IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS→

Engineering geology deals with the study of the structure of the earth in relation to the civil engineering for
the execution of safe and cost-effective design for construction projects.
Every civil engineering works involve earth and its features. Geological information are necessary in every
stage of the project be it planning, designing or construction phase of the project .
GEOLOGY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING -

The value of geology in " Mining " has long been known but its use in " Civil Engineering " has been recognised
only in comparatively recent years . The importance of geology in civil engineering may briefly be out lined as
follows .
1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material , its occurrence , composition , durability
and other proper ties . Examples of such construction materials are building stones , road metal , clays ,
limestones , and laterite .
2. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as water , wind , ice and earthquakes helps
in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works . For example the knowledge of crosion ,
transportation and deposition helps greatly in solving the expensive problems of river control , coastal and
harbour work and soil conservation .
3. Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks . The knowledge about its quantity and
depth of occurrence is required in connection with water supply , irrigation , excavation and many other civil
engineering works .
4. The foundation problems of dams , bridges and buildings are directly concerned with the geology of the
area where they are to be built . In these works drilling is commonly undertaken to ex plore the ground
conditions . Geology helps greatly in interpretat ing the drilling data .
5. In tunneling , constructing roads , canals , docks , and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes , the
knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary .
6. Before starting a major engineering project at a place , a detailed geological report which is accompanied by
geological maps and sections , is prepared . Such a report helps in planning and con structing the project .
7. The stability of the civil engineering structures is considerably increased if the geological features like faults ,
joints , bedding planes , folding , solution channels , etc. in the rock beds are proper ly located and suitably
treated .
8. In the study of soil mechanics , it is necessary to know how the soil materials are formed in nature .
9. The cost of engineering works will considerably be reduced if the geological survey of the area concerned is
done before hand .
For a major engineering project precise geological survey is carried out and the results thus obtained are used
in solving engineering problems at hand . Although the geological work is done by an engineering geologist ,
this does not mean that the civil engineers have nothing to do with the geology . For the civil engineers , the
knowledge of geology is essential for understanding the geological reports and for using the geological data
for solving engineering problems . If adequate geological investigations are carried out before constructing
major engineering works , many disasters can be prevented and human life and properties can be saved .
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINTS AFFECTED AREA →
FOLDING
Effects of folding –
 change in attitude
 shattering of rocks
 weak in strength parameters
 porous and pervious in nature
 strained structure
 IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Location of Tunnels –
 Folded rocks are greatly strained , their removal for tunneling can cause rock explosions along crests folds ,
the rock are in the tension therefore highly unstable.
 Along the trough rocks are highly compressed hence tough offer greater resistance to excavation for
tunneling hence tunneling can be done along the limbs .
Quarrying –
 It should be done along the limbs because of better quality of rocks are available Fractures associated with
crests and troughs are absent along the limbs.
 Seepage problems along the crests and troughs can be avoided .
Groundwater occurrence -
 Synclines often furnish excellent conditions to tap ground water .
 Artesian wells and springs originate from synclines.
 Fractures present in folded strata act as channels for ground water movement.
Oil , Gas and Ore deposits –
 Oil and gas deposits are often associated with anticlines.
 Suitable Cap rocks are also essential requirement.
 Crests of folds offer convenient places for the occurrence of ore deposits.
Railway and Roads track along hill slopes –
 Ground stability depends on the mutual relation of the dip of the beds and slope of the cutting.
 If the surfaces slope and the dip are in opposite directions the ground is stable.
 If the surface slope and the dip collide the ground is unstable

FAULTING
EFFECTS OF FAULTING
 Fractures and shattering of rocks along fault zones
 Serves as pathways for water causes leakages
 Fault zone lubricated with water are potential sites for further movement
 Gouge and breccia ( a rock composed of sharp segments embedded in a fine grained mistrix such as sand
or clay ) causes problems .
 Faults bring together different rocks hence homogeneity is lost
IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Location of dams / reservoirs –
 Faults cause leakage of water , if present in the reservoir basin.
 Downstream dipping faults cause excess uplift pressure.
 Fault zone occurring in the upstream of the river , leads to erosion and accelerated reservoir silting.

Location of tunnels -

 Faults zones , being heavily fractured makes tunneling unstable.

 Groundwater associated problems are likely to occur.
 Renewed faulting an lead to ground displacement.

Quarrying –
 Quarrying in fault zones produce inferior materials quantitatively and qualitatively.
Ground water occurrence –
 Fault zones being heavily fractured provides space and storage of ground waler and permits their
movement .
Laying roads and railway tracks along hill –
 Faults zones are highly undesirable for construction of roads and railway due of the possibility of landslides

Oil gas and deposits –

 Faults zones are often rich in minerals they favor different process that eventually lead to mineral
formation
JOINTS
EFFECTS OF JOINTS –
 Sources of weakness in rocks , pathways for seepage of water .
 Jointed rocks , lubricated by the presence of water are susceptible to motion.
 Joints are usually treated by grouting.
 Only a well jointed and porous rock can become a good aquifer or an oil and gas reservoir.
IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING –
Location of dams and reservoirs –

 Too many joints in a site will render it unsuitable for construction of dams .
 They act as avenues for serious leakages of water .
 Upstream dipping joints are less harmful .

Occurrence of landslides –
 Landslides take place when the surface slope of the hills and the dip of the beds are in the same direction.
 Joints facilitate the heavy percolation of water .
 This water comes in contact with clayey material below the ground producing fine lubricating materials
which causes the shipping of over lying rocks .
Quarrying –
 Depending on conditions joints can play a helpful or harmful role in quarrying . Joints cut in situ rocks
which can be easily extracted without the use of explosives .
 Too many joints on the other hand render quarrying useless due to excessive decay of rocks .
Tunneling –
 Joints can severely hamper the strength of rocks . They may cause the rocks to fall from the roof of the
tunnel.
 Joints can cause the ground to be saturated with water decreasing the strength of the rocks .
 They may act as sites for the development of solution cavities in limestone terrain.

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS→

Engineering properties of rocks is a collective nomenclature which includes all such properties of rocks that
are relevant to engineering application after their extraction from natural beds or without extraction i.e. insitu
conditions.
Physical properties of rocks:
In most of the engineering applications, rocks are used as building stones. A building stone may be defined as
a rock that can be safely used as a rough unit or as a properly cut and shaped (dressed) block or slab or column
or sheet in different situation in an engineering construction.The following physical properties are considered
to be important for a rock to be used as a building material.
1. CRUSHING STRENGTH –
It is also termed as compressive strength of a stone. It may be defined as maximum force expressed per unit
area which a stone can withstand. Any force beyond the compression strength will cause a failure of the
stone. Mathematically, compressive strength is expressed by simpler method as follows –

Where, C0 = Compressive strength, P= Load at failure, A = Area of cross section of stone under P
The determination of compressive strength of a building stone involves making standard test specimens
(which are either cubes of 5cm side or cylinders of length: diameter ratio of 2 or 2.5). These specimens are
then loaded gradually one at a time after placing on the base plate of a universal testing machine, till the first
crack appears in the specimen. Any further loading will crush the specimen. The compressive strength
determined in this way using the above relationship is called “unconfined or universal compressive strength”.
Because the test specimen has no lateral support or restraint.
The crushing strength of a rock depends on a number of factors, such as its i. Mode of formation ii.
Composition iii. Texture and structure iv. Moisture content and v .extent of weathering it has already suffered.

2. TRANSVERSE STRENGTH –

➢ It is defined as the capacity of stone to withstand bending loads.

➢ When a stone is intended for use as a beam or as a lintel, its transverse strength is determined as Modulus
of Rupture, R
R= 3wl/2bd2
Where, W=load at which sample breaks l= length, b=width, d=thickness of test specimen.

➢ Transverse strength is generally 1/10th to 1/20th of their compressive strength.

3. SHEAR STRENGTH –

➢ Shear strength is the resistance offered by a stone to shear stresses, which tends to move one part of a
specimen with respect to the other. It is obtained by using the relationship.

➢ Shear strength of a stone is also not commonly determined except when the stone is to be used as a
column
S = P/2A
Where, S = shear strength P = load at failure A = area of cross section of the specimen.

4. TENSILE STRENGTH –

➢ Tensile strength of a rock is related to its ability to withstand breakage. It happens after some level. That
level is its strength.

➢ It may be determined directly or indirectly. The tensile strength that must be applied to a material to break
it.

➢ It is measured as a force per unit area.

5. POROSITY –

The porosity of a rock is the ratio of the volume occupied by pores to the total volume of the rock sample. it is
Generally expressed in percentage of the volume of the sample.
If W1 is the weight of the dry rock sample, W2 is the weight of the sample when it is made saturated with
water, and V is the volume, the porosity P can be determined as follows –
P = W2-W1 × 100

V
A less porous rock is generally more durable and strong and therefore it is preferred for construction
purposes.
Porosity is an important engineering property of rocks. It accounts for the fluid absorption value of the stones
in most cases and also that a higher porosity signifies a lesser density which generally means a lesser
compressive strength. Porosity values for a few common building stones. Granite-0.1 to 0.5%, Basalt- 0.1 to
1%, Sandstone- 5 to 25%, Limestone- 5 to 20%, Marble- 0.5 to 2%, Quartzite- 0.1 to 0.5%,
6. ABSORPTION VALUE –
It defines the capacity of a stone to absorb moisture when immersed in water for 72 hours or till it gets full
saturation. It may be obtained from the relationship-

7. PERMEABILITY –
Permeability is the capacity of a rock to transmit water . It indicates the ease with which the water can
percolate through the openings of the rocks . The permeability of rocks is perticularly important in a number
of engineering problems such as those connected with dams , reservoirs , water supply , sanitary engineering
and other structures . The permeable rocks are considered harmful because they cause seepage of water
which may even lead to the destruction of the structure .
Sandstones and limestones may show high values for absorption or 10% or even more. Selection of such
highly porous verities of these stones for use in building construction, especially in most situations, would be
greatly objectionable.
8. DENSITY –

It is defined as the weight per unit volume of a substance.

Types are,
a. Dry density :-
Dry weight of stone per unit volume
b. Bulk density :-

Density of rock mass with natural moisture content. Here all pore spaces are not filled with water.
c. Saturated density :-
Density of rock fully saturated with water. Here pore spaces are completely filled with water.
9. ABRASIVE RESISTANCE –

➢ It is defined as the resistance of stone against rubbing action.

➢ This property has vital importance in situations where the stone is to be used is subjected to rubbing
action.

➢ Mineralogical composition of a stone plays a great role in resistance to abrasion.

➢ This resistance is tested using Dorry’s abrasion testing machine.

10. FROST AND FIRE RESISTANCE –

➢ Porous rocks show poor frost resistance.

➢ Granites and other coarse grained igneous rocks are poor in fire resistance.

➢ Poor fire resistance is due to their multi- mineral composition.

➢ Different minerals expand at different rates on heating.

Fire resistance is especially determined when the stone is intended for use around stoves, heating places and
in the wall of furnaces. Only compact and massive sandstones and quartzites suite reasonably well in fire and
heating places.

BUILDING STONES –
The building stones are products of rocks that are used in constructing buildings , dams , bridges , etc. The rock
material used for construction includes :
( i ) building stones in the form of masonry blocks ,
( ii ) rubbles - in the form of small irregular fragments ,
( iii ) crushed stones to make con crete , and

( iv ) limestones - to make lime and cement .

A building stone may be defined as a sound rock that can be safely used in some situation in the construction
as a massive dressed or undressed unit . Granites and marbles used in the form of finely dressed blocks or
slabs or columns in monumental and costly buildings are good building stones . Similarly , sandstones and
limestones used in forts , retaining walls and boundary walls and also as blocks in stone houses and bungalows
are typical building stones . Slates used in many areas as roofing material for ordinary constructions and in
pavements also fall in the category of building stones .
Rocks and Building Stones –

The rocks which are commonly used for construction works are as follows --
( i ) Granites –
Granites are used for construction purposes on account of their high crushing strength , low porosity and
pleasing pink or grey colours . They are capable of taking good polish . Granites are commonly used for
massive masonries , and for architectural and ornamental work . The granites occur abundantly in regions
occupied by the Archaean rocks .
( ii ) Basalts and Dolerites –
The basalts and dolerite are fine grained igneous rocks of basic composition . These rocks serve as excellent
road metal because of their high crushing strength . Although the basalts are easily workable and durable
stones , they are not used commonly as building stone due to their dull and unpleasant colour . The basalts
which are commonly known as the Deccan traps occupy a wide region of western and central India .
( iii ) Sandstones and Quartzites –
Well cemented sandstones generally have all the characters of a good building stone . In India the Upper
Vindhyan sandstones are widely used for building work . They are used both for masonry work and as
flagstones . Many historical buildings of Delhi , Agra and Rajashtan are made up of the Vindhyan sandstone .
Quartzites do not form good building stone because their extremely hard nature renders their working
difficult .
( iv ) Limestones and Marbles –
Because of their homogeneous texture , easy workability and pleasing colours , limestones and marbles form
good building and ornamental stones . The limestones are not only used as building stones , they are also used
for making lime and cement .
( v ) Slate –
The slate is a metamorphic work which can be broken easily into thin smooth slabs . It is used chiefly for
roofing and paving in buildings .