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Statics
A. R. Vasishtha
R. K. Gupta
r ^
iNL:^^
(for <»«</ Honours Students ofAwadh, B.H.U.Gorakhpur, Lucknow & other

Universities Sc.for Various Competitive Engineering like P.C.S., lA.S. etc.)
>«;<««<««<«k;w««»»K««a!K<w>»K«w»»K«
X-WflWtKsVW ●
By
A.R. Vasishtha Dr. R.K. Gupta

Retired Head, Retired Principal & Head,
Department ofMathematics Department of Mathematics
Meerut CoUege, Meerut. S.S.Y (P.G.) CoUege, Hapur.
&
A.K. Vasishtha
M.Sc.. Ph.D.
C.C.S. University, Meerut.
KRISHNA Prakashan Media(P)Ltd.

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PREFACE
This book on Statics has been written for the use of

the students of Degree and Honoufir-dasses of Indian
Universities. The subject matter has been discussed in
such asimple way that the students will find no difficulty
"To’Understahd it. The Articles have been explained in
details in a nice manner and all the examples have been
completely solved. We have tried to solve each problem
in an elegant and more interesting way. The students
should follow the solutions very carefully and they
should try to reproduce them when they do the problems
independently. The book <,contains almost all
questions set at the various examinations held by Indian
Universities and it coyers the syllabi of all the
Universities. I
The authors will feel amply rewarded if the.book

serves the purpose for which it is meant. Suggestions for
the improvement of the book will be gratefully accepted.
-The Authors
CONTENTS
Chapters
Pages
1-22
Concuireni ForcesrC3Jnr's--w..,...^,^
2. Equilibrium ofa Rigid Body
23-84
Momenls, Equilibrium of coplimar Forces
3. Virtual Work 1-80
4. Strings in Two Dimensions 1-56
Common Catenary
5. Strings in Two Dimensions 1-52
Catenary of uniform strength and strings resting on a smooth and
rough plane curve
6. Stable and Unstable Equilibrium ^ 1-48
7. Centre of gravity 1-104
8. Equilibrium of Forces in Three Dimensions 1-56
Central axis(Excluding Wrenches)
9. Forc^ in Three Diniensions 1-32
Screws and Wrenches; Nul lines and nul planes
10. Attraction 1-74
11. Potential 75- 108
1
Introduction
§ t'l. Definitions.
Particle. A particle is a portion of matter which is indefinitely

small in size or whifchisô small that the distances between Us
different parts may be neglected.
Body. A body is a portion of matter limited in every
direction.
Rigid body. [Meerut 79(S)]
A r/gWtorfy is an assemblage of particles rigidly connected
together such that the distance between any two constituent
particles does not change on account of effect of forces.
Mechanics. Mechanics is that branch of science which deals
with the study of body in state of motion or at rest under the
effect of some forces.
There are two branches of mechanics:
(i) Statics nnd (ii) Dynamics,
Statics. Statics is that branch of mechanics which'deals with
the study of a body at rest under the effect of some forces.
Since the body under consideration njay be a particle or a
rigid body, accordingly statics is further divided into two parts:
(i) Staticsof a particle nnAiW) Statics ofa rigid body.
Dynamics. Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which deals
with the study of a body in motion.
Dynamics is also divided into two parts according as the
body under consideration is a particle or a rigid body,
(i) Dynamics ofa particle and (ii) Dynamics of a rigid body.
Force. A force is a cause which Changes, or tends to change,
the state of rest, or uniform motion, of a body.
A force has three characteristics:
(i) magnltudet (i.i) direction and (iii) point of application.
Since the force possesses magnitude and direction, therefore
2 INTRODUCTION
i
it is a vector. Thus the force caa be represented by a directed line

segment.
Attraction and Repulsion. When the two bodies tend to
approach each other, the force is called attraction^ for example,
the attraction of the earth. When the bodies tend to repel each
other, the force is called repulsion, for example, the repulsion
between two like magnetic poles.
(Fig. 1-1)
Mass. The quantity of matter in a body is defined as its mass.
The units of mass,generally used,are a pound and a gramme.
Weight The weight of a body is the force with which the
earth attracts any body towards itself.
If m is the mass of a body then its weight is equal to mg acting
vertically downwards, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Equilibrium. If a number of forces acting on a body keep the
body at rest, then the body is said to be in equilibrium or the
forces are said to be in equilibrium.
If the body is just on the point of moving, under the action
of a number of forces, then it is said to be in limiting equilibrium.
Tension and Thrust. If we pull a body by means of a string
then the force exerted on the body is called a tension while if we
push a body by a rod then the force exerted is called a thrust.
String
o
Tension
(Fig. 1-2)
We shall consider all the strings in-extensible unless other
wise stated..
§ 1*2. Action and Reaction.
If the two bodies are in contact with each other, then each
of them will experience a force at the point of contact. The force
exerted by one body upon the other is called action and that
exerted by the second on the first is called reaction. By Newton*s
'third law of motion, *'to every action there is an equal and
>>
opposite reaction.
Smooth and Rough bodies. Two bodies are said to be smooth.
INTRODUCTION 3
if the force acting at their point of contact is in the sense of the

common normal at that point, otherwise they are said to be rough.
Normal reaction. The-reaction at the point of comact of two
smooth bodies is along the normal and the called- the normal
reaction.
Direction of normal reaction. The direction of the normal
reaction on any smooth body is at right angles to the direction
in which the body is capable of moving.
Here we give the directions of normal reaction In few impor
tant cases,
(i) Reaction of a plane. If one end^ of a rod AB is in
contact of a smooth plane, then the reaction at if is at right
angles to the plane as shown in the figure 1*3.
A plans
(Fig. 1*3) (Fig. 14)

(ii) Reaction of a peg. If a rod AB is in contact with a
smooth peg P. then the reaction of the peg is perpendicular to
the rod as shown in the figure 1*4.
(iii) Reaction ofa spherical surface.
(Fig. 1-5) (Fig. 1-6)

(a) If the point P of the rod AB is in contact of a spherical
surface or a circular arc. then the reaction ai P is at right angles
to the spherical surface /.e. along the normal at P through the
centre O a shown in the figure 1*5.
4 INTRODUCTION
(b) If a rod AB is placed partly within and partly without

_ spherical bowl with the point C in contact of the rim of the
bowl then the reaction at A will be along the normal at A and
that at the point C will be perpendicular to the rod as shown in
the figure 1*6.
(iv) Reaction at a hinge. If a rod or a body is capable of
turning about a smooth hinge, then there is no definite direction
of the reaction at the hinge but the direction and magnitude of
the reaction at the hinge will be adjusted so that it may balance
the other forces acting on the>ody.
§ 1*3. Resultant force.
, Let a number of forces Fi, Fj,..., act on a particle. If there
exists a single force R which has the same effect on the particle
as all the above force Fi, Fa,..., then R is called the resultant of
forces Fi, Fa, ..and these forces are called the components of R.
The particle acted on by a number of forces Fi, Fa* -.i is said
. to be in equilibrium if their resultant R»0.
If the forces of a system act at different points of a body,
there may not exist a single resultant force. Thus in such a case
we say that the forces are not equivalent to any single resultant
force.
§ 1*4. Parallelogram of forces.
If two forces, acting at a point, be represented in magnitude
and direction by the two sides ofa paraiielogram drawnfrom one of
its angular points, their resultant is represented both in magultude
and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through
that angular point.
If the forces P and Q acting at B
a point O of the body be repre
sented in magnitude and direction
by the sides OA and OB respec
tively of the parallelogram OACB,
then their resultant R will be
represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal OC (Fig. 17)
through. O.
Thus if 55«P and then 5c-R.
Also, we have OA^P, OC^R,
INTRODUCTION 5
where P, Q, R are the magnitudes of forces P, Q, R respectively.

Now by vectors, OC=OA+AC’=‘OA-\-dB [V ACÔB]
or R=P+Q.
R«=(P+Q)-=(P+Q)«(P+Q)=P^+QH2P.Q
[V P.Q=Q.PJ
or cos a. ...(I)
where the angle between P and Q is a.
Also if the resultant R makes an angle 6 with P, then drawing
CL perpendicular from C to OA produced, we have from A OCL
CL CL sin a
tan 6—
OL~OAÂL ~~OA-hAC cos a
or Ian 0= Q sin a
p+fi cos a' ...(2)
Equation (1) and (2) give the magnitude and direction of the
resultant R.
Cor. 1. If a=90'’, i.e. the forces are at right angles, then
from (1) and (2), we have
+ and 0=tan-^Q/R).
Cor. 2. From (1) it is obvious that R is'greatest when
cos a—'I (/.c., maximum), or a=0°.
greatest R is given by, R^=P’^+Q<‘-h2PQ^(R-hQ)?
or R^P+Q.
Thus i/ie resultant of two forces acting at a point is greatest
■ when they act in the same direction and then the resultant is equai
to the sum of their magnitudes.
Also R is least when cos a= —1 (i.e., minimum), or a=180“.
least R is given by 2PQ=s(P—0*
or RssP—Q (if P>Q)
or R=Q-P if Q>P.
Thus the resultant of twoforces acting at a point is least when
they act in apposite directions and then the resultant is equal to the
difference of their magnitudes and in the direction of the greater
force.
Cor. 3. If P«=>0 then from (I) and (2), we have
Ra=p8-{.P*+2P.P.cos a=2P«(l+co8 a)=.2P*.2 cos* K
Rs=2P cos ia
. . - P sin a sin g 2 sinâ cos
tan ia.
an an — p^p a — l+cos a “ 2 cos*|a
6 tNT^lODUCtl0^^
,*, 0s=J a#
Thus the resultant oftwo equalforces P and P acting at a point
at an angle a is equal to IP cos and its direction bisects the angle
between the forces.
§ 1'5. A-ft Theorem.
if the twoforces Aârid p OB act at a point 0, then their

remltant is given by (A4-/*) OC, where C divides AB such that
X.CA=»p CB.
Proof. Let the point C
divide the line AB such that
■ A CA^p CB^pi.BC.
(V Cif and are in

the same direction).
Now in (Fig. 1-8)
OAÔC-^CA.
XOA^XOO+hCA. ...(2)
Again in
OfcOC+ CB.
pOB-»^pOC+pCB, .»(3)
Adding(2)and (3), the.resultant of the forces XOA and pOB
la^gHthby
XOA’^pOB^{X\-p)OC-\rXCA-\-pCB
-(A-f/*)OC+ASl-/«i5c [V CB^-BC]
«(a+m)^. l: XCA^pBC, from (1)]
Hence the resultant ofthe forc^ XOA and pOB is (A+ft)OC,

where X.CA^p CB.. . . ●
Cor. If A«fft,tthen» weliave
XOA^XOBîX+Xy
or OA+OB^l OC, where C is the middle point of AB,
INTRODUCTION
§ 1*6. Components of a force in two given directions.
Let RsssOC be a force
and P=0.4, Q=OJ? the com

ponents of R along OL and
OM which are in directions
making angles a and /3 with
R.
Since R is the resultant P^
of P and Q.
.*. R=P+Q. ...d) (Fig..1*9)
Now RxQ=(P+Q)xQ
or RxQ=PxQ. [. QxQ:;-0]
|RxQl-|PxQ|
or RQ sin j8=P0 sin (a+jS), where
P=|P|,
R sin jS .
sin.(«-t-i8) *
Similarly n ^ sing
^“sin (a-f-i?) *
§ 1*7. Resolved parts of a force along two motnally perpendicular

directions.
Let OX and 07 by two
mutually perpendicular direc y
tions andOC»R„ the given > .
force making an angle d with 3
OX. Also let R»|R HOC.
prom C draw CA and CB Q
0
perpendiculars to OX and OY
O ^ yf ^ ^
respectively. If OA^P and
ORs>(2» fben by the pacallelo- (Fig.l*10|
gram law of forces, Pand QBxt the resolved parts of R along
OJT and O Y respectively. If i and j are unit vectors along OX
and or respectively, then
. P«0i4=PI and Q«»OR«Cj.
We have R=*OC«P-|-Q»PH-0.
Now P*RasPi*(Pi+6j)®’-^****+-^fi**i
or PR cos d=sP® ['/ |ittd l●ja=»0]
INTRODUCTION
or P=R cos B.
Again Q.R=0.(Pi4-ej)« 0Pj-i+ j
or QR cos (9O"-0)=fi* [V j.jc=l andj*i=0]
or QssjR cos(90®— sin 9.
Thus it {follows that **the resolved part of aforce in a given
direction is obtained by multipiytng the given force by the cosine of
the angle between the givenforce and the given direction^*.
Also V R=Pi+fij,
R.i=(Pi-f0j).i=Pi.i+ej.i
or R.lcos^=»P, or P=R cos 0.
Thus the resolved part of aforce along the direction of a unit
vector is the dot product ofthe force and that unit vector.
§ 1*8. Resultant of a Number of Coplanar forces acting at a point.
Let a number of coplanar forces Fi, Fai - iFn act at a point O
and let i and j be the unit vectors along two mutually perpendi*
cular lines OX and OF respectively. If R is the resultant of the
forces, then by a repeated application of the parallelogram law of
forces R=Fi+Fa+...4-Fn.
R*i«=a(Fi4-Fa+-.. 4'Fn)»i
caFi'l+Fa*!●|-...4-Fn»i=F (say) ...(1)
and R«j=(Fi+Fa+...+Fn)»j
=*Fi*J+Fa»j-l-...4-Fn»j= F (say) ...(2)
Clearly R=FI+Fj
R=|R|«Vi^HF*).
If R makes an angle B with OZthen
0«tan-» (F/F).
Note. Since R*i is the resolved part of R along the direction
of the UD,it vector i, i.e., along 02f, therefore from (1), it follows
that *the sum of the resolved parts of a number offerees acting at a
point, aiong any line is equal to the resolved part of their resultant
along the same lines.
§1*9. Gonditions of eqnilibriumof a number of forces acting at
a point.
The necessary and sufficient conditions, that a system of copla-
nar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, are that the algebraic
sums of the resolved parts, af the forces along two mutually perpendi*
cular directions in their plane should be zero separately.
Necessary Conditions. Let. a point O acted on by a number
of coplanar forces F„Fi F„ be in equilibrium. Let R be the
INTRODUCTION 9
resultant of the forces and i, j the unit vectors parallel to two
perpendicular lines 0^ and OF. If F and F are the algebraic
sums of the resolved parts of the forces Fi, F« along OX
and OY,then from § 1*8, we have
R=Fi+Fj
R:= |R|=V(F>+F2).
Jf the coplanar forces Fi, F2, . , Ffl acting at the point O be
in equilibrium, then R=0.
R==ViX^-^Y^)=0.
which is true only if X—0 and F=0. Hence the conditions are
necessary.
Sufficient Conditions, i.e. if X=‘0 and F=0, then the forces
are in equilibrium. From § 18, we have
R.i=ândR«j=F.
If A^=0 and F=0, then R.i=0 and R.j=0.
Since i and j are not zero and R cannot be perpendicular to
i and j as they are coplanar, therefore we have R<=0.
Hence the forces are in equilibrium.
§ 110. Triangle law of forces.
If threeforcest acting at a pointt be represented tn magnitude
and direction by the sides of a triangle^ taken in order^ they will be
in equilibrium.
Proof. Let the forces P, Q, R
acting at a point O be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides
of the triangle ABCy taken in order
i.e.. iS=P,iic=Q and cJ=R.
Completing the parallelogram
ABCDt we have
F
/. By the law of parallelogram R
of forces, we have
(Fig, Ml)
or P+Q«-CJ«_R
or P+Q+R=0,
i.e., the re mltant of the forces P, Q and R is zero. Hence the ^
N
forces are in equilibrium.
10 introduction
§ I’ll. Converse of the triangle of forces.

If threeforces acting at a point are in equilibriunit then they
can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
triangle, taken in order.
Let the three forces P, Q, R
acting at a point O be in equili
brium.
.*. P+Q-|-R«0
or p+Q«_R. ...d)
Let 0/l=P and OG»=*Q. (Fig. M2)
Completing the parallelogram ABC, we have
and 6a+ab=^
or P+Q=<5S.
From (1) and (2), we have
R or .fiO=R. ...(2)
Thus the sides OA, AB and BO ofthe triangle Ov4R, represent
the forces P,Q, R in magnitude and direction, taken in order.
§ 112. Lami*s Theorem.
If threeforces acting on a particle keep it in equUibrium, each ■
is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.
Proof (Refer fig. § Ml).
Let the three forces P,Q and R acting at a point O be in
equilibrium.
/. P+Q-l-R«0; ...(1)
Rx(P-t-Q-l-R)«0
or R><P+RXQ«=»0 [V RxR»0]
or RxP«.-RxQ
or RxP»QxR. ...(2)
Again from (i). Px(P-f-Q+R)-0
or PxQ-FPxR«=-0 CV PxP«0]
or PxQ«RxP. ...(3)
I' —PxR«RxPJ
PxQ=QxR=RxP*
Introduction 11
/. |PxQ|=lQxRl=|RxPl.
/. PQ sin P?Q)=eR sin (qCr)=RP sin(R,P)
where P, Q, R are the magnitudes of the forces P,Q,R respect
ively and;P^Q denotes the angle between the forces P and Q etc.
1 /\ /\
or sin(P,Q) sln(Q.R) sin(R.P)
R P ~ Q
P Q R
or 7\ /\
sin(Q,P) sin(R,P) sin(P,Q)
i.e.y each of the forces P, Q» ^ ^ proportional to the sine Of the
angle between the other two.
§ 1*13. Polygon of forces.
If any number offorces, acting on a particle be represented, in
magnitude and direction, by the sides of a closed polygon, taken in
order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
(Mg. 1*13)
Illustrative Examples
Ex. 1. The greatest resultant which twoforces can have is P

and the least is Q. Show that if they actat an angle 6 the resultant
is of magnitude
V(P* cos* sin* i6).
Sol. Let the magnitudes of the two forces be Fi and Fa*
The resultant of the forces is greatest when they act in the
same directions and is equal to Fi-f-Fa. Also the resultant in least
when they act in opposite directions and is equal to Fi—Fa- if \
Fi > Fa.
greatest re8ultant«Fi-bFa=F
and least resultant=Fi—Fa=afi.
¥
12 INTRODUCTIUN
Solving, we have
Fi=>{P-\-Q)J2 and F2=-(P-Q)I2.
The magnitude of the resultant of forces Fi and F2 when
they act at an angle d is given by
+ cos 0
or (F+Q)^+i(P-Qf-h2.UP+Qn (P-Q)cos 9
(i+cos 9)+iQ^(1-cos 6)
=/»2 cos* ^0+Qa sin*^0.
R^V(P^ cos* id-\-Q^ sin* Id).
Ex. 2. The resultant of theforces P and Q is R. If Q is
doubled, R is doubled in maguitude. If X is reversed, R is again
doubled is magnitude. Show that
P:Q:R=V2:V^:V2.
Sol, Let a be the angle between the lines of action of the
forces /* and Q. Since the resultant of/* and Q is R, therefore
we have
i?*-/**+e*+2/*ecos a. ...(1)
When Q is doubled, the resultant is doubled in magnitude.
Therefore
(2/?)*=/**+(20*+2/».(20.cos a
le.. 4/?*=/*2-|-40-{-4/*g cos a ...(2)
When Q is reversed, the resultant is again doubled in magni
tude. In this case the angle between the lines of action of the
forces P and Q will be tt - a, So, we have
(2/?)*=/**-}- Q^-\-2PQ cos (7T-a)
or 4R^=aP‘^.}. Qi^2PQ cos a. ...(3)
Adding (1) and (3), we get
5/e*==2P*+20 i.e., 2/**-f2e*-5/?«=0. ...(4)
Multiplying (3) by 2 and adding to (2), we get
12/?*=3pa+60 ^ />2^2e*—4/J*cO. ...(5)
From (4) and (5), wc have
/>2 /?*
8+10”-5+'8-4^
or F^__Q^_R^
2 ~T==T'
.-. F:e:/?«V2:V3:V2.
Ex. 3. Forces P and Q act at O and have a resultant R. If any
transversal cuts their line of action at A, B,and C respectively then
show that
INTRODUCTION 13
Z.
OAÔBTOC
Sol. We have, unit vector along
->
OA
OA=
OA
force P acting along OA is
represented by the vector
0 > A
Similarly forces Q and R acting (Fig. 1-14)

along OB and OC are represented by
Q
OB OB andÔC
respectively.
Since R is the resultant of the forces P and therefore
....(1)
Suppose the point C divides the line AB in the ratio m:n
AC: CB^m :«. Then
nOA-\-mOB
OC=>
n-i-m ...(2)
Substituting for OC from (2) in (I), we have

Q
A( n OA+ n+w m
.(3)
Since the vectors OA andlOB are non*coliinear, therefore
equating the scalar coefficients of the vectors OA and OB on both
sides of(3), we get
Z_Z JL_»
OA~OC n-\-m ...(4)
and _Q__R m
OB OC n-\-m* ...(5)
Adding(4) and (5), we get
P . Q R n+ni R
0A^0B""0C n+m“OC’
which proves the required result.
14 INTRODUCTION
Alteroative method. By the A-/x theorem given in § 1*5, the re
sultant of the forces^ and ^îs equal to

where C is the point where the line of action of the resultant
meets AB.
OC
p , 0, R
Ex 4. A string oflength / isfastened to two points A and B

at the same level at a distance a apart. A ring of weight W can slide
on the string, and a horizontalforce F is applied to it such that the
ring is in equilibrium vertically below B,prove that FsâWjl and that
the tension in the string is W{F-\-a^)l2P.
Sol. Let a string of length / be A O’ 3
fastened to two points A and B at the
same level such that ABâ. If a ring
of weight IF is in equilibrium at the T
point'C, vertically below B, then the r
tensions in the two parts CA and CB
of the string will be equal, say each
equal to T, as shown in figure.
The ring is in equilibrium under
the following forces:
(i) the horizontal force F at C,
w
(ii) the tension T in the string CA» (Fig. M5)
(iii) the tension T in the string CB, and
(iv) the weight W of the ring acting vertically downwards.
The resultant of the vertical forces W and T can be taken as
W— T, verticallly downwards.
Thus the point C is in equilibrium under the following three
forces:
(i) force F, parallel to AB,
(ii) force T, along CA,and
(Hi) force W— T, along BC.
These three forces are parallel to the sides of the lÂBC and
so ABC is the triangle of forces for these three forces.
F T W-T
AB'^CA" BC ...(1)
7
INTRODUCTION 15
Now ABf=*a,
Let £C=i(it so that CA=^l—d.

[V length of the string is /]
From /ÂBC, we have
AB^JrBa=»CA\
or
or BC
21
and CA=l-4=^l
21 21
From (i)» we have
or
or T=^,W,
/ ...(2)
Substituting the value of CA» T- ,W.
2/»
Again from (1), we have
„AB a W.
/ ' CA-^ I ,from (2)
Ex. 5. One end of a light inextensible string of length I is
fastened to the highest point ofa smooth circular wire of radius; a
which is keptfixed in a vertical plane. The other end of the string
Is attached to a small heavy ring of weight W which slides on the
.wire. Find the tension of the string and the reaction of the wire.
Sol. Let O be the centre of
the circular wire of radius a. Let
one end of the string AP of length /
be fastened to the highest point A of
the wire, and a ring of weight IV
attached to the other end of the
string be in equilibrium when it is at
the point P of the wire. The forces
acting of the ring at P are
(i) Wf the weight of the ring
acting vertically downwards,
(ii) 7, the tension of the string acting along PA,
INTRODUCTION
16
and (iii) R, the reaction of the wire acting along the normal OP.
Let Z.OAP=l.OPA=Z.^PB^d.
By Lami’s theorem at P, we have
R W T
sin (T,IT) sin (R,T) sin(rM
R W T
or
sin (w—0) sin(w—0) sin 26
R W T
or
sin 0““sin 6 2 sin 0 cos 6
R=W and T=2W cos e.
But /=/lP=2acos0, sothatcps0=^-

/
T=2W^=Wlla.
Ex 6 A and B are two fixed points in a horizontal line at a
AC and BC of lengths b
distance c apart. Two fine light strings
C. Show that the tensions of
and a respectively support a mass at -
the strings are in the ratio
ft
Sol. Let the two strings AC and
BC of lengths b and a respectively
support a weight W at C. The other
ends of the strings are attached to the
fixed points A and B in a horizontal,
line at a distance c apart.
IfriandTs are the tensions in
the strings CA and CB respectively,
then by Lami*s theorem at C, we
have
Tx W
7^ /s /\
sin(FF, n) sin {Tx^T^) sin(WJx)
Tx W
or
sin iiTT+B)~~(sin C) sin (iw+i4)
A Ti : 7’a=sin (|w+B):sin (I'lr+A)
eacos B:cos A
2ac 26c
=6 :a
INTRODUCTION 17
Ex. 7. ,A heavy small ring of weight W isfree to slide on a

smoo/h circular wire of radius a, fixed in a vertical plane. It is
attached by a string of length I where
2d > I t> a^2
to a point on the wire in a horizontal line with the centre. Show
that the tension in the string is
WU^-2a^)
Sol. Let P be the equilibrium

position of the ring on the smooth
circular wire of rudius a. The ring
is attached by the string AP to the
point A of the wire in the horizontal
line with the centre O. The forces
acting on the ring at P are
(i) W, the weight of the ring V/
acting vertically downwards,
(ii) T, the tension in the string
acting along PA, (Fig. 1 18)
and (iii) R, the reaction of the wire acting along the normal OP.
Let /_OAP=Z.APO=e, then LP0B==1Q
where AB is the diameter of the wire.
We have l=AP~OA cos o-\-OP cos 0=2a cos 6, ^
so that cos 0=//2a.
, Also Z,APR=7T-d and Z_RPW='>T^{iiT-2e)=‘l7T-\-2e.
By Lami’s theorem at P, we have
T W R
/\ /\
sin (R, IV) sin (T,R) sin {T,VP)
T W R
or
sin (7t/2h-20) sin (tt—0)“sin(d+W2-2d)
T= Wcos 26 fF(2cos2^-l)
sin0^ V(l—
Substituting cos 6=112a,
fV[2,(Pl4a^)-\] W{P-2a^)
V( ● -
Ex. 8. ABC is a triangle. Forces P> Q,R, acting along the
lines OA, OB> QC are’in equllibriurn. Prove that if O is the
circum-centre of the triangle ABC, then
(0 PfQ't ^=sin 2A:sin 2B s sin 2C
18 INTRODUCTION
and (It)P:Qt K=o>(i*+c“-o»): (c»+a»-i»): cîa^+b^-c^).

Sol. Let O be the circum centre
of the triangle ABC.
We have, Z_BOC=>2 /,BAC^2A.
/.COA=2B and Z.AOB=2C.
If the forces P, Q, R acting along
the lines OA, OB, OC are is equilibrium,
then by Laml’s theorem at O, we have
P Q R
sin BOC’^sin COA sin AOB
P Q R
or
sin 2A sin 2B sm 2C
A P\Q \ P=sin 2A :sin 2B:sin 2C, ...(1)
which proves the result (i).
(ii) From (1), we have,
P:Q;R=>2 sin cos ^ ; 2 sin P cos j?:2 sin C cos C
2fl.(6a-l-c2-fl2) 2b{cÂ-a^-lP) 2c
=* 2bc * ■■ 2ca ● . 2ab
a b c
● sin A “sin B sin C .
- Ex. 9. ABC is a triangle, Forces P, Q, P, acting along the

lines OA,OB,OC are in equilibrium, Prove that if O is ortho-
centre of the triangle ABC, then
a ~b c
Sol. Let the forces P, Q,R
acting along the lines OA, OB, OC,
where 0 is the’ orthocentre, of the
A be in equilibrium.
BL and CM are pCTpendi-
cular to AC and AB respectively,
/_OBC=^\n—C
and /_OCB=l7T-B. (Fig. 1‘20)
Z.BOC=7T-/_dBC-f_OCB^n-(^n-C)-i\7T--B)
=B-\’C=tt—A. [V
Similarly Z,COA=7r-B and LAOB^tt-C.
V /i+5+c=w.
J9
INTRODUCTION
By Lami’s theorem at O, we have

P Q R
sin BOC~sin COA~s\n AOB
P Q R
or
sin (tr—A) sin (ir—B) sin (w—C)
P Q R
or
sin A sin B sin C
or a b c
a h c
● sin ^ “sin B*“sin CJ
Ex. 10. ABC is a triangle. Forces P, Q,R acting along the
lines OAf OBy OC are in equilibrium. Prove that
(fl) If O is the incentre of the triangle ABC, then
P: Q : R—cos(J/4): cos {\B):cos(i<7)
and(b)If O Is the centroid of the triangle ABCi then
PiQiRÔA'.OBxOC,
Sol. Let the forces P, Q, R acting
along the lines OA^ OB, OC be in equi
librium. ^Then by Lami*s theorem at
O, we have
P R
sin BOC~~sin CO A ""sin AOB
..,(1)
(a) IfO is the in-centre of the
triangle ABC, then (Fig. 1-21)
. ZOCP=iC.
/_BOC=ir—lB—^C‘=iT~(l7r^lA)=lTr-rlA,
Similarly /_COA=hî-hB and l,AOB=^\‘n-\-\C.
/. from (1), we have
P Q R
sin “sin JP) sin
P:Qi P=cos M :cos \B:cos|C.
(b) If O is the centroid of the triangle^ then the area of
/ÔBC—Arca of A^C'/l=Area of i^ÔAB,
each being equal to ^ area of ti, ABC
or ^ OB.OCsin BOC=--WC.O'A s\n COA=»ÔA.OB sin AOB.
Dividing by {OA.OB.OC, we have
sin BOC sin CO.4 sin .405
OA = = QQ ● ...(2)
20 INTRODUCTION
froni (1) and (2), we have

_R
OA~'OB~-OC
or P: Q : R=OA :OB : OC.
Ex. 11. Two small rings'of weights Wi and W% each capable
ofslidingfreely on a smooth circular hoop fixed in the vertical plane
are connected by a light string, show that in the position of equili
brium in which the string be straight and inclined at an angle B to
the horizontal (Wi+ Wt) tan d=|(W1—JV9) \ tan (â)
where a is the angle subtended by the string at the centre.
[Meerut 88]
Sol. In the equilibrium
position, let A and B be the
positions ofthe rings of weights
Wx and Wi, Let T be the
tension in the string and R and
S the reactions of the hoop on
the rings.
The ring at A is in equilibrium

under the following forces, (Fig.(1-22)
(i) Wx, weight of the ring acting vertically downwards,
(ii) T, tension in the string along AB,
and (iii) R, reaction along the normal OA.
The string is inclined at an angle B to the horizontal, and
Z_A0B=:(K.
Z.OAB=Z,OBA=n/2^(xl2.
We have
Z_OAWi=f,BAWi-Z.OAB=(nl2+B)-(:nl2-(ij2)=^B+aLl2,
so that Z.RAWi=n^(B-j-ul2),
Also
Z_OBWi^Z_ABWi-Z_ABO=(7rl2-B)-’(7Tl2-aLl2)=ul2-B,
so that /_SBWt^7r-l,OBWi^7r--{u.f2-B).
Further f_BAR=ir-- Z0.4fc7r-(7r/2-a/2)=:7r/2+«/2,
and Z.iiff5'=7r-Z.O.ff^=ir-(7r/2-a/2)=ir/2+a/2.
By Lami*s theorem at A, we have
T Wt
8in/.RAWi slnLBAR
T Wx
(r
sin {^r-((?+a/2)}“sin (ff/2+«/2)
ut 7*_ ^1 sin (6-f-g/2)
cos (a/2) ...(1)
'3?- ..
INTRODUCTION 21
Again the ring at B is in equilibrium under the following

forces:
(i) 1^2, weight of the ring acting vertically downwards,
(ii) r, tension in the string along BA,
and (iii) S, reaction along the normal OB,
By Lami*s theorem at B, we have
T
sin SBWi sin ABS
T Wz
or
sin {w—(a/2— sin (w/2+a/2)
or r= Wz sin («/2-g)
cos (a/2) ...(2)
From (1)and (2), we have
sin (e-hall)_ Wjsin(g/2-g)
cos (a/2) cos (a/2)
or Wi (sin $ cos ia+cos 6 sin i»)=:Wa (sin |a cos 6
—cos|a sin 0).
Dividing by cos 6 cos a/2, we have
Wi (tan ^+tan |a)= W2(tan Ja—tan 0)
or (Wi+ W2) tan 0=^(Wt-FTOltan Ja
or (W1+W2)tan 0= I (Wi-W2):\ tan ia.
Ex. 12. Three equal strings]ofno appreciable weight are knotted
together to form an equilateral triangle ABC and a weight W Is
suspendedfrom A. If the triangle be supported withBC horizontal
by means oftwo strings at B and C making angles 3ir/4 with the
W
horizontal, show that the tension in the string BC is^(3—v'S).
Sol. By symmetry the

tensions in the stringsJi4B and
will be equal say each equal /ss"*
to Tt and those in strings at B
and C will also be equal say
3
7
w
Wo»
V
each oqual to Ts. Let|the ten
sion in the string BC be Tz.
For equilibrium at A, the resul
tant of two equal forces Tr and ’A
Tx would balance W.
W^2Tx cos 30" W
or Tx^Wly/Z. ...(1) (Fig. 1-23)
11 INTRODUCTION
^^0‘hflv^
:. /-4Jrs=360'>-(135°+60”)=165«.
By Eami’s theorem at B, we have
r, T2 rs
sin 135“ sin 165“ sin 60“
sin 165“_ir sin(180“-15“)_iy"V2 sin 15“
sin 135“ V3* (*/V2) V3
=lT^jSin (60“-45“)
_Wy/2
(sin 60“ cos 45“-sin 45“ cos 60“)
V3
Wy/1 î/^ ± J_ 1\_1lFfV3-l)
- V3 ●\T’V2“V2’ 2/“‘ V3
=^(3-V3).
2
Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
(Coplanar Forces)
§ 1. Moment of a force about a point;
The moment of.aforce applied on a rigid body about a point is

defined as the amount of the tendency of theforce to rotate the body
about that point.
Let F be the force acting at the point P
of a rigid body. Let r be the position vector
of the point P referred to a point O of the
body. If 6 is the angle between F and OP,
then the components of F along and per
pendicular to PO are F cos 6 and F sin 6
respectively.
The tendency of the component Fcos 0
is to move P along PO, But if the point O
is fixed then due to the rigidity of the body (Fig. 2*1)
the distance F6.does not changeKand hence the effect ofFcos 0
is nulified. the tendency of the coinponent F sin 6 is to turn the
body perpendicular to OP, Thus when O is fixed, then the net
effect of the force F acting at Fis to turn P ina direction perpen
dicular to OF. The amount of the tendency ofFto turn the
body about O is OF.F sin 0.
Moment of F about 0=OF.F sin ^
=F.OF sin ^=F.OJST,
where ON is the perpendicular f^rom O on F.
Thus the moment of aforce F about the point O is the product
of the magnitude of theforce F and the perpendicular distance ofO
from the line of action of theforce F.
Now the moment of the force F about O
=OF.Fsin^=j r 1 1F I sin ^
24 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY
and its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the vectors r and

F,in the sense of a right hand screw rotated from r to F.
Hence the vector moment M of the force F about O is defined
by the vector
It can be easily seen that the vector moment of a force F
about any point O is equal to rxF where r is the position vector
with respect to O of any point P on the line of action of the
force.
It is to be noted that the momenit of the force about a point
vanishes if the point lies on the line of action of the force.
Sign of the moment.
Let two forces Fi and Fa act on a lamina .
in its plane as shown in the figure.
If(9 is a point in the plane of the lamina 4
about, which it can turn, then the tendency of /iO
the forces Fi and Fa is to rotate the lamina in
opposite directions.
The moment of the force Fi about O has
the tendency to rotate the lamina in the (Fig. 2-2)
counter-clockwise direction and is taken as positive while the
moment of the force Fa about O having the tendency to rotate the
body in clockwise direction is taken as negative.
§ 2. General Theorems of Moments:
Theorem 1. The sum of the moments of two like parallelforces
actingpn a rigid body about Ifmy arbitrary point is equal to the
moment of their resultant about the same point.
Proof. Let two like and parallel forces
P and Q act at the points A and B a body.
If R iSthiB resultant of the force, then
R=P+Q ...(1)
acting at C,such that
P.AC^Q.BC. ...(2)
The sum of the moments of the forces
P and Q about any.arbitrary point O
==D!ixP+^xQ
=(6c+c5)X P-f(^+^)X Q
C=»
OCX(P+Q)-fC^ X P+G^X Q
equilibrium of a rigid body 25
=OCxR-/4CxP+C^xQ. ...(3)
Now ACx P and CBx Q are both perpendicular to the plane
containing P, Q, AC, CB and are in the same directions.
Also I ]5cxP |=/<C.P.sin 9, \~CBxQ |=C5.0.sin 9,
MCxP|=|C5xQ| [V AC.Pc^CB.Q, from (2)]
—y —>●
ACxF=CBxQ.
Hence from (3), we have
the sum of the moments of the forces P and Q about O
=OCxR
=moment of the resultant R about O.
Hence the theorem.
Theorem II. If a number of coplanar forces acting at a point

of a rigid body have a resultant, then the vector sum of the moments
of all the forces about any arbitrary point Is equal to the moment of
the resultant about the point.
Proof. Let the coplanar forces Fi, Fn acting at a
point P of a rigid body have the resultant R.
.*. R*=Fi+Fa+...-|-Fn^ . ..(1)
Let O be an arbitrary point and r be the position vector of
the point P with respect to the point O,
Moment of the force R about O
=rxR
=rx(Fi+F2+... 4-F/j)
«rxF,+rxFi-f-...+rxF„
=vector sum of the moments of the forces Fi, Fa,...,Fn
about O.
Hence the theorem.
§ 3.. Couple. {Definition). tMeemt 76]

A system of two equal and unlike parallel forces, whose lines of
action are not the same, is called a couple or a torqoe.
Since the couple consists of two equal and parallel forces in
opposite directions, therefore the algebraic sum of the resolved
parts of these forces in any direction is zero. Thus a couple has
no tendency of motion of translation of the body in any direction.
26 equilibrium of a rigid body
Hence a couple cannot be replaced by a singleforce.

The couple only tends to rotate a body about a line perpendi
cular to the plane of the couple. A line perpendicular to the
plane of a couple is called the axis of the couple.
Moment of a Couple.
Let two equal unlike and parallel forces F
F and —F act on a body at the points A and
6
B respectively and let O be any point. Then
M,the sum of the moments of the forces A
\-f
forming the couple about O,is given by
0
M=^xF+05x(-F)
(Fig. 2*4)
iOB^BA)xF-OBxF
=BAxF,
which is independent of the point O. Hence the moment of the
couple Is constant.
We have.
JM|=|5^xF|=^^.Fsin0,
wheie 0 is the angle between F and BA
or \M \=^F.(BA sin d)^F.AN,
where AN is the perpendicular distance between the forces
forming the couple. The perpendicular distance between the lines
of action of the forces forming a couple is calledjhe arm of the
couple.
Thus the moment of a couple is a vector whose magnitude is
equal to the product of the magnitude of aforce formingjhe couple
and the perpendicular distance between the twoforces forming the
couple. Direction of the moment vectof of the couple is perpendi
cular to the plane containing the forces and Is taken positive if
the tendency of the couple is to rotate the body in counterclock
wise direction.
§4. If three forces acting in one plane upon a rigid body at

different points of it be represented in magnitude, direction and line
of action by the sides of a triangle, taken in order, then they are
equivalent to a couple whose moment is equal to twice the area of
the triangle.
equilibrium of a rigid body
. Proof. Let the three forces P,Q, R

acting in one plane upon a rigid body
at different points of it be represen
ted by the sides BCy CA and AB res
pectively of a triangle ABC,
At A, apply two equal and opposite
forces P and — P parallel to BC along
AE and AD respectively.
The three forces P, Q, R acting at
A along AE, CA and AB respe.ctively
are represented in magnitude, direction (Fig. 2-5)
and line of action by the sides of tÂBC taken in order. There
fore by the triangle law of forces, these forces are in equilibrium.
Thus only two equal unlike and parallel forces P and —P along
.9C and i4Z) rr^ left.
Hence the system of given forces is equivalent to a couple
consisting of two equal unlike and parallel forces P and —P
along BC and AD respectively. The moment M of the couple is
given by
M=ABxE,
We have \ M \=AB.BC sin {Tr-0)=^BC.AB sin d
=BC.ANt where AN is the perpendicular from
A on BC
=l(kBC.AN)
=2(area of the triangle ABC).
Hence the result.
Illustrative Examples
Ex. 1. Threeforces P, 2P, 3P act along the sides AB, BC, CA
of an equilateral triangle ABC;find the magnitude and direction of
their resultant, andfind also the point in which its line of action
meet the side BC,
Sol. Let the forces P, 2P, 3P
act along the sides AB, BC, CA A
respectively, of an equilateral tri eoYi
angle ABC.
/ I ●
The algebraic sums of the ,60* ! I
resolved parts of the forces along B 2p

and perpendicular to BC are
given by (Fig. 2-6)
28. EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY
X=2P-P COS 60“-3P cos 60“«0

and y=.-P sin 60®+3P sin 60®*=»P\/3.
Hence the resultant R^s/(X^+ Y^)=^P^Z.
The ahgle that the resultant R makes with BC
tan"' 00= 2
/. the resultant is perpendicular to the side BC.
Let the line of action of the resultant meet the side BC at the
point D. Since the sum of moments of the forces about any point
is equal to the moment of the resultant about that point, there*
fore the sum of moments of forces about the point D must be
equal to zero,
/.e.. P.£H,-3P.i)Af«0,
or P,BD sin(Xf—ZPXD sin 60“=0
or PD-3 {BD-BC)^Q
or
BD^\ BC.
Ex. 2. Threeforces P, 0, R act along the sides BC,CA, AB

ofa triangle ABC, taken in order, if their resultant passes through
the incentre of JÂBC, then prove that
p+e+p=o. [Raj. T.D.C. 79(S)1
Sol. Let the forces P, Q,R act along
the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a
triangle ABC, taken in' order. Let O be
the incentre of the tÂBC and r be the
radius of the incribed circle of the A ABC.
If the resultant of the forces P, Q and R
passes through the incentre O, then the
algebraic sum 6f the moments of the
forces about O must be equal to zero.
So, we have
r.P+r.g+r.P=0 '
or r(P+2+P)=:0
or P+0+P=>O. [V r#0]
Ex. 3. The resultant of the forces P, Q, R acting along the
sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a triangle ABC passes through its
circumcentre, Show that
P cos A-\-Q cos P+P cos C=0.|
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 29
Sol. Let the forces P, g, R act along

the sides PC, CA, AB respectively of a tri
angle ABC, taken in order. Let OL, OM,
ON be the perpendicular bisectors of the
sides PC, CA, AB respectively of the A ^BC.
Then O is the circum-centre of the l\ABC,
and we have OA=OB=OC. If the result
ant of the forces, P, Q, R passes through
the circum-centre O, then the algebraic sum
of the moments of these forces about O must (Fig. 2-8)
be equal to zero
i.e.. P.OL+Q.OM-{-R.ON=0. ...(1)
Now LBOC=l/_BAC=2A\ A /_BOL^/_COLÂ.
Similarly LCOM^/_AOM^B, and /_AON=^LBON^C.
.*. OLwsxOB cos A, OM—OC cos P, ON=.OA cos C.
Substituting in (I), we have
OB cos /t.P-f CCcos B.Q-\-OA cos C.P=0
or Pcos^+gcosP-l-Pcos C=0[V OAÔB=OC\
Ex. 4. Three forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB
ofa triangle ABC taken in order. If their resultant passes through
the centroid of the triangle ABC,prove that
Q , B =0.
sin A sin B 'sin C [Raj. T.D.C. 79(S)]
Sol. Let the forces P, <2, R act
along the sides PC, CA, AB of a triangle
ABC, taken in order. If the resultant
of these forces passes through the cent
roid C of the AABC,then the algebraic
sum of the moments of the forces about
O must be equal to zero. So, we have
POL+Q.OM+R.ON=0, ...(1)
where OL, OM, ON are perpendiculars
from O on the sides PC, CA, AB of the
triangle ABC. (Fig. 29)
Draw AT perpendicular to PC. From similar triangles DOL
and DAT, we have
AT
AT DA 3*
Now If S is the area of the triangle ABC, then
S^\BC.AT^\a.AT or AT^2Sfa.
2S 2S
/. OL^ÂT=Ya‘ Similarly and OiV=“
Substituting in (1), we have
or
l+r+f-»
P Q R r .. sin /4_sin .g__sin C|
or
sin sin jB ' C ‘ a b c ,
Ex. 5. Three forces P, Q,R oct along the sides BC, CA, AB
of a triangle ABC taken in order; if their resultant passes through
the orthocentre of the triangle, prove that
P sec /i+ Q sec B-\-R sec C=0. [P.C.S. 75; Raj. T.D.C. 79(S)]
Sol. Let the forces P, Q, R act
along the sides BC, CA, AB of a tri
angle ABC, taken in order. If the
resultant of these forces passes
through the orthocentre O, then the
algebraic sum of the moments of
the forces about O must be equal to
zero. So, we have (Fig. 210)
P OD-\- Q.OE-\-R OF=0, (1)
where D, E, F are the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from the
vertices A, B, C,to the opposite sides.
In the /\CBE, LCBE=\n-C,
OD
from AOBD,tan C)= BD, or OD=BD cot C.
But from AABD, BD=AB cos cos B.
● OD=iC cos B cot C=—r— cos jB cos C=k cos B cos C,
'' sin c
a b
where ^—^xak (say).
sin A sin B sin C
Similarly OE—k cos C cos A and OF~k cos A cos B.
Substituting in (1), we have
P.k cos B cos C-hQ.k cos C cos A-\-R.k cos .4 cos jB=^0.
Dividing by k cos A cos B cos C, we have
P see A-\-0 sec B+R sec C'=0,
Ex. 6. Three forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB
ofa triangle ABC, taken in order; their resultant passes through
the centre of the inscribed and circumscribed circles, prove that
P \ Q R=^{cos B—cos C): {cos C—cos A):{cos A—cos B).

Sol. Let the forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB
of a triangle ABC, taken in order.
If the resultant passes through the centre of the inscribed
circle {i.e., circum-centre), then from Ex. 2, we have
P+Qi-R=0, ...0)
and if the resultant passes through the centre ofthe circumscribed
circle (/.e., circum-centre), then from Ex. 3, we have
P cos A+Q cos B+R cos C—0. ...(2)
P Q C
cos C-cos’ B cos -cos C cos B-cos A
OT P: Q : R={cos B-cos C):(cos C—cos A):(cos cos B)
Ex. 7. Forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB of a
triangle ABC, taken in order and their resultant passes through the
incentrc at I the centre of gravity of the triangle, prove that
P:Q : R=a(6-c):b {c—a): c {a—b).
[I.A.S. 75; I.E.S. 74]
Sol. Let the forces P, O, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB
of a triangle ABC, taken in order.
If the resultant passes through the incentre of the triangle
then from Ex. 2, we have
...0)
and if the resultant passes through the centre of gravity(centroid)
of the triangle, then from Ex. 4, we have
_f_+_g_+.^=0
sin y4~sin
sin C
i ...(2)
From (I) and (2), have
P Q R
1 I 1 1 l i
1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. ●:
sin C sin B sin A sin C sin B sin A
or PiQiR^sin jg—sin C . sin C—sin A . sin /I—sin B
"^sin 5 sin C ’ siny4 sin C ’ sin A sin B
=sin A (sin 5—sin C) : sin B (sin C-sin A):
sin C {sin A—sin B).
[Multiplying by sin A sin B sin C].
a b c 1
Since
sin/4 sin 5 sin C
sin A=ak, sin B—bk, sin C-=^ck.
P\ Q \ R=ak.(bk—ck): bk (ck—ak):ck (ak—bk)

—a(b—c):b (c—a): c{a—b).[Dividing by k^]
Ex. 8. Threeforces act along the sides of a triangle ABC,
taken in order and tlteir resultant passes through the orthocentre and
the centre of gravity of the triangle; show that the forces are in the
ratio of
sin 2A sin {B—C): sin 2B sin(C—A):sin 2C sin (A—B).
Sol. Let the forces,P, Q, R act along the sides PC, CA, AB
of a triangle ABC^ taken in order.
If the resultant passes through the orthocentre of the trian
gle ABCf then from Ex. 5, we have
-p I e +
cos A cos P cos C *
_o ...(1)
and if the resultant passes through the centre of.gravity of the
triangle ABC, then from Ex. 4, we have
0.
sin A sin P sin C ...(2)
From (f) and (2), we have
P Q
1 1 1 1
cos P sin C sin Pcos C cos C sin A sin C cos /I
R
1 1
cos A sin P sin A cos P
sin P cos C—sin Ceos P ,sin C cos A—cos C sin A
or P:Q:R=sin P cos P sin C cos C * sin cos A sin C cos C
^ sin A cos P—cos A sin P
* sin A cos >4 sin P cos P
_ sin(P—C) , sin (C—.4) .
4 siia P cos P sin C cos C * 4 sin A cos A sin C cos C ’
sin (A ~ B)
4 sin A cos A sin P cos P
sin (P-C) . sin(C-A) . sin(A-B)
*^sin 2P sin 2C *sin 2A sin 2C'sin 2A sin 2P
casin 2A sin {B—C):sin 2P sin(C—A): sin 2C sin(A—B).
Ex. 9. ABCD is a rectangle such that AB=CD=a and
BC=DA^b. Forces P act along AD and CB. Forces Q act along
AB and CD. Prove that the perpendicular distance between the
resultant of theforces P, Q at A and the resultant of the forces P
Pa-Qb
Q at C is
equilibrium of a bigid body 33
Sol. The forces g at/4 along AB ^

and 6 at C along CD from a couple ^ ^
of moment —Q.AD^—Q.b (negative ^ 6
sign is taken, because the tendency of p
0
I P
the couple is to rotate the rectangle in
clockwise direction).
The forces?at A along AD and Q
P at C along CB form:a couple of (Fig. 2.11)
moment The above two couples are equivalent to
a single couple of moment {Pa-^Qb). Thus the whole system of
forces is equivalent to a cbuple of moment {Pa—Qb).
Also t he resultant of the forces /», Q atA is V(^*+0*) in
clined at an angle tan~* (PIQ)to AB and the resultant of the
forces p; Q at C is 2*) inclined of an angle tan-^ (P/0)‘to
CD, Thus the whole system of forces is equivalent to. two equal
and parallel forces each equal to at A and C in
opposite directions, and so they form a couple whose moment is
where p is the perpendicular distance between these forces.

Hence
. Pa-Qb
●● ^ '
§ 2'5. Theorem.
Any system of coplanarforces acting on a rigid body is equivO’-
lent te a singleforces acting at an arbitrarily chosen point together
with a single couple. ..
[Meerut 71. 77,"78. 79(S). 82, 84(R), 85, 85(P), 86, 87,88(F)
Gorakhpur 75; Jiwaji 73; Raj. T. D. C. 78.80]
Proof. Let a system of
coplanar forces Fi. Fe, F,
act at the points Au As, da
respectively of a rigid body.
Let G be ah arbitrary point and '
ai, 82, an
the position vectors of the
^ A
points Ai, As,.... A respec* 4
tively with respect to the origin
O. 4
Consider the force F, acting (Fig. 212)
at the point /f, whose position vector referred to the origin O is
8r. Apply two forces F, and at O parallel to F, along OP

and Cf6 respectively as shown in the figure. Since two equal
forces are applied at a point in opposite directions, therefore they
do not affect the equilibrium of the body. Now the forces Fr at
A, and — F, at O along OQ form n couple of moment
0.4rXF,=a,xF,
and besides this couple a single force Fr parallel to OP is left at O.
Thus the:single force Fr acting at A,(whose position vector
lS:ar) is equivalent to a force Fr acting at O and a couple of mo
ment SrXFr. Similarly all the n forced Fl^Fa, ..., Fn acting at the
point Au Aa, A„ whose position vectors referred to O are
8i, aa» ...f Bn
respectively are equivalent to single forces Fi, Fg,... F« acting at

O and couples of moments
aiXFi, agXFg,..., a«xF,n*
Hence the given system offerees will be equivalent to forces

Fu Fa, ...»Fr acting at O,together with couples of moments
aiXFi, aaXFa, a„xF„.
If R is the resultant of the concurrent forces Fi, Fa, Fn

acting at O,then we have
n
RcaFj-j-Fa-f*...“t-Fn“ 2/Fr
r-l
and if M is the moment of the resultant couple of the above

couples, then
M=»ai X Fi-f.aa X Fa+...-f a„X F,
Z B,XiFr
r-l
Hence the system of coplanar forces acting on a body is
equivalent to a single force R=> S Fr actingât an arbitrarily cho-

r-l
sen point O. together with a couple of momept
M«i?arXFr»
r-l
35
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY
§ 2 6. Necessary and sufficient Conditions for equilibrium of

a rigid body.
The necessary and sufficient conditionsfor the equilibrium of a

rigid body wider the action ofa system of coplanarforces acting at
different points of it are that the sums of the resolved parts of the
forces in any two mutually perpendicular directions vanish separately
and the sum of the moments of the forces about any point in the
plane of the forces vanishes,. [Meerut 73, 73(S), 75(S),76(P), 88;
Raj. T.D.C. 80(S); Gorakhpur 80; Gurunanak 73]
Proof. Necessary Conditions. Let a rigid body under the
action of a system of coplanar forces Fi Fa,...» Fn acting at diffe-
Fsnt-pQinl£-î,_^ A„ of the body whose position vectors
referred to any origin O are ai, aa,...,^be
We have proved in § 2*5 that the above system of forces is
equivalent to a single force R 2? Fr acting at O and a single

r-l
couple of moment M= 27 a,x F,.

r-l
The single force R and the couple M, have respectively the

tendency of motion of translation and the motion of rotatibn of
the body. In case the forces acting on the body keep it in equili
brium, the forces have no tendency of motion of translation or of
motion of rotation of the body. Hence the necessary conditions
for the equilibrium of the body are that R=^0 and M<=0.
Let (Xr» yr) be the coordinates of the point A, referred to

some rectangular axes through the point O,then ar=^Xr i+j'rj*
Also If Xry Yr are the resolved parts parallel to. the. axes of
the force F, acting at the point Ar then Fr==2Tri-l Fi-i.
R=r-l
If,-J (A',i+F,j)=^£A', I i+^ jr, jj
or R=JTi+ Yj, Where X= S X„ Z Y,
r-l r-l
and M= i(a,x F,)«» i{(x,i +yrj)X W+Yr})}

r-l r-l
= i(XrYr-yrXr) iXj.
r-1 [V Jxl=~ixj. ix i«0=jxj]
Now if R»=0, then JT* £Xr=^0 and F* i F,r-0

r-X r-l
and if MraO, then M=> X(x,F,~

r»l
Obviously M is the algebraic sum of the scalar moments of

the forces about the point O,
Hence the necessary conditions of equilibrium of the body
are that^ the sum of the resolved parts of the forces in any two
mutually perpendicular directions vanish separately and the sum
.of the moments of the forces about anyjxolnt in the niatie nf-the
j^ces vaaisheflr-
Sufficient Conditions. If the sum of the resolved parts of the
forces in any two mutually perpendicular directions vanish sepa
rately and the sum of the moments of the forces about any point
in the plane of the forces vanishes t.e„ J1T«0, F=0 and M=0,
then R*s.jri+7j=0
and M=0.
Thus there is neither the motion of translation nor the motion
of rotation of the body, therefore the body is in equilibrium.
Hence the necessary and sufficient conditions for the equili
brium of a body are that Ar=o, F=:0 and A/=0.
§ 2*7. Equation of the resultant.
To find the equation of the line of action of the resultant of the
system of coplandrforces acting at different points of a body,
[Meerut 80(S); Gorakhpur 79,82; Raj. T.D.C. 79(S), 80]
Let the system of co>
planar forces acting at differ
ent points of a rigid body be
reduced to a single force R
acting at O (origin);tojgether,
with a couple of moment M.
The couple of moment
Mean be replaced by two
equal unlike parallel forces
one—R at O and the other
R parallel to it at a distance p (Fig, 2*13)
from O such that
R.p=sM or p—MIR, provided
The forces R and at O balance. Hence the given system
reduces to a single resultant force R acting along a line at a
distance M/R from the origin O, and parallel to the force R
acting at O.
Let the line of action of this single resultant force R meet
the jc-axis OX at the point A such that OA=a. Then
0^=al.
If X and Y are the resolyed parts of R parallel to the axes,
then
and the moment M of the forces about O is given by
M=>X.0-\-Y a=aY.
a==MIY.
OAâi={M}Y)\==Vi,(say).
Vector equation of the line of action of the single resul*
tant force R, passing through A (whose position vector is a)is
given by r=a-|-rR
or r=(M/r)i+/R, ...0)
where r=jci+yj.
Cartesian form. From (I), we have
Equating the coefficients of i and j on both sides, we have

M
■f+tx and ^^tr.
Eliminating t from these equations, ^ye have
or xY-yX^M,
which is the equation of the line of action of the resultant in
cartesian form.
Remark. In the above equation Of the single resultant force.
we have
AT=the algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the force along
thex-axisOX;
y=»the algebraic sum of the rqsolved parts of the force along
the;/-axis
and ilfs the algebraic sum of the moments Of the forces about th6
origin O,
38 equilibrium op a rigid body
lllostrative Examples
Ex. 10. Threeforces P, Q, R act along the sides ofa triangle
formedby the line x+y>^l, y—x=l and y=2.
Find the equation of the line of action of the resultant,
[Raj. T.D.C. 87, 79 (S); Gorakhpur 81]
Sol. Let the three forces P,
R act along the lines
x-\-y>=\f y—x—i and;^=2'
the lines BA, AC and CB res
pectively.
By the coordinate geometry,
OA=i,ON=^2,
f_OAD^LOAE=^/_ODA
Let X, Y be the algebraic sums y

of the resolved parts of the forces (Fig. 2-14)
along OX and 07and M the algebraic sum of the moments of
the forces about the origin O. Then the equation of the line of
action of the resultant is given by
xY-yX^M. ...(1)
1
Now T=sP cos 45‘*+e cos 45“-P=
V2
(p+e-V2P), \ .
7=-P sin 45"+e sin 45"=^(-P+0).

;.
and M=~P.OM-Q,OL^R,OS
^P,OA sin 45‘’-e'.0^ sin 45‘’-hP.2
1
=--:72 <^+e)+2J!-
Substituting in (1)the equation of the line of action of the
jesiiltant is given by
1 1 1
V2(-p+G)~7.^2
or a:(-P+G)-7(P+G-V2P)=-(P+0)+2V2P
or <P-0)X+(P+G-V2i2)7=P+G-2V2P.
Ex. 11. Two equal unlike parallelforces acting atfixed points
A and Bform a couple of moment G. If their lines of action are
turned through one right angle theyform a couple of moment H,
"Show that when they both act at right angles to AB, they form a
i^tqfle of moment
Sol. Let two equal unlike parallel

forces P,P act at fixed point A and B,
Then the moment G of this couple is
given by
G=>P.AM=P.AB sin 0, ■CD
where B is the angle between the force
P and the line ABy
If the lines ofjaction of the forces
Py P are turned through one right
angles, then the moment H of the
new couple isôbtained by replacing 15)
6 by 90®+^ in(1) and is thus given by
H=P.aB sin {9Qr+B)^P.AB cose. ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we.have
y/{G^-^H^)^P.AB ...(3)
Also if the forces act at right angles to then the moment
of the couple
P.AB^\/{G^+H^)y [from (3)]
which is the required result.
Efi;. 12. If a system offorces tn one plane reduces to a couple
whose momertt is G and when each force is turned round its point of
application through aright angle it reduces to a coupU of moment
H. Prove that when each force is turned through an angle tt, the
system is equivalent to a couple whose moment is G eos sin a.
[I.F.S.77J
For what value of« will the moment of the new couple be equal
to the moment of the old couple ?
Sol. Let a system of forces Fi, Fa,..., K act on a body at
the points (Xi, yi), (xa, y9)f. .»(Xar y») respectively. Let the forces
be inclined at angles B^ Bz,...yBn to the x-axis. If Yr are the
resolved parts of the force F, along the axes, then
ATr=Fr cos Br and Yr=^F, sin Br»
If AT and Y are the sums of the resolved part of the forces
along the axes and G the sum of the moments of the forces about
the origin O, then
R
X^SXr S Fr cos Bry 7^ S Yr^ 2 Fr Sin Br
r-l r-l r-l r-1
n
and (Xr Tf ■“yrAir)® 2 Ff(Xr Sln-.tff ■“yj.'COS ^r). ...'{1)
r-i r-l
40 EQUILIBRIUM OP A RI0ID BODV
Since the system of forces reduces to a couple only.

A A
2 Fr cos dr^Q and y=» 2 Fr sin 6r<=»0. ...(2)

r-l r-l
When each force is turned round its point of application

through a right angle, then
the sum of the resolved parts of the forces along x-axis
=> 2 Fr cos(90®+^,)«- 2 Fr sin ^,*=0

r-l r-l
. and the sum of the resolved parts of the forces along y axis
A
2 Fr sin (90®+^r) 2 Fr COS tf,=0.

= r-l
r-l
in this case the single force is zero. Thus in this case

I the system of forces reduces to a single couple only. This
moment H of the couple in this case, is given [from (1)] by
/Tea r-l
2 Fr {Xr sin (90®+^,)—yr cos (90®+tfr)
A
or 2 Fr {Xr COS Or+y, sin $,), ...(3)
●■“i
Again when each force is turned through an angle «,

then sum of the resolved parts of the forces along the x*axis
2 Fr cos (0,+a)
rml
fl ff
cos OL 2 Fr cos dr—sin « 2 F, sin dr=0 [from (1)]

r-l r-l
and the sum of the resolved parts of the forces along y axis
A
2 Fr Sin (dr+a)
r-l
A A
«cos a
r-l
Fr sin dr+sin ct 2 Fr cos d,«=0.
r-l
Ifrom (2)]
Thus the single force is zero and hence the system of forces
reduces to a single couple only. The moment of the couple, say
this case is given [from (1)] by.
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flickering flame, before an image of the Virgin. At sight of it she
repressed a sob.
“You see, my child,” said the Mother Superior poetically, “it must
have been waiting for you. Anyhow it is empty. Perhaps it may have
known you were coming.”
She spoke softly so that the long rows of sleepers might not be
disturbed, then proceeded to turn down the coverlets.
“Oh, Mother,” Madeleine suddenly whispered softly as she stood
by the bed, “won’t you let me stay always? I never want to go out
any more. I have had such a hard time. I will work so hard for you if
you will let me stay!”
The experienced Sister looked at her curiously. Never before had
she heard such a plea.
“Why, yes, my child,” she said. “If you wish to stay I’m sure it can
be arranged. It is not as we usually do, but you are not the only one
who has gone out in the past and come back to us. I am sure God
and the Blessed Virgin will hear your prayer for whatever is right. But
now go to bed and sleep. You need rest. I can see that. And to-
morrow, or any time, or never, as you choose, you may tell me what
has happened.”
She urged her very gently to enter and then tucked the covers
about her, laying finally a cool, wrinkled hand on her forehead. For
answer Madeleine seized and put it to her lips, holding it so.
“Oh, Mother,” she sobbed as the Sister bent over her, “don’t ever
make me go out in the world again, will you? You won’t, will you? I’m
so tired! I’m so tired!”
“No dear, no,” soothed the Sister, “not unless you wish it. And now
rest. You need never go out in the world again unless you wish.”
And withdrawing the hand from the kissing lips, she tiptoed silently
from the room.
II
THE HAND
D AVIDSON could distinctly remember that it was between two

and three years after the grisly event in the Monte Orte range—
the sickening and yet deserved end of Mersereau, his quondam
partner and fellow adventurer—that anything to be identified with
Mersereau’s malice toward him, and with Mersereau’s probable
present existence in the spirit world, had appeared in his life.
He and Mersereau had worked long together as prospectors,
investors, developers of property. It was only after they had struck it
rich in the Klondike that Davidson had grown so much more apt and
shrewd in all commercial and financial matters, whereas Mersereau
had seemed to stand still—not to rise to the splendid opportunities
which then opened to him. Why, in some of those later deals it had
not been possible for Davidson even to introduce his old partner to
some of the moneyed men he had to deal with. Yet Mersereau had
insisted, as his right, if you please, on being “in on” everything—
everything!
Take that wonderful Monte Orte property, the cause of all the
subsequent horror. He, Davidson—not Mersereau—had discovered
or heard of the mine, and had carried it along, with old Besmer as a
tool or decoy—Besmer being the ostensible factor—until it was all
ready for him to take over and sell or develop. Then it was that
Mersereau, having been for so long his partner, demanded a full half
—a third, at least—on the ground that they had once agreed to work
together in all these things.
Think of it! And Mersereau growing duller and less useful and
more disagreeable day by day, and year by year! Indeed, toward the
last he had threatened to expose the trick by which jointly, seven
years before, they had possessed themselves of the Skyute Pass
Mine; to drive Davidson out of public and financial life, to have him
arrested and tried—along with himself, of course. Think of that!
But he had fixed him—yes, he had, damn him! He had trailed
Mersereau that night to old Besmer’s cabin on the Monte Orte, when
Besmer was away. Mersereau had gone there with the intention of
stealing the diagram of the new field, and had secured it, true
enough. A thief he was, damn him. Yet, just as he was making safely
away, as he thought, he, Davidson, had struck him cleanly over the
ear with that heavy rail-bolt fastened to the end of a walnut stick, and
the first blow had done for him.
Lord, how the bone above Mersereau’s ear had sounded when it
cracked! And how bloody one side of that bolt was! Mersereau
hadn’t had time to do anything before he was helpless. He hadn’t
died instantly, though, but had turned over and faced him, Davidson,
with that savage, scowling face of his and those blazing, animal
eyes.
Lying half propped up on his left elbow, Mersereau had reached
out toward him with that big, rough, bony right hand of his—the right
with which he always boasted of having done so much damage on
this, that, and the other occasion—had glared at him as much as to
say:
“Oh, if I could only reach you just for a moment before I go!”
Then it was that he, Davidson, had lifted the club again. Horrified
as he was, and yet determined that he must save his own life, he
had finished the task, dragging the body back to an old fissure
behind the cabin and covering it with branches, a great pile of pine
fronds, and as many as one hundred and fifty boulders, great and
small, and had left his victim. It was a sickening job and a sickening
sight, but it had to be.
Then, having finished, he had slipped dismally away, like a jackal,
thinking of that hand in the moonlight, held up so savagely, and that
look. Nothing might have come of that either, if he hadn’t been
inclined to brood on it so much, on the fierceness of it.
No, nothing had happened. A year had passed, and if anything
had been going to turn up it surely would have by then. He,
Davidson, had gone first to New York, later to Chicago, to dispose of
the Monte Orte claim. Then, after two years, he had returned here to
Mississippi, where he was enjoying comparative peace. He was
looking after some sugar property which had once belonged to him,
and which he was now able to reclaim and put in charge of his sister
as a home against a rainy day. He had no other.
But that body back there! That hand uplifted in the moonlight—to
clutch him if it could! Those eyes.
II—June, 1905
Take that first year, for instance, when he had returned to

Gatchard in Mississippi, whence both he and Mersereau had
originally issued. After looking after his own property he had gone
out to a tumble-down estate of his uncle’s in Issaqueena County—a
leaky old slope-roofed house where, in a bedroom on the top floor,
he had had his first experience with the significance or reality of the
hand.
Yes, that was where first he had really seen it pictured in that
curious, unbelievable way; only who would believe that it was
Mersereau’s hand? They would say it was an accident, chance, rain
dropping down. But the hand had appeared on the ceiling of that
room just as sure as anything, after a heavy rain-storm—it was
almost a cyclone—when every chink in the old roof had seemed to
leak water.
During the night, after he had climbed to the room by way of those
dismal stairs with their great landing and small glass oil-lamp he
carried, and had sunk to rest, or tried to, in the heavy, wide, damp
bed, thinking, as he always did those days, of the Monte Orte and
Mersereau, the storm had come up. As he had listened to the wind
moaning outside he had heard first the scratch, scratch, scratch, of
some limb, no doubt, against the wall—sounding, or so it seemed in
his feverish unrest, like some one penning an indictment against him
with a worn, rusty pen.
And then, the storm growing worse, and in a fit of irritation and
self-contempt at his own nervousness, he had gone to the window,
but just as lightning struck a branch of the tree nearest the window
and so very near him, too—as though some one, something, was
seeking to strike him—(Mersereau?) and as though he had been
lured by that scratching. God! He had retreated, feeling that it was
meant for him.
But that big, knotted hand painted on the ceiling by the dripping
water during the night! There it was, right over him when he awoke,
outlined or painted as if with wet, gray whitewash against the
wretched but normally pale-blue of the ceiling when dry. There it was
—a big, open hand just like Mersereau’s as he had held it up that
night—huge, knotted, rough, the fingers extended as if tense and
clutching. And, if you will believe it, near it was something that
looked like a pen—an old, long-handled pen—to match that scratch,
scratch, scratch!
“Huldah,” he had inquired of the old black mammy who entered in
the morning to bring him fresh water and throw open the shutters,
“what does that look like to you up there—that patch on the ceiling
where the rain came through?”
He wanted to reassure himself as to the character of the thing he
saw—that it might not be a creation of his own feverish imagination,
accentuated by the dismal character of this place.
“’Pears t’ me mo’ like a big han’ ’an anythin’ else, Marse Davi’son,”
commented Huldah, pausing and staring upward. “Mo’ like a big fist,
kinda. Dat air’s a new drip come las’ night, I reckon. Dis here ole
place ain’ gonna hang togethah much longah, less’n some repairin’
be done mighty quick now. Yassir, dat air’s a new drop, sho’s yo’
bo’n, en it come on’y las’ night. I hain’t never seed dat befo’.”
And then he had inquired, thinking of the fierceness of the storm:
“Huldah, do you have many such storms up this way?”
“Good gracious, Marse Davi’son, we hain’t seed no sech blow en
—en come three years now. I hain’t seed no sech lightnin’ en I doan’
know when.”
Wasn’t that strange, that it should all come on the night, of all
nights, when he was there? And no such other storm in three years!
Huldah stared idly, always ready to go slow and rest, if possible,
whereas he had turned irritably. To be annoyed by ideas such as
this! To always be thinking of that Monte Orte affair! Why couldn’t he
forget it? Wasn’t it Mersereau’s own fault? He never would have
killed the man if he hadn’t been forced to it.
And to be haunted in this way, making mountains out of mole-hills,
as he thought then! It must be his own miserable fancy—and yet
Mersereau had looked so threateningly at him. That glance had
boded something; it was too terrible not to.
Davidson might not want to think of it, but how could he stop?
Mersereau might not be able to hurt him any more, at least not on
this earth; but still, couldn’t he? Didn’t the appearance of this hand
seem to indicate that he might? He was dead, of course. His body,
his skeleton, was under that pile of rocks and stones, some of them
as big as wash-tubs. Why worry over that, and after two years? And
still—
That hand on the ceiling!
III—December, 1905
Then, again, take that matter of meeting Pringle in Gatchard just at

that time, within the same week. It was due to Davidson’s sister. She
had invited Mr. and Mrs. Pringle in to meet him one evening, without
telling him that they were spiritualists and might discuss spiritualism.
Clairvoyance, Pringle called it, or seeing what can’t be seen with
material eyes, and clairaudience, or hearing what can’t be heard with
material ears, as well as materialization, or ghosts, and table-
rapping, and the like. Table-rapping—that damned tap-tapping that
he had been hearing ever since!
It was Pringle’s fault, really. Pringle had persisted in talking. He,
Davidson, wouldn’t have listened, except that he somehow became
fascinated by what Pringle said concerning what he had heard and
seen in his time. Mersereau must have been at the bottom of that,
too.
At any rate, after he had listened, he was sorry, for Pringle had
had time to fill his mind full of those awful facts or ideas which had
since harassed him so much—all that stuff about drunkards,
degenerates, and weak people generally being followed about by
vile, evil spirits and used to effect those spirits’ purposes or desires
in this world. Horrible!
Wasn’t it terrible? Pringle—big, mushy, creature that he was, sickly
and stagnant like a springless pool—insisted that he had even seen
clouds of these spirits about drunkards, degenerates, and the like, in
street-cars, on trains, and about vile corners at night. Once, he said,
he had seen just one evil spirit—think of that!—following a certain
man all the time, at his left elbow—a dark, evil, red-eyed thing, until
finally the man had been killed in a quarrel.
Pringle described their shapes, these spirits, as varied. They were
small, dark, irregular clouds, with red or green spots somewhere for
eyes, changing in form and becoming longish or round like a jellyfish,
or even like a misshapen cat or dog. They could take any form at will
—even that of a man.
Once, Pringle declared, he had seen as many as fifty about a
drunkard who was staggering down a street, all of them trying to
urge him into the nearest saloon, so that they might re-experience in
some vague way the sensation of drunkenness, which at some time
or other they themselves, having been drunkards in life, had
enjoyed!
It would be the same with a drug fiend, or indeed with any one of
weak or evil habits. They gathered about such an one like flies, their
red or green eyes glowing—attempting to get something from them,
perhaps, if nothing more than a little sense of their old earth-life.
The whole thing was so terrible and disturbing at the time,
particularly that idea of men being persuaded or influenced to
murder, that he, Davidson, could stand it no longer, and got up and
left. But in his room upstairs he meditated on it, standing before his
mirror. Suddenly—would he ever forget it—as he was taking off his
collar and tie, he had heard that queer tap, tap, tap, right on his
dressing-table or under it, and for the first time, which Pringle said,
ghosts made when table-rapping in answer to a call, or to give
warning of their presence.
Then something said to him, almost as clearly as if he heard it:
“This is me, Mersereau, come back at last to get you!
Pringle was just an excuse of mine to let you know I was
coming, and so was that hand in that old house, in
Issaqueena County. It was mine! I will be with you from
now on. Don’t think I will ever leave you!”
It had frightened and made him half sick, so wrought up was he.
For the first time he felt cold chills run up and down his spine—the
creeps. He felt as if some one were standing over him—Mersereau,
of course—only he could not see or hear a thing, just that faint tap at
first, growing louder a little later, and quite angry when he tried to
ignore it.
People did live, then, after they were dead, especially evil people
—people stronger than you, perhaps. They had the power to come
back, to haunt, to annoy you if they didn’t like anything you had done
to them. No doubt Mersereau was following him in the hope of
revenge, there in the spirit world, just outside this one, close at his
heels, like that evil spirit attending the other man whom Pringle had
described.
IV—February, 1906
Take that case of the hand impressed on the soft dough and
plaster of Paris, described in an article that he had picked up in the
dentist’s office out there in Pasadena—Mersereau’s very hand, so
far as he could judge. How about that for a coincidence, picking up
the magazine with that disturbing article about psychic
materialization in Italy, and later in Berne, Switzerland, where the
scientists were gathered to investigate that sort of thing? And just
when he was trying to rid himself finally of the notion that any such
thing could be!
According to that magazine article, some old crone over in Italy—
spiritualist, or witch, or something—had got together a crowd of
experimentalists or professors in an abandoned house on an almost
deserted island off the coast of Sardinia. There they had conducted
experiments with spirits, which they called materialization, getting the
impression of the fingers of a hand, or of a whole hand and arm, or
of a face, on a plate of glass covered with soot, the plate being
locked in a small safe on the center of a table about which they sat!
He, Davidson, couldn’t understand, of course, how it was done,
but done it was. There in that magazine were half a dozen pictures,
reproductions of photographs of a hand, an arm and a face—or a
part of one, anyhow. And if they looked like anything, they looked
exactly like Mersereau’s! Hadn’t Pringle, there in Gatchard, Miss.,
stated spirits could move anywhere, over long distances, with the
speed of light. And would it be any trick for Mersereau to appear
there at Sardinia, and then engineer this magazine into his presence,
here in Los Angeles? Would it? It would not. Spirits were free and
powerful over there, perhaps.
There was not the least doubt that these hands, these partial
impressions of a face, were those of Mersereau. Those big knuckles!
That long, heavy, humped nose and big jaw! Whose else could they
be?—they were Mersereau’s, intended, when they were made over
there in Italy, for him, Davidson, to see later here in Los Angeles.
Yes, they were! And looking at that sinister face reproduced in the
magazine, it seemed to say, with Mersereau’s old coarse sneer:
“You see? You can’t escape me! I’m showing you how
much alive I am over here, just as I was on earth. And I’ll
get you yet, even if I have to go farther than Italy to do it!”
It was amazing, the shock he took from that. It wasn’t just that
alone, but the persistence and repetition of this hand business. What
could it mean? Was it really Mersereau’s hand? As for the face, it
wasn’t all there—just the jaw, mouth, cheek, left temple, and a part of
the nose and eye; but it was Mersereau’s, all right. He had gone
clear over there into Italy somewhere, in a lone house on an island,
to get this message of his undying hate back to him. Or was it just
spirits, evil spirits, bent on annoying him because he was nervous
and sensitive now?
V—October, 1906
Even new crowded hotels and new buildings weren’t the protection
he had at first hoped and thought they would be. Even there you
weren’t safe—not from a man like Mersereau. Take that incident
there in Los Angeles, and again in Seattle, only two months ago
now, when Mersereau was able to make that dreadful explosive or
crashing sound, as if one had burst a huge paper bag full of air, or
upset a china-closet full of glass and broken everything, when as a
matter of fact nothing at all had happened. It had frightened him
horribly the first two or three times, believing as he did that
something fearful had happened. Finding that it was nothing—or
Mersereau—he was becoming used to it now; but other people,
unfortunately, were not.
He would be—as he had been that first time—sitting in his room
perfectly still and trying to amuse himself, or not to think, when
suddenly there would be that awful crash. It was astounding! Other
people heard it, of course. They had in Los Angeles. A maid and a
porter had come running the first time to inquire, and he had had to
protest that he had heard nothing. They couldn’t believe it at first,
and had gone to other rooms to look. When it happened the second
time, the management had protested, thinking it was a joke he was
playing; and to avoid the risk of exposure he had left.
After that he could not keep a valet or nurse about him for long.
Servants wouldn’t stay, and managers of hotels wouldn’t let him
remain when such things went on. Yet he couldn’t live in a house or
apartment alone, for there the noises and atmospheric conditions
would be worse than ever.
VI—June, 1907
Take that last old house he had been in—but never would be in
again!—at Anne Haven. There he actually visualized the hand—a
thing as big as a washtub at first, something like smoke or shadow in
a black room moving about over the bed and everywhere. Then, as
he lay there, gazing at it spellbound, it condensed slowly, and he
began to feel it. It was now a hand of normal size—there was no
doubt of it in the world—going over him softly, without force, as a
ghostly hand must, having no real physical strength, but all the time
with a strange, electric, secretive something about it, as if it were not
quite sure of itself, and not quite sure that he was really there.
The hand, or so it seemed—God!—moved right up to his neck and
began to feel over that as he lay there. Then it was that he guessed
just what it was that Mersereau was after.
It was just like a hand, the fingers and thumb made into a circle
and pressed down over his throat, only it moved over him gently at
first, because it really couldn’t do anything yet, not having the
material strength. But the intention! The sense of cruel, savage
determination that went with it!
And yet, if one went to a nerve specialist or doctor about all this,
as he did afterward, what did the doctor say? He had tried to
describe how he was breaking down under the strain, how he could
not eat or sleep on account of all these constant tappings and
noises; but the moment he even began to hint at his experiences,
especially the hand or the noises, the doctor exclaimed:
“Why, this is plain delusion! You’re nervously run down, that’s all
that ails you—on the verge of pernicious anemia, I should say. You’ll
have to watch yourself as to this illusion about spirits. Get it out of
your mind. There’s nothing to it!”
Wasn’t that just like one of these nerve specialists, bound up in
their little ideas of what they knew or saw, or thought they saw?
VII—November, 1907
And now take this very latest development at Battle Creek recently
where he had gone trying to recuperate on the diet there. Hadn’t
Mersereau, implacable demon that he was, developed this latest
trick of making his food taste queer to him—unpalatable, or with an
odd odor?
He, Davidson, knew it was Mersereau, for he felt him beside him
at the table whenever he sat down. Besides, he seemed to hear
something—clairaudience was what they called it, he understood—
he was beginning to develop that, too, now! It was Mersereau, of
course, saying in a voice which was more like a memory of a voice
than anything real—the voice of some one you could remember as
having spoken in a certain way, say, ten years or more ago:
“I’ve fixed it so you can’t eat any more, you—”
There followed a long list of vile expletives, enough in itself to
sicken one.
Thereafter, in spite of anything he could do to make himself think
to the contrary, knowing that the food was all right, really, Davidson
found it to have an odor or a taste which disgusted him, and which
he could not overcome, try as he would. The management assured
him that it was all right, as he knew it was—for others. He saw them
eating it. But he couldn’t—had to get up and leave, and the little he
could get down he couldn’t retain, or it wasn’t enough for him to live
on. God, he would die, this way! Starve, as he surely was doing by
degrees now.
And Mersereau always seeming to be standing by. Why, if it
weren’t for fresh fruit on the stands at times, and just plain, fresh-
baked bread in bakers’ windows, which he could buy and eat quickly,
he might not be able to live at all. It was getting to that pass!
VIII—August, 1908
That wasn’t the worst, either, bad as all that was. The worst was
the fact that under the strain of all this he was slowly but surely
breaking down, and that in the end Mersereau might really succeed
in driving him out of life here—to do what, if anything, to him there?
What? It was such an evil pack by which he was surrounded, now,
those who lived just on the other side and hung about the earth, vile,
debauched creatures, as Pringle had described them, and as
Davidson had come to know for himself, fearing them and their ways
so much, and really seeing them at times.
Since he had come to be so weak and sensitive, he could see
them for himself—vile things that they were, swimming before his
gaze in the dark whenever he chanced to let himself be in the dark,
which was not often—friends of Mersereau, no doubt, and inclined to
help him just for the evil of it.
For this long time now Davidson had taken to sleeping with the
light on, wherever he was, only tying a handkerchief over his eyes to
keep out some of the glare. Even then he could see them—queer,
misshapen things, for all the world like wavy, stringy jellyfish or coils
of thick, yellowish-black smoke, moving about, changing in form at
times, yet always looking dirty or vile, somehow, and with those
queer, dim, reddish or greenish glows for eyes. It was sickening!
IX—October, 1908
Having accomplished so much, Mersereau would by no means be

content to let him go. Davidson knew that! He could talk to him
occasionally now, or at least could hear him and answer back, if he
chose, when he was alone and quite certain that no one was
listening.
Mersereau was always saying, when Davidson would listen to him
at all—which he wouldn’t often—that he would get him yet, that he
would make him pay, or charging him with fraud and murder.
“I’ll choke you yet!” The words seemed to float in from somewhere,
as if he were remembering that at some time Mersereau had said
just that in his angry, savage tone—not as if he heard it; and yet he
was hearing it of course.
“I’ll choke you yet! You can’t escape! You may think you’ll die a
natural death, but you won’t, and that’s why I’m poisoning your food
to weaken you. You can’t escape! I’ll get you, sick or well, when you
can’t help yourself, when you’re sleeping. I’ll choke you, just as you
hit me with that club. That’s why you’re always seeing and feeling
this hand of mine! I’m not alone. I’ve nearly had you many a time
already, only you have managed to wriggle out so far, jumping up,
but some day you won’t be able to—see? Then—”
The voice seemed to die away at times, even in the middle of a

sentence, but at the other times—often, often—he could hear it
completing the full thought. Sometimes he would turn on the thing
and exclaim:
“Oh, go to the devil!” or, “Let me alone!” or, “Shut up!” Even in a
closed room and all alone, such remarks seemed strange to him,
addressed to a ghost; but he couldn’t resist at times, annoyed as he
was. Only he took good care not to talk if any one was about.
It was getting so that there was no real place for him outside of an
asylum, for often he would get up screaming at night—he had to, so
sharp was the clutch on his throat—and then always, wherever he
was, a servant would come in and want to know what was the
matter. He would have to say that it was a nightmare—only the
management always requested him to leave after the second or third
time, say, or after an explosion or two. It was horrible!
He might as well apply to a private asylum or sanatorium now,
having all the money he had, and explain that he had delusions—
delusions! Imagine!—and ask to be taken care of. In a place like that
they wouldn’t be disturbed by his jumping up and screaming at night,
feeling that he was being choked, as he was, or by his leaving the
table because he couldn’t eat the food, or by his talking back to
Mersereau, should they chance to hear him, or by the noises when
they occurred.
They could assign him a special nurse and a special room, if he
wished—only he didn’t wish to be too much alone. They could put
him in charge of some one who would understand all these things, or
to whom he could explain. He couldn’t expect ordinary people, or
hotels catering to ordinary people, to put up with him any more.
Mersereau and his friends made too much trouble.
He must go and hunt up a good place somewhere where they
understood such things, or at least tolerated them, and explain, and
then it would all pass for the hallucinations of a crazy man,—though,
as a matter of fact, he wasn’t crazy at all. It was all too real, only the
average or so-called normal person couldn’t see or hear as he could
—hadn’t experienced what he had.
X—December, 1908
“The trouble is, doctor, that Mr. Davidson is suffering from the
delusion that he is pursued by evil spirits. He was not committed
here by any court, but came of his own accord about four months
ago, and we let him wander about here at will. But he seems to be
growing worse, as time goes on.
“One of his worst delusions, doctor, is that there is one spirit in
particular who is trying to choke him to death. Dr. Major, our
superintendent, says he has incipient tuberculosis of the throat, with
occasional spasmodic contractions. There are small lumps or
calluses here and there as though caused by outside pressure and
yet our nurse assures us that there is no such outside irritation. He
won’t believe that; but whenever he tries to sleep, especially in the
middle of the night, he will jump up and come running out into the
hall, insisting that one of these spirits, which he insists are after him,
is trying to choke him to death. He really seems to believe it, for he
comes out coughing and choking and feeling at his neck as if some
one has been trying to strangle him. He always explains the whole
matter to me as being the work of evil spirits, and asks me to not pay
any attention to him unless he calls for help or rings his call-bell; and
so I never think anything more of it now unless he does.
“Another of his ideas is that these same spirits do something to his
food—put poison in it, or give it a bad odor or taste, so that he can’t
eat it. When he does find anything he can eat, he grabs it and almost
swallows it whole, before, as he says, the spirits have time to do
anything to it. Once, he says, he weighed more than two hundred
pounds, but now he only weighs one hundred and twenty. His case
is exceedingly strange and pathetic, doctor!
“Dr. Major insists that it is purely a delusion, that so far as being
choked is concerned, it is the incipient tuberculosis, and that his
stomach trouble comes from the same thing; but by association of
ideas, or delusion, he thinks some one is trying to choke him and
poison his food, when it isn’t so at all. Dr. Major says that he can’t
imagine what could have started it. He is always trying to talk to Mr.
Davidson about it, but whenever he begins to ask him questions, Mr.
Davidson refuses to talk, and gets up and leaves.
“One of the peculiar things about his idea of being choked, doctor,
is that when he is merely dozing he always wakes up in time, and
has the power to throw it off. He claims that the strength of these
spirits is not equal to his own when he is awake, or even dozing, but
when he’s asleep their strength is greater and that then they may
injure him. Sometimes, when he has had a fright like this, he will
come out in the hall and down to my desk there at the lower end,
and ask if he mayn’t sit there by me. He says it calms him. I always
tell him yes, but it won’t be five minutes before he’ll get up and leave
again, saying that he’s being annoyed, or that he won’t be able to
contain himself if he stays any longer, because of the remarks being
made over his shoulder or in his ear.
“Often he’ll say: ‘Did you hear that, Miss Liggett? It’s astonishing,
the low, vile things that man can say at times!’ When I say, ‘No, I
didn’t hear,’ he always says, ‘I’m so glad!’”
“No one has ever tried to relieve him of this by hypnotism, I
suppose?”
“Not that I know of, doctor. Dr. Major may have tried it. I have only
been here three months.”
“Tuberculosis is certainly the cause of the throat trouble, as Dr.
Major says, and as for the stomach trouble, that comes from the
same thing—natural enough under the circumstances. We may have
to resort to hypnotism a little later. I’ll see. In the meantime you’d
better caution all who come in touch with him never to sympathize,
or even to seem to believe in anything he imagines is being done to
him. It will merely encourage him in his notions. And get him to take
his medicine regularly; it won’t cure, but it will help. Dr. Major has
asked me to give especial attention to his case, and I want the
conditions as near right as possible.”
“Yes, sir.”
XI—January, 1909
The trouble with these doctors was that they really knew nothing of
anything save what was on the surface, the little they had learned at
a medical college or in practise—chiefly how certain drugs, tried by
their predecessors in certain cases, were known to act. They had no
imagination whatever, even when you tried to tell them.
Take that latest young person who was coming here now in his
good clothes and with his car, fairly bursting with his knowledge of
what he called psychiatrics, looking into Davidson’s eyes so hard
and smoothing his temples and throat—massage, he called it—
saying that he had incipient tuberculosis of the throat and stomach
trouble, and utterly disregarding the things which he, Davidson,
could personally see and hear! Imagine the fellow trying to persuade
him, at this late date, that all that was wrong with him was
tuberculosis, that he didn’t see Mersereau standing right beside him
at times, bending over him, holding up that hand and telling him how
he intended to kill him yet—that it was all an illusion!
Imagine saying that Mersereau couldn’t actually seize him by the
throat when he was asleep, or nearly so, when Davidson himself,
looking at his throat in the mirror, could see the actual finger prints,—
Mersereau’s,—for a moment or so afterward. At any rate, his throat
was red and sore from being clutched, as Mersereau of late was
able to clutch him! And that was the cause of these lumps. And to
say, as they had said at first, that he himself was making them by
rubbing and feeling his throat, and that it was tuberculosis!
Wasn’t it enough to make one want to quit the place? If it weren’t
for Miss Liggett and Miss Koehler, his private nurse, and their
devoted care, he would. That Miss Koehler was worth her weight in
gold, learning his ways as she had, being so uniformly kind, and
bearing with his difficulties so genially. He would leave her something
in his will.
To leave this place and go elsewhere, though, unless he could
take her along, would be folly. And anyway, where else would he go?
Here at least were other people, patients like himself, who could
understand and could sympathize with him,—people who weren’t
convinced as were these doctors that all that he complained of was
mere delusion. Imagine! Old Rankin, the lawyer, for instance, who
had suffered untold persecution from one living person and another,
mostly politicians, was convinced that his, Davidson’s, troubles were
genuine, and liked to hear about them, just as did Miss Koehler.
These two did not insist, as the doctors did, that he had slow
tuberculosis of the throat, and could live a long time and overcome
his troubles if he would. They were merely companionable at such
times as Mersereau would give him enough peace to be sociable.
The only real trouble, though, was that he was growing so weak
from lack of sleep and food—his inability to eat the food which his
enemy bewitched and to sleep at night on account of the choking—
that he couldn’t last much longer. This new physician whom Dr.
Major had called into consultation in regard to his case was insisting
that along with his throat trouble he was suffering from acute
anemia, due to long undernourishment, and that only a solution of
strychnin injected into the veins would help him. But as to Mersereau
poisoning his food—not a word would he hear. Besides, now that he
was practically bedridden, not able to jump up as freely as before, he
was subject to a veritable storm of bedevilment at the hands of
Mersereau. Not only could he see—especially toward evening, and
in the very early hours of the morning—Mersereau hovering about
him like a black shadow, a great, bulky shadow—yet like him in
outline, but he could feel his enemy’s hand moving over him. Worse,
behind or about him he often saw a veritable cloud of evil creatures,
companions or tools of Mersereau’s, who were there to help him and
who kept swimming about like fish in dark waters, and seemed to
eye the procedure with satisfaction.
When food was brought to him, early or late, and in whatever form,
Mersereau and they were there, close at hand, as thick as flies,
passing over and through it in an evident attempt to spoil it before he
could eat it. Just to see them doing it was enough to poison it for
him. Besides, he could hear their voices urging Mersereau to do it.
“That’s right—poison it!”
“He can’t last much longer!”
“Soon he’ll be weak enough so that when you grip him he will
really die!”
It was thus that they actually talked—he could hear them.
He also heard vile phrases addressed to him by Mersereau, the
iterated and reiterated words “murderer” and “swindler” and “cheat,”
there in the middle of the night. Often, although the light was still on,
he saw as many as seven dark figures, very much like Mersereau’s,
although different, gathered close about him,—like men in
consultation—evil men. Some of them sat upon his bed, and it
seemed as if they were about to help Mersereau to finish him,
adding their hands to his.
Behind them again was a complete circle of all those evil,
swimming things with green and red eyes, always watching—
helping, probably. He had actually felt the pressure of the hand to
grow stronger of late, when they were all there. Only, just before he
felt he was going to faint, and because he could not spring up any
more, he invariably screamed or gasped a choking gasp and held his
finger on the button which would bring Miss Koehler. Then she would
come, lift him up, and fix his pillows. She also always assured him
that it was only the inflammation of his throat, and rubbed it with
alcohol, and gave him a few drops of something internally to ease it.
After all this time, and in spite of anything he could tell them, they
still believed, or pretended to believe, that he was suffering from
tuberculosis, and that all the rest of this was delusion, a phase of
insanity!
And Mersereau’s skeleton still out there on the Monte Orte!
And Mersereau’s plan, with the help of others, of course, was to
choke him to death, there was no doubt of that now; and yet they
would believe after he was gone that he had died of tuberculosis of
the throat. Think of that.
XII—Midnight of February 10, 1909
The Ghost of Mersereau (bending over Davidson): “Softly!

Softly! He’s quite asleep! He didn’t think we could get him—that I
could! But this time,—yes. Miss Koehler is asleep at the end of the
hall and Miss Liggett can’t come, can’t hear. He’s too weak now. He
can scarcely move or groan. Strengthen my hand, will you! I will grip
him so tight this time that he won’t get away! His cries won’t help him
this time! He can’t cry as he once did! Now! Now!”
A Cloud of Evil Spirits (swimming about): “Right! Right! Good!
Good! Now! Ah!”
Davidson (waking, choking, screaming, and feebly striking out):
“Help! Help! H-e-l-p! Miss—Miss—H—e—l—p!”
Miss Liggett (dozing heavily in her chair): “Everything is still. No
one restless. I can sleep.” (Her head nods.)
The Cloud of Evil Spirits: “Good! Good! Good! His soul at last!
Here it comes! He couldn’t escape this time! Ah! Good! Good! Now!”
Mersereau (to Davidson): “You murderer! At last! At last!”
XIII—3 A.M. of February 17, 1909
Miss Koehler (at the bedside, distressed and pale): “He must
have died some time between one and two, doctor. I left him at one
o’clock, comfortable as I could make him. He said he was feeling as
well as could be expected. He’s been very weak during the last few
days, taking only a little gruel. Between half past one and two I
thought I heard a noise, and came to see. He was lying just as you
see here, except that his hands were up to his throat, as if it were
hurting or choking him. I put them down for fear they would stiffen
that way. In trying to call one of the other nurses just now, I found
that the bell was out of order, although I know it was all right when I

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Statics 18th Edition A. R.

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Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics 3rd Edition

Schaum's Outline of Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 7th

(for <»«</ Honours Students ofAwadh, B.H.U.Gorakhpur, Lucknow & other

A.R. Vasishtha Dr. R.K. Gupta

Meerut CoUege, Meerut. S.S.Y (P.G.) CoUege, Hapur.

KRISHNA Prakashan Media(P)Ltd.

otnlssionslnthlspoblicatlon.lnsoiteofthls has been made fo avoid errors or

Published by: Satyendra Rastogi "Mitm”

This book on Statics has been written for the use of

The authors will feel amply rewarded if the.book

Particle. A particle is a portion of matter which is indefinitely

it is a vector. Thus the force caa be represented by a directed line

if the force acting at their point of contact is in the sense of the

(Fig. 1*3) (Fig. 14)

(Fig. 1-5) (Fig. 1-6)

(b) If a rod AB is placed partly within and partly without

where P, Q, R are the magnitudes of forces P, Q, R respectively.

if the twoforces A^arid p OB act at a point 0, then their

(V Cif and are in

Hence the resultant ofthe forc^ XOA and pOB is (A+ft)OC,

§ 1*6. Components of a force in two given directions.

Let RsssOC be a force

and P=0.4, Q=OJ? the com

§ 1*7. Resolved parts of a force along two motnally perpendicular

§ I’ll. Converse of the triangle of forces.

Completing the parallelogram ABC, we have

Ex. 1. The greatest resultant which twoforces can have is P

Similarly forces Q and R acting (Fig. 1-14)

Substituting for OC from (2) in (I), we have

Alteroative method. By the A-/x theorem given in § 1*5, the re

sultant of the forces^ and ^^is equal to

Ex 4. A string oflength / isfastened to two points A and B

Let £C=i(it so that CA=^l—d.

But /=/lP=2acos0, sothatcps0=^-

Ex. 7. ,A heavy small ring of weight W isfree to slide on a

Sol. Let P be the equilibrium

and (It)P:Qt K=o>(i*+c“-o»): (c»+a»-i»): c^ia^+b^-c^).

- Ex. 9. ABC is a triangle, Forces P, Q, P, acting along the

By Lami’s theorem at O, we have

froni (1) and (2), we have

The ring at A is in equilibrium

Again the ring at B is in equilibrium under the following

Sol. By symmetry the

§ 1. Moment of a force about a point;

The moment of.aforce applied on a rigid body about a point is

and its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the vectors r and

Theorem II. If a number of coplanar forces acting at a point

§ 3.. Couple. {Definition). tMeemt 76]

Hence a couple cannot be replaced by a singleforce.

§4. If three forces acting in one plane upon a rigid body at

. Proof. Let the three forces P,Q, R