or flyings
COMMUNICATIONS AND SECURITY
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM a part of electrical system that uses electrical power to generate process, store or transmit information, thus auxiliary
electrical system are also considered information system. Facility consisting of the physical plants and equipment for disseminating information,
communication equipment, booster amplifier, booster station, relay link, relay station, relay transmitter, booster – an amplifier for restoring the strength of a
transmitted signal.
SETTING UP A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM IN A BUILDING
1.COMMUNICATION CLOSETS shall meet the requirements of EIA/TIA Standard 569: Commercial Building Standard for Telecommunications
Pathways and Spaces (and related bulletins.)
2. PLANNING GRID, FLOOR GRID AND CEILING GRID a common planning grid is to be used in buildings. Communication elements in floors and
ceilings are given precise locations within the planning grid.
3. HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF POWER AND COMMUNICATIONS in new construction, the building shall have raised access flooring. In
buildings with access flooring, power circuits should be provided via conduit, modular wire distribution boxes and modular wire cable sets to flush floor
receptacles. Communication cables can be laid exposed directly on the slab and grouped together in rows 3600 m (12 ft) on center.
4. POWER, DATA AND TELEPHONE CABLES -Power, data and telephone cables shall be grouped together in pathways that are separated into channels
for each system.
5. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION -risers for normal power, emergency power and communications should be combined with other core elements to form
compact groups and maximize usable floor space.
Recording Information All security-related activities should be recorded through a computer-based printer or file to register the sequence of events.
Closed circuit television (CCTV) A wired self-contained television system. Although it is widely used in security applications, it is also used in industrial
process controls, business promotion, sports training, traffic controls, experimentation, data filling, etc.
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM –
CESAR MARTIN GOMEZ AND AMAIA ZUAZUA “The prevention of fires in a building is an obsessive concern for humankind because… …THE
FIRE THAT HEATS IS THE FIRE THAT CAN DESTROY EVERYTHING.
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM An important component of a building’s safety plan, regardless of whether it’s a commercial facility, hospital, or
educational facility.
ROLE OF A CIVIL ENGINEER Protect people and their environment from destructive fires. Includes analysis of fire hazards; mitigation of fire damage
by proper design, construction, arrangement, and use of buildings, materials, structures, industrial processes, and transportation systems; the design
installation and maintenance of fire detection and suppression and communication system; and post-fire investigation and analysis.
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENTS -Standpipe and hose systems -Fire alarm -Sprinklers -Fire extinguisher
Standpipe and Hose Systems Standpipe systems consist of piping and hose connections installed throughout a building to provide reliable water for the
manual suppression of a fire by either the fire department or trained personnel.
Wet System A "wet" standpipe is filled with water and is pressurized at all times. In contrast to dry standpipes, which can be used only by firefighters, wet
standpipes can be used by building occupants
Dry System Dry standpipes are not filled with water until needed in fire fighting. The pipe is in place permanently with an intake usually located near a road
or driveway, so that a fire engine can supply water to the system.
Fire Alarm -A fire alarm system is a building system designed to detect and alert occupants and emergency forces of the presence of smoke, fire, carbon
monoxide, or other fire-related emergencies. Fire alarm systems are required in most commercial buildings.
Automatic Sprinkler System -A fire sprinkler system is a type of automatic extinguishing system (AES) that prevents fire growth and spread by releasing
water through a series of sprinkler heads connected to a distribution piping system. Water is released through the sprinkler heads once the surrounding air
reaches 165 degrees Fahrenheit.
Fire Extinguisher -A fire extinguisher is a device which can be used to control a fire. It also can help remove the fire, and may stop it from burning.
FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION
Fundamentals of Building
BUILDING COST - In the construction industry, one of the main challenges is managing building projects that have unique features and requirements.
However, all projects have elements things in common: a scope of work, a time schedule, and a budget. Construction cost estimation is a fundamental skill
for engineering firms and contractors since important project decisions are based on costs.
INFLUENCES ON CONSTRUCTION COSTS
BUILDING SITE - One of the primary factors that influences cost is the building site.
LOCATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION - Similarly, the location of the construction site relative to economic centers can also be significant.
TIME-RELATED ASPECTS - Time-related aspects can also affect costs significantly. Chief among these is the project schedule, as a compressed, labor-
intensive schedule will incur higher costs and rush charges.
SIZE & COMPLEXITY OF PROJECT - The size and complexity of the project are other major influences on cost estimates. Larger, more prestigious
projects may attract more reputable contractors, or there may simply be few firms capable of handling the project.
INFLUENCES ON CONSTRUCTION COSTS
QUALITY OF PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS - The quality of plans and specifications are also vital factors, as is the contractor’s relationship with the
project engineer.
OTHER FACTORS - Some other factors that affect the project cost include whether a government or quasi-governmental agency commissions or funds the
project, a circumstance which may require additional paperwork and reporting.
COST ESTIMATION - A project’s budget has the potential to impact nearly every facet of the project, making it one of the most critical responsibilities of
a project manager. A poorly designed budget leads to improper asset allocation, unrealistic expectations, and potentially, a failed project. Simply put, a
budget must be accurate for a project to succeed. Cost estimation is one of the most effective tools in the project manager’s tool belt for planning an accurate
budget.
MAJOR TYPES OF BUILDING COST ESTIMATE A cost estimate is predicted expenditure of a project which is generally prepared before the project is
taken up. It is prepared in different types based on the requirement of project. The construction cost estimates can be prepared either in a detailed manner by
taking into consideration item by item or can be calculated approximately without going much into the details.
DESIGN ESTIMATES In the planning and design stages of a project, various design estimates reflect the progress of the design. The costs associated with
a facility may be decomposed into a hierarchy of levels that are appropriate for the purpose of cost estimation.
A. Screening Estimate or Magnitude Estimate, B. Preliminary Estimate or Conceptual Estimate, C. Detailed Estimate or Definitive Estimates
D. Engineer's Estimate - The engineer's estimate is based on the completed plans and specifications when they are ready for the owner to solicit bids from
construction contractors. Since it is based on the construction documents, a simple template can help give an initial assessment of costs involved in a project.
BID ESTIMATES - Contractors prepare bid estimates when bidding to construct the project. The contractor's bid estimates often reflect the desire of the
contractor to secure the job as well as the estimating tools at its disposal is not a successful bidder. Consequently, the contractor may put in the least amount
of possible effort for making a cost estimate if it believes that its chance of success is not high.
The direct cost of construction for bid estimates is usually derived from a combination of the following approaches.
a.Subcontractor Quotations If a general contractor intends to use subcontractors in the construction of a facility, it may solicit price quotations for various
tasks to be subcontracted to specialty subcontractors. Thus, the general subcontractor will shift the burden of cost estimating to subcontractors.
b.Quantity Takeoffs If all or part of the construction is to be undertaken by the general contractor, a bid estimate may be prepared on the basis of the
quantity takeoffs from the plans provided by the owner or on the basis of the construction procedures devised by the contractor for implementing the project.
c.Construction Procedures The contractor may want to assess the actual cost of construction by considering the actual construction procedures to be used
and the associated costs if the project is deemed to be different from typical designs. Hence, items such as labor, material and equipment needed to perform
various tasks may be used as parameters for the cost estimates.
CONTROL ESTIMATES - Both the owner and the contractor must adopt some base line for cost control during the construction. For monitoring the
project during construction, a control estimate is derived from available information to establish:
a.Budget estimate for financing
b.Budgeted cost after contracting but prior to construction
c. Estimated cost to completion during the progress of construction
OTHER TYPES OF BUILDING COST ESTIMATE
1.Cube Rate Cost Estimate 2.Approximate Quantity Method Cost Estimate 3.Revised Cost Estimate 4.Supplementary Cost Estimate 5.Plinth Area Cost
Estimate
ELEMENTS OF A CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATE
1.Quantity Take-Off 2.Labor Hour 3.Labor Rate 4.Material Prices 5.Equipment Costs 6.Subcontractor Quotes 7.Indirect Costs 8. Profits
9.Contingencies 10. Escalation 11. Bonds 12. Capital Costs 13. Operations and Maintenance Costs 14. Variances
MAJOR APPROACHES TO CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATION
Cost estimators rely on a number of estimation techniques, which vary in speed and potential accuracy. The major approaches to cost estimating include:
1.PRODUCT FUNCTION - A production function relates the amount built (the output) to factors such as materials and labor (the input). So if you want to
achieve a certain level of output (number of square feet built), you look for the optimal input (labor hours per square foot) Production functions can be quite
accurate for forecasting input-output relationships for projects of a particular type, and there is extensive data to draw from for certain project types, like
schools and hospitals, for example.
2.STICK ESTIMATING - Highly accurate, but incredibly time consuming, stick estimating is the practice of determining total costs by listing, in order, the
costs for every single component of a job. The sheer amount of time it takes to produce a stick estimate invites errors due to loss of concentration or
carelessness.
3.EMPIRICAL COST INFERENCE - This statistical method uses regression analyses to relate the cost of construction to a model of predictors. The
accuracy of this method depends on the quality of the predictive model, so it calls for a good degree of familiarity with individual predictors of total
construction costs and a knowledge of statistical methods.
4.Unit cost estimating simply associates unit costs with each assembly involved in a construction process. It’s fairly quick and accurate, especially if one
has used the assemblies previously, and there is evidence to justify the unit costs for each assembly.
5.ALLOCATION OF JOINT COSTS
Data Required Preparing Estimate: Plan, Elevation & section, Schedule of opening of door and windows, Foundation drawing,
Column & Beam drawings
STEPS FOR ESTIMATION OF BUILDING
1. INTERPRETATION OF DRAWING - Before you directly start calculating quantity, you must precisely and correctly read the construction drawing.
Check dimension of each block is provided or not. The check Schedule of the opening is there. Check specification of work. Check the thickness of the wall
is same or changes. Check Rise and tread dimension of the stair. Check type of foundation and its details drawing.
2. PREPARE ESTIMATION SHEET - While taking length, width and depth/ height dimension remember that not all dimensions are given in drawing.
Some dimensions you need to calculate from drawing also.
3. CALCULATING QUANTITY –
CREATING BILL OF QUANTITIES - Contractors who are bidding for a job will create a document called the bill of quantities, which is an itemized list
of the work and materials required for a construction project. This is a crucial step in determining the cost of the work before bidding. Creating a bill of
quantities is a four-step process that used to be done painstakingly by hand on paper and is now usually done with spreadsheets or specialized software.
TAKING-OFF QUANTITIES - Working from the construction documents, a quantity surveyor will measure the tasks and items of work in a project. This
requires scaling dimensions from drawings. One will record these in standard units such as area, volume, or length. The surveyor will list the number of each
item in the project.
SQUARING The quantity surveyor multiplies the dimensions of the component into square area and multiplies this by the number of times this work item
occurs in the construction, thus getting the total dimensions, length, volume, and area as applicable.
ABSTRACTING is the collecting and ordering of the squared dimensions. Similar tasks and components are grouped together. Once you have taken off and
squared all items and have obtained total dimensions, they must be merged. You make deductions for any voids or openings in the building, such as stairs.
BILLING - This last step simply involves presenting item descriptions and quantities in a structured format, the bill of quantities. You usually present these
in a hierarchy for group, subgroup, and work section. (Examples include substructure, earthwork, and site clearance.)
Life cycle cost is an approach that assesses the total cost of an asset over its life cycle including initial capital costs, maintenance costs, operating costs and
the asset's residual value at the end of its life. Life Cycle Costing is an important economic analysis used in the selection of alternatives that impact both
pending and future costs. It compares initial investment options and identifies the least cost alternatives for a twenty-year period. LCCA is a process of
evaluating the economic performance of a building over its entire life. Sometimes known as “whole cost accounting” or “total cost of ownership,” LCCA
balances initial monetary investment with the long-term expense of owning and operating the building.
Factors Affecting the LCCA
It’s important to understand how these costs and factors are identified such that expectations are clearly managed. This information is conceptual in nature
and includes are Rough Order of Magnitude (ROM) pricing, budgetary annual costs, and typical life spans.
1. Initial Costs - Early in the design process as a building is beginning to take shape (i.e. pre-schematic design) the design team and/or general contractor
begin to conceptualize building systems/components. It’s common that two to three options are considered and need to be evaluated. The team will develop
some high-level preliminary design criteria to evaluate initial costs These are ‘rule of thumb’ methods of sizing building systems such as square foot per ton.
By applying these unitary measurements to the overall building program, the team can identify relative initial costs for different systems. Overall
construction duration is also considered during this effort as that can affect the overall project budget. .
2. Operating & Maintenance Costs - O&M Costs include the cost to operation (i.e. energy/utility costs) as well as costs associated to keep the system in
good working order, i.e. maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can also include replacement parts (i.e. filters, touch-up, cleaning), preventative replacement
parts, routine technician visits, etc. Developing these projected maintenance costs requires working with local representatives of each proposed
system/component to understand their required upkeep
3. Lifespan - This is the expected lifespan of the systems/building component. This information is typically available from manufacturer representatives and
also engineering team members. Proper budgeting for O&M Costs can and will increase the life span substantially.
4. Cost of Ownership - This is a total of Initial Costs plus O&M Costs over the Life Span of the product. It’s important to recognize the total cost of
ownership does not include replacement costs down the road. Substantial cost of ownership differences can be witnessed between lower initial cost solutions
with higher O&M costs and smaller life spans and higher up front cost solutions that minimize O&M costs and last significantly longer.
5. Additional Factors - As mentioned previously, there are extensive considerations beyond LCCA such as aesthetic, constructability, functionality, and non-
monetary implications (such as environmental comfort, desirability, availability, etc.). These factors are specific to the development team and also local code
requirements. The development team should consider these factors in addition to the LCCA factors.
Basic Formula for Calculating Life-Cycle Cost
1. Initial Cost (IC) - This is the amount of your initial investment. Initial costs may include capital investment costs for land acquisition, construction, or
renovation and for the equipment needed to operate a facility.
2. Capital Replacement Cost (CRC) The number and timing of capital replacements of building systems depend on the estimated life of the system and the
length of the study period. Use the same sources that provide cost estimates for initial investments to obtain estimates of replacement costs and expected
useful lives.
3. Residual or Salvage Value (SV) The residual value of a system (or component) is its remaining value at the end of the study period, or at the time it is
replaced during the study period. Residual values can be based on value in place, resale value, salvage value, or scrap value, net of any selling, conversion, or
disposal costs.
4, Energy Cost (EC) Operational expenses for energy and other utilities are based on consumption, current rates, and price projections. Energy costs are
often difficult to predict accurately in the design phase of a project. Assumptions must be made about use profiles, occupancy rates, and schedules, all of
which impact energy consumption.
5. Water Cost (WC) - Operational expenses for water and other utilities are based on consumption, current rates, and price projections.
6. Operating, Maintenance, & Repair Cost (OMR) Sometimes, fuel and utility costs are included in this type of cost. Although it may sound similar to
maintenance costs, operational costs refer to the charges incurred with running the asset itself. This is likely to include items like fuel and utility, IT services,
taxes, and so on.
7. End-of-Life Cost (ELC) You should think about end of life costs, also known as disposal or demolition costs, which may include the charges associated
with removal or scrapping.
8. Depreciation Cost (DC) It’s also important to consider the extent to which the asset’s value depreciated over its usable life to determine the total cost of
the asset.
9. Other Costs (OC) If any, this refers to contract administration costs, financing costs, employee salaries and benefits, and so forth.
1. Sensitivity analysis is the technique recommended for energy and water conservation projects by FEMP. Sensitivity analysis is useful for: • identifying
which of a number of uncertain input values has the greatest impact on a specific measure of economic evaluation,
2. Break-Even Analysis Decision-makers sometimes want to know the maximum cost of an input that will allow the project to still break even, or
conversely, what minimum benefit a project can produce and still cover the cost of the investment.
Supplementary Measures measures of economic evaluation are sometimes needed to meet specific regulatory requirements. All supplementary measures
are relative measures, i.e., they are computed for an alternative relative to a base case.
Parameters for Present Value Analysis
Discount Rate In order to be able to add and compare cash flows that are incurred at different times during the life cycle of a project, they have to be made
time-equivalent. To make cash flows time-equivalent, the LCC method converts them to present values by discounting them to a common point in time,
usually the base date.
Cost Period(s) o Length of Study Period The study period begins with the base date, the date to which all cash flows are discounted. The study period
includes any planning/construction/implementation period and the service or occupancy period. The study period has to be the same for all alternatives
considered.
Discounting Convention oIn OMB and FEMP studies, all annually recurring cash flows (e.g., operational costs) are discounted from the end of the year in
which they are incurred; in MILCON studies they are discounted from the middle of the year. All single amounts (e.g., replacement costs, residual values)
are discounted from their dates of occurrence.
Treatment of Inflation An LCCA can be performed in constant dollars or current dollars. Constant-dollar analyses exclude the rate of general inflation, and
current-dollar analyses include the rate of general inflation in all dollar amounts, discount rates, and price escalation rates.