Engineering Physics

01GS1101
Compiled By:
Prof. Mit Sheth
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Location : MA053
Email Id: mit.sheth@marwadieducation.edu.in

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Syllabus
Syllabus
Syllabus
Teaching & Examination Scheme
Course Outcomes
Reference Books
Introduction
❑Semiconductors are solid materials with a resistivity between conductors
and insulators.
❑Most commonly used semiconductors are silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge),
Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphide (InP), etc.
❑Semiconductors are bipolar i.e. current conduction can take place by two
charge carriers.
❑They are specially important because by varying conditions like temp. and
impurities, their conductivity can be easily altered.
Properties of Semiconductor
❑They have negative temperature of coefficient of resistance
❑Metallic in nature
❑At 0 K they will behave as insulators
❑Both electrons and holes are charge carriers
❑Filled valence band and an empty conduction band at 0 K
Types of Semiconductor
a) Elemental Semiconductors
❑ They are composed of single atoms Generally found in group IV(A) of
periodic table
❑ Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Carbon (C), Lead (Pb) etc.
b) Compound Semiconductors
❑ Semiconductors which are composed of two or more different species of
atoms are compound semiconductors
❑ Glacial Acrylic Acid (GaA), Gallium phosphide (GaP), Indium arsenide
(InAs), Indium Phosphide (InP), Zinc sulfide (ZnS), Cadmium sulfide (CdS)
etc
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
1) Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors

2) Extrinsic Semiconductors
It is a semiconductor in impure form, obtained by
adding impure atoms called dopants to an intrinsic
semiconductors

Based on the element of doping (impurity dopant

added), extrinsic semiconductors can be of two types
a) P-type semiconductors
b) N-type semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductors
❑It is formed by doping trivalent impurity
in Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge). For e.g.
Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), Boron (B),
Aluminum (Al)
❑If Al with three electrons forms covalent
bonds with neighboring Si atoms having
four electrons, the fourth bond as shown
will be an incomplete covalent bond.
❑There will be the absence of an electron
(Presence of hole).
❑This forms a P-type semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor - Temperature

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Intrinsic Semiconductor - Temperature
• At room temperature, the thermal energy
may cause a few of the covalent bonds to
break, thus generating the free electrons
as shown
• The electrons thus generated get excited
and move into the conduction band from
the valence band, overcoming the energy
barrier
• During this process, each electron leaves
behind a hole in the valence band.
• The electrons and holes created in this
way are called intrinsic charge carriers
and are responsible for the conductive
properties exhibited by the intrinsic
semiconductor material.
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
• On applying an electric field an intrinsic semiconductor, the
electron-hole pairs can be made to drift under its influence.
• In this case, the electrons move in the direction opposite to
that of the applied field while the holes move in the direction
of the electric field
• In semiconductor the flow of electron and flow of holes
constitute to the total current through the semiconductor

• Conductivity for semiconductor is given by 𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 +

𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝜇ℎ
• Here 𝑛𝑒 = carrier concentration of electron and 𝑛ℎ = carrier
concentration of hole, 𝜇𝑒 and 𝜇ℎ are electron and hole mobilities

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Intrinsic Semiconductors – Carrier Concentration
• Carrier Concentration (ni)

• No. of charge carriers per unit volume is

called carrier concentration

• Fermi Energy:

• Energy difference between highest and lowest

occupied state at absolute zero
• In an intrinsic semiconductors for every
excited electron moving to a conduction band
there is a hole created in a valence band
• Thus in an intrinsic semiconductor
• Density of electrons (ne) = density of
holes (nh)
• ne = nh

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Carrier generation and recombination
• Carrier Generation
• It is a process where electron-hole pairs are created by exciting an electron from
valence band to conduction band, creating a hole in valence band.

• Carrier Recombination
• Recombination is a reverse process, where electrons from conduction band
recombine with hole in valence band and are annihilated (destroyed)
• In recombination both carriers disappear. The process of recombination of electrons
with holes release energy in the form of phonons

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Carrier generation and recombination

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Carrier Recombination
• Radiative Recombination
• Shockley-Read-Hall recombination
• Auger recombination

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Recombination
❑Photon Transition (Optical generation/recombination)
❑- It is known as direct recombination (band to band
transition)
❑- Electron from conduction band fall to the valence band
and release energy in form of photon
❑- The reverse process - generation of electron-hole pairs
triggered by sufficiently energetic photon, transfer its energy
to valence band electron, moving it to conduction band and
leaving behind hole in valence band
❑- The photon energy should be equal to band gap to remove
electron from valence band

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Phonon Transition (Shockley-Read-Hall(SRH)
Recombination)
• Indirect or Trap-assisted recombination.
EC
• Trap assisted recombination of electron and
holes ET

• The electron passing through a lattice defect

EV
at energy level ET within the semiconductor
bandgap
• The charge trap can be caused by presence of
any foreign atom or structural defect

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Phonon Transition (Shockley-Read-Hall(SRH)
Recombination)
• Electron Emission
• A trapped electron moves from the trap energy level to
EC
conduction band
ET
• The electron capture rate is proportional to the electron
concentration in conduction band EV

• Hole capture rate is proportional to hole concentration in

valence band
• Hole and electron emission rates are proportional to
concentration of empty traps and filled traps respectively
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Phonon Transition (Shockley-Read-Hall(SRH)
Recombination)
• Hole Capture
• Trapped electron moves to valence band and neutralizes a hole.
EC
A photon with energy (ET - EV) is generated
ET
• Hole Emission
• An electron from valence band is trapped in band gap defect EV

state, leaving a hole in the valence band

• i.e. hole emitted from empty trap to valence band

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Carrier transport: diffusion and drift
❑Drift Current
❑Flow of charge carriers, which is due to applied voltage or electric field is called drift current
❑In a semiconductors holes and electron are charge carriers
❑Voltage applied to semiconductor, free electron move towards positive terminal of battery and
holes move towards negative terminal
❑Applied voltage drifts the electron towards positive terminal

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Carrier transport: diffusion and drift
❑Drift Velocity
❑Drift Current
❑Diffusion Current

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Carrier transport: Drift Current
❑Applied voltage drifts the electron towards positive terminal
❑The average velocity that an electron or hole achieves, due to applied voltage or electric field is
called Drift Velocity
❑Drift Velocity
❑Ve = µeE
❑Drift Velocity
❑Vh = µhE

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Carrier transport: Drift Current
❑Drift current density due to free electrons is
❑Je = neµeE
❑Drift current density due to holes is
❑Jh = neµhE

❑Total drift current density

❑J = Je + Jh
❑ = neµeE + neµhE
❑J = ne E (ue + uh)

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Diffusion Current
❑The process by which charge carriers in a semiconductor
move from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration is called 'Diffusion'
❑Region with more no. of electrons is called higher
concentration region
❑Region with less no. of electron is called lower
concentration region
❑"Current produced due to the motion of charge carriers
from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration
is called diffusion current"
❑Process occurs in semiconductors which are non-uniformely
doped
❑Diffusion current occurs without an external voltage or
applied electric field

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Numerical 1

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Numerical 2

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Numerical 3

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Numerical 4

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Numerical 5

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Numerical 6

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Numerical 6 (Cont.)

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Numerical 7

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Numerical 7 (Cont.)

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Numerical 7 (Cont.)

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p-n junction

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p-n junction

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p-n junction
• Forward Bias
• Positive terminal of battery connected
with p-type semiconductor
• Negative terminal of battery connected
to n-type semiconductor
• Current flow from p-type to n-type
semiconductor
• Electrons flow from n-type to p-type
semiconductor
• Reverse Bias
• Positive terminal of battery connected
with n-type semiconductor

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P-n junction forward bias

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P-n junction reverse bias

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Voltage Current (V-I) characteristics of forward biasing
of a diode

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Voltage Current (V-I) characteristics of reverse biasing
of a diode

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Energy band diagram

Zero Bias
(At Equilibrium) Forward Bias Reverse Bias

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Metal-semiconductor junction (Ohmic and Schottky)
❑Work Function
❑It is minimum energy required to transfer an electron from a point within a solid to
a point just outside its surface
❑Electron affinity
❑It is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a
neutral atom
❑When a metal and semiconductor are brought into contact, there a two types of
junctions formed, depending on the work function of semiconductor and its relation
with metal
❑Schottky junction
❑Ohmic junction
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Metal-semiconductor junction (Schottky Contact)

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Metal-semiconductor junction (Schottky Contact)
Forward Bias

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Metal-semiconductor junction (Schottky Contact)
I – V Characteristics

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Metal-semiconductor junction (Ohmic Contact)

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Semiconductor materials of interest for optoelectronic
devices
❑When the photons of energy equal to or greater than the band gap energy are
incident on the semi-conductor, electrons from the valence band are excited to
the conduction band, thereby creating electron-hole pairs.

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Photovoltaic effect
❑The effect due to which light energy is converted into electrical energy is
called the photovoltaic effect.
❑The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells that are composed of two
different types of semiconductors, p-type and n-type joined together to form a
p-n junction.
❑Whenever these semiconductors are joined, an electric field is formed in the
region as electrons move to p-side and holes move to n-side.
❑Light composes of photons-packets of electromagnetic radiation. These
photons can be absorbed by photovoltaic cell.

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Photovoltaic effect
❑When light of suitable wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the
photon is transferred to the semiconducting materials in the p-n junction.
❑This energy causes electrons to jump to a higher energy level (Conduction
band), leaving behind a hole in the valance band.
❑This movement of electrons creates an electron-hole pair, leading to a flow
of current.

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Photovoltaic cell or solar cell
❑The photovoltaic cell or solar cell is a device that converts sunlight into
electrical energy.
❑It is a simple p-n junction made from semiconductor materials like silicon.

• Construction

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Construction of solar cell
❑Solar cell is made of high purity single crystal of silicon with some impurity
atoms like Boron and phosphorus.
❑A thin layer of p-type material is diffused with n-type material, forming a simple
p-n junction.
❑The thickness of p-layer is very small.
❑As seen in the figure, the upper surface of solar cell is made by a thin layer of p-
type material, for light to energy easily.
❑To enhance the absorption of light by the material, there is an anti-reflection
coating on the top of p-type material.
❑Metal contacts are made on the p-type and n-type material which act as the
positive and negative terminal respectively.

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Working of solar cell

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Applications of solar cell
❑Solar models are used in photovoltaic power plants as a grid-connected
system.
❑It can be used for domestic lighting, water pumps, TV, mobile towers, etc.
❑It can be used to power fire alarms, burglar alarms and other alarm
systems.
❑Used in battery recharging station.
❑Used in medical applications.
❑Used as a street light in rural areas.
❑Used in water drip irrigation system.
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Merits of solar cell
❑For this type of conversion, the input energy (solar energy) is available at
no cost.
❑Such a process is free from pollution like chemical, thermal and
radioactive.

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Demerits of solar cell
❑The input solar energy is not constant. It changes with the time of day and
also with the seasons. So the output is not constant energy.
❑Solar cell have lower efficiency.
❑The modules require large area to be installed.

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Optical losses
❑Optical losses in solar cell, mainly affects the power output, by lowering
the short circuit current, thus reducing the efficiency.
❑The efficiency is decreased due to:
▪Mismatch of bandgap of materials with solar spectrum
▪Total spectrum of solar energy is not absorbed
▪Reflection loss of light
▪Less intensity of light

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Optical losses
❑Remedies:
❑Proper selection of materials, increase the efficiency of solar cell.
❑Solar cell can be made thicker for more absorption of light.
❑Top contact coverage of the solar cell surface can be minimized.
❑Anti-reflection coatings can be used on the top surface to increase
absorption.
❑The optical path length can be increased by a combination of surface
texturing and light trapping.

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