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1A
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION
m What is the need to classify animals?
m Classification helps in assigning a systematic position to newly described species.
With some
Characteristics of members – l Eukaryotic organisms l Division of labour Definite growth pattern l Capable of locomotion
m l
exceptions
of kingdom Animalia l Multicellular and their cells lack cell wall l Heterotrophic with holozoic mode of nutrition l Sensory and neuromotor mechanism (Poriferans)
Absent
m Animals without notochord – Non-chordates (Porifera to echinoderms) l Bilateral symmetry is most advanced form of symmetry that arose with motile organisms.
m Animals with notochord – Chordates l Platyhelminthes are first triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical acoelomates.
m About 2/3rd of all species on earth are Arthropods (Most abundant are insects) l Echinoderms have radial symmetry at adult stage and bilateral in the larval stage.
2 Animal Kingdom: Non-Chordates NCERT Maps
Collar
Trunk
Petromyzon
Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia (Lamprey)
All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
8 Animal Kingdom: Chordates NCERT Maps
Habitat Marine Both marine and fresh water Both on land and in water Mostly terrestrial Terrestrial, aquatic
Habit Predaceous – Dual life Creeping and crawling Most of them can fly except Limbs adapted to fly and live in
flightless birds water
Temperature Poikilothermous (Cold blooded) Homeothermous (Warm blooded)
regulation
Exoskeleton Placoid scales for Cycloid and ctenoid scales m Scales are absent Epidermal scales or scutes m Scales on hindlimbs Skin may possess hair
tough skin m Skin is moist with dry cornified skin m Body covered by feathers and
skin is dry
Digestive m Ventral mouth Terminal mouth Cloaca – m Additional gizzard and crop Different types of teeth
system m Teeth are modifiedscales present m Beak present in the jaws
& backwardly directed
m Powerful jaws
Respiratory Gill slits without 4 pairs of gill slits with Gills, skin and lungs Lungs m Lungs, Lungs
system operculum operculum m Air sacs supplement respiration
Circulatory 2 chambered heart with 1 auricle and 1 ventricle 3 chambered heart with 3 chambered heart with 4 chambered heart with 2 auricles and 2 ventricles
system 2 auricles and 1 ventricle 2 auricles and 1 ventricle
except crocodile
(4 chambered heart)
Excretory Kidneys (Excretion and Osmoregulation)
system
Sense m Eye Eyes present Eyes with eyelids
organs
m Ear Tympanum absent Tympanum represents ear Tympanum represents Tympanum represents ear, many External ear/pinna present
ear & many reptiles do not birds have external ear opening
have external ear opening
Fertilisation Internal as pelvic fins Usually external External Internal
of males bear claspers
Oviparous/ Many are viviparous Mostly oviparous Oviparous Viviparous except egg
Viviparous laying Platypus
Development Direct Indirect Direct
Unique features m Streamlined body m Streamlined body m Body divided into Snakes and lizards m Forelimbs modified m Presence of mammary
m Notochord persists m They have air bladder/ head and trunk, shed their scales as into wings glands to nourish young
throughout life swim bladder that regulated tail in some e.g. skin cast m Hindlimbs of birds are ones
m Absence of air bladder, buoyancy Salamander modified for walking, Examples :
hence, swim continuously Examples : m Alimentary canal, Examples :
swimming or clasping Oviparous
to avoid sinking Marine – Exocoetus urinary and reproductive Chelone (Turtle), Testudo the tree branches Ornithorhynchus
Examples : (Flying fish), tracts open into a common (Tortoise), Calotes m Skin is dry without (Platypus)
Carcharodon (Great white chamber called cloaca (Garden lizard), Alligator glands except oil gland Viviparous
shark), Examples : (Alligator). Hemidactylus
at the base of tail Macropus (Kangaroo),
Trygon (Poisonous sting Bufo (Toad), (Wall lizard), Poisonous
Hippocampus Examples : Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus
ray), Hyla (Tree frog) snakes – Bangarus
(Sea horse) Flying birds (Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus
Torpedo (Electric ray) Ichthyophis Rana (Krait), Vipera (Viper)
Corvus (Crow), Columba (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat),
Fresh water (Limbless (Frog)
– Labeo (Rohu), (Pigeon) Psittacula Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse)
amphibia) (Parrot) Delphinus (Common dolphin),
Clarias (Magur); Flightless birds
Aquarium – Betta Aptenodytes Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo
Scoliodon (Dog fish) (Lion).
(Fighting fish), (Penguin)
Pterophyllum Struthio
(Angel fish). Salamandra Crocodilus Naja (Ostrich) Balaenoptera
Catla (Katla), (Salamander) (Crocodile) (Cobra)
Pristis (Saw fish) (Blue whale)
Structural Organisation in Animals: 2A
Animal Tissues Chapter
1 TISSUE 2 TYPES OF TISSUES 4 CELL JUNCTIONS
m A group of similar cells along with Based on
intercellular substances which perform a m Structure of cells
specific function. m Function performed Tight junctions Adhering junctions Gap junctions
Organs such as stomach, lungs, heart and by cells
m
m Prevent leakage m Perform cementing to keep m Facilitate the cells to communicate with
kidney comprise specific proportion and Epithelial tissue across a tissue neighbouring cells together each other by connecting the cytoplasm
pattern of all basic types of tissues. Connective tissue of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of
m Division of labour contributes to survival Muscular tissue ions, small molecules and sometimes
of multicellular organisms e.g., Hydra. Neural tissue big molecules.
Types of glands:
Characteristics Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Ciliated Glandular
3 I. Based on the number of cells
Figure
m
(Secrete mucus) (Secrete saliva)
epithelium
base base
specific direction
Location Air sacs of Tubular parts of Stomach and Bronchioles and Salivary
lungs, walls nephron (PCT), ducts intestine fallopian tubes glands
II. Based on the mode of pouring their
of blood of glands
secretions
vessels
or Intercellular material
l Cells: Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes etc. Areolar tissue Adipose tissue Dense regular Dense irregular
l Fibres: Fibroblasts secrete collagen or elastin fibres m Major Fibroblasts, Adipocytes m Cells and Parallel bundles of Fibroblasts and fibres
cells macrophages, mast cells fibres collagen fibres are oriented differently
Fibres provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue
m Function(s) Serve as support Reservoir of stored m Location Tendons (attach skeletal Skin
framework for epithelium fats muscles to bone)
III. SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUE m Location Beneath skin Mainly beneath skin Ligaments (attach bone
1. Skeletal Connective Tissues to bone) Collagen fibres
Macrophage Fat
storage
Fibroblast area m Arrangement
Cartilage Bones
Matrix
Collagen Nucleus of fibres
m Solid, pliable Hard and non-pliable fibres
Plasma and cells
m Cells in Chondrocytes Osteocytes Mast cell membrane
lacuna
m Excess of nutrients not meant for immediate use are
m Location/ Tip of nose, outer Constitutes main converted to fats and are stored in adipose tissue
Functions ear joints, structural
between framework; Interact
vertebrae, limbs 7 MUSCULAR TISSUE 8 NEURAL TISSUE
with skeletal
and hands in muscles to bring m (Myofibrils)n ® (Muscle fibres)n ® Muscle m Tissue with greatest control over the body's
adults Show contractility and return to their uncontracted state in responsiveness to changing conditions.
movements; m
Most of the a coordinated fashion Tissue Components
Bone marrow in
cartilages in some bones is the m Play an active role in all movements
vertebrate
site of production of Parameters Skeletal muscle Smooth/Visceral Cardiac muscle Neurons Neuroglial cells
embryos are fibres muscle fibres fibres
blood cells. Unit of neural More than one
replaced by Shape Cylindrical Spindle/fusiform Cylindrical
bones in adults system half the volume of
No. of nuclei Multi-nucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated neural tissue
Collagen Peripheral nuclei Central Central m Excitability 3 7
fibers Striations Striated Non striated Faint striations
m Function Respond to Protect and
Cartilage cell Branching Unbranched Unbranched Branched
(Chondrocyte) changing support neurons
Under control of Yes (Voluntary) No (Involuntary) No (Involuntary) conditions through
2. Fluid Connective Tissue will
various stimuli
m Blood – main circulating fluid that helps in the Junctions Absent Present Present
Neuroglia
transport of various substances Location Attached to bones Heart wall
m Composed of plasma, RBC, WBC, platelets
Dendrite
e.g. Biceps
m Fibroblasts and fibres are absent in blood. Cell body
with nucleus
m Cartilage resists compression. Axon
m Calcium salts and collagen fibres in ground substance
provide strength to the bones. m Upon suitable stimulation, the electrical disturbance
m Lacunae are small cavities enclosing cells with in matrix m Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion generated travels swiftly along the plasma
secreted by them. points allow the cells of cardiac muscles to contract as a unit. membrane of neuron.
Structural Organisation in Animals: 2B
Animal Morphology Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION (Cockroach) m Head bears appendages forming Biting 3 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
and chewing type of mouth parts
m Classification
Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Arthropoda Alimentary canal Accessory glands
Class : Insecta Genus : Periplaneta Well developed with a mouth m Salivary gland
Labrum
Species : americana (upper lip) surrounded by mouth parts l 1 pair
Grinding region
m Characteristics: Incising region m Foregut (Lined by cuticle entirely) l Present near crop
l Size : 34-53 mm long Mandible Mandible l Pharynx (shorts tubular)
l Metathorax l Opaque, dark and leathery m Lying along mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen m Open into haemocoel plasma and haemocytes
l Cover hindwings at rest m Funnel shaped chambers with ostia on either side m Visceral organs bathed in
Metathoracic wings/
m m Blood flows anteriorly in heart haemolymph
m Abdomen Hindwings (1 pair) Anterior aorta Alary muscles Chambers of heart Haemolymph
l Transparent and membranous 12 pairs, help in circularion
through ostia
l Meant for flight
m Legs (3 pairs)
Sinuses Circulation of
l 1 pair of walking legs on each haemolymph Heart
m Anal cerci (1 pair) thoracic segment
m Head connected to thorax by short extension of prothorax known as neck. It provide great
mobility of head in all directions. Open circulatory system of cockroach Blood
vessels
18 Structural Organisation in Animals: Animal Morphology NCERT Maps
8 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Phallic gland
Testis Ovary
Long
m 1 pair, lateral side tubules m 1 pair
Mushroom gland nd th
th th Small m 2 -6 abdominal segments
m 4 -6 abdominal m 6 -7 abdominal segments
th th
th th th m Genital pouch is bounded by 7th sternum (boat shaped) along with 8th and 9th sterna
Male genital pouch is bounded dorsally by 9 and 10 terga and ventrally by 9 sternum. m Anterior part of genital pouch: female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collaterial glands
Path of sperms Path of ova
m Testes ® Vas deferens ® Seminal vesicle ® Ejaculatory duct ® m Female genital pore ¬ Common oviduct/Vagina ¬ Oviduct ¬ Ovary (Ovarioles)
Male genital pore ® Spermatheca of female during copulation
Sperms Ova
Anal cerci Anal style
m Female genital pouch
m Paired, long Paired, short m Female deposits ootheca in crack or crevice
m Fertilisation
m Jointed Unjointed 13 times moulting (Paurometabolous development)
m Secretion of collaterial glands form ootheca m Nymph Adult
m Filamentous Thread like Next to last nymphal stage has wing pads but only adult cockroaches have
m On an average female produces 9-10 ootheca, m
m and each containing 14 to 16 fertilised eggs wings.
NCERT Maps Structural Organisation in Animals: Animal Morphology 19
Body wall
epithelium with gland cells) m
m During day, live in burrows (made by Circular muscle layer l Lateral oesophageal hearts two worms during mating
boring and swallowing the soil Longitudinal muscle layer
th th
2 pairs, 7 and 9 segments m Mate in Juxtaposing opposite gonadal
m Can be traced by faecal deposits known l Lateral hearts openings exchanging packets of sperms
Coelomic epithelium
as worm castings th th called spermatophores
2 pairs, 12 and 13 segments
Pheretima and Lumbricus are common Spermathecal pore
m
12 ALIMENTARY CANAL m Dorsal blood vessel is largest blood 1 m 4 pairs
Indian earthworms vessel 2 th th th th th th th th
Straight tube between first and last segment 3 m 5 /6 , 6 /7 , 7 /8 , 8 /9
m
m Anterior loops-1 pair, 10th & 11th segments 4
intersegmental groove
10 MORPHOLOGY m Starts from mouth and opens to the exterior by m Blood glands 4th, 5th and 6th segments, 5
m Ventro-lateral sides
rounded anus. they produce blood cells (phagocytic) and 6
m Long cylindrical body Spermatheca
Mouth
haemoglobin which is dissolved in blood m 4 pairs
m 100-120 segments/metameres plasma. 7 th th
m 6 -9 segments
m Dorsal side: Marked by mid dorsal line 1 m Receive and store
2 8
Buccal cavity spermatozoa during copulation
(Dorsal blood vessel) 3 st rd 14 RESPIRATION
m 1 -3 segments
4
m Ventral side: Marked by presence of Muscular pharynx m Moist body surface (cutaneous respiration) 9 Testis
5
genital openings (pores) 6 10
m 2 pairs
th th
Prostomium 7
15 EXCRETORY ORGANS m 10 and 11 segments
Lobe that cover mouth Oesophagus 11 Testes sac
m
8 th th m Nephridia (segmentally arranged coiled
m 5 -7 segments Spermiducal funnel
m Helps in burrowing
9 tubules) 12 Seminal vesicle (2 pairs)
m Sensory
l 3 types (Similar in structure)
th th
10 m 11 and 12 segments
Muscular gizzard 13
Peristomium 11
th th
m 8 -9 segments 1. Septal nephridia Ovary
Pre-clitellar Mouth m First body 12 m Grinding of soil
l On both sides of intersegmental septa of m 1 pair
segments segment/ buccal particles and th
14
13 m Intersegmental groove of
segment
decaying leaves 15 to last segment
14 th
12 and 13 segments
th
Stomach l Open into intestine 15
Clitellar Clitellum 15 m 9 -14 segments
th th
Oviduct
segments m Glandular tissue in 14 ,
th
16 m Calciferous glands, 2. Integumentary nephridia Female genital pore
neutralise humic 16
15th and 16th segments 17 acid l Attached to inner lining of body wall from m Single
m Forms cocoon 18 rd
3 to last segment m Mid-ventral
m Present in mature Intestine 17
m 14 segment
th
19
earthworm m 15 -last segment l Open on the body surface through a pore
th
metabolism Structure
functions Some Secondary Metabolites
OH
OH OH OH
m Seems to have no direct Features Glycogen Starch Inulin Cellulose Chitin
m Play known function in growth and Pigments Carotenoids, Anthocyanins OH OH OH
Found in Animals Plants Plants Plants Animals
roles in development of organisms Alkaloids Morphine, Codeine
G l y c o g e n ® R i g h t e n d i s Function Storage Storage Cell wall Exoskeleton
Many of them are useful
m
physiological m Terpenoides Monoterpenes, Diterpenes
reducing while left end is non- (Structural) of arthropods
processes e.g. to human welfare e.g., Essential oils Lemon grass oil reducing Monomer Glucose Fructose Glucose N-acetyl
rubber, drugs, spices and Toxins Abrin, Ricin Starch hold I2 in helical portion
sugars, amino m
glucosamine
pigments. Some have Lectins Concanavalin A m Cellulose can not hold I2 as no
acids lipids, ecological importance helical portion Branching P
Drugs Vinblastin, curcumin
nitrogen bases, m E.g., Flavonoids, Polymeric Rubber, gums, cellulose m Cotton fibre ® Cellulose Colour Red Blue X
etc. antibiotics etc. substances m Paper is made from plant pulp with I2
NCERT Maps Biomolecules 25
m
N
Purines
N OH and C respectively, on the other strand m Rise per base pair = 3.4Å
m Always two hydrogen bonds exist between A and T O
N NH
and three hydrogen bonds between C and G
OH OH OH OH
Guanine Guanosine O 2 hydrogen bonds
m m m Guanylic acid
m Thymine m Thymidine m Thymidylic acid CH2 O Thymine Adenine CH2
O
m Cytosine m Cytidine m Cytidylic acid
Uracil O
Uridine m Uridylic acid
Pyrimidine
m
Base pair Phosphodiester bond
Substituted
m
O O (formed by dehydration) O
–
P O
HOCH2 O Uracil Ester bond –
HN HO–P–OCH2 O Uracil O O HO O
–
OH O P O
O 3 hydrogen bonds
N O
H Sugar
OH OH phosphate O
OH OH H2C Guanine Cytosine O CH2
backbone
m Ribose sugar and uracil exist in RNA (Ribonucleic acid) O
m 2¢-deoxyribose sugar and thymine exist in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
m DNA and RNA function as genetic material
O
6 LIPIDS
m Generally water insoluble I. Many lipids are esters of fatty acids and glycerol II. S o m e l i p i d s h a v e p h o s p h o r o u s a n d
m Could be simple fatty acids (R – COOH) where R group could be phosphorylated organic compound called
Methyl (–CH3), ethyl (–C2H5), higher no. of –CH2 (C–1 to 19) No. of Glycerol phospholipids
l Type
m Types of fatty acids fatty acids (trihydroxy propane) e.g., Lecithin - found in cell membrane
Monoglyceride 1 1 CH2 – CH – CH2 Neural tissues - lipids with more complex
Parameter Saturated Unsaturated
Diglyceride 2 1 structure O
No. of C = C X One or more OH OH OH
Triglyceride 3 1 O CH2 – O – C – R1
double bonds
R2 – C – O – CH O
Example Palmitic acid (16 carbon Arachidonic acid (20 carbon Melting point State in winters Examples
including carboxyl including carboxyl carbon) Fats Higher Solid Ghee, Butter CH2 – O – P – O – CH2 – CH2
carbon) Oils Lower Liquid Gingelly oil H N
+
Activation C– C X–Y+C=C
E+S ES EP E+P energy with V Isomerases: Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometric or positional
Substrate enzyme
(S) isomers.
‘Altered structural states’
(unstable) VI Ligases: Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds, e.g., enzymes which catalyse
Product (P)
Progress of reaction joining of C-O, C-S, C-N, P-O etc. bonds.
m Difference in average
energy content of ‘S’ from (1) Temperature 12 FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
that of transition state is m Enzyme shows highest activity at optimum temperature
called ‘Activation energy’ (3) Substrate concentration
m Enzyme activity declines both below and above optimum value
Enzyme activity
m Transition state – High m Low temperature preserves enzymes in temporarily inactive state
Initially rate of reaction increases with increase in
energy unstable state substrate concentration but becomes constant when
m High temperature destroys enzymatic activity by denaturing their
‘P’ is at lower level than ‘S’ – all enzymes get saturated with substrate
m structure
Reaction is exothermic (2) pH (4) Binding of specific chemicals
m ‘S’ is at lower level than ‘P’ – m Enzyme shows highest activity at optimum pH When binding of chemicals shuts off enzyme activity,
Temperature
Reaction is endothermic the process is called inhibition and chemical is
m Rate of reaction declines both below and above optimum pH
Enzyme activity
called inhibitor
Enzymes 14 CO-FACTORS Prosthetic group Competitive inhibitor:
m Organic, tightly bound to apoenzyme
Haem is prosthetic group for catalase and m Inhibitor compete with substrate for active site
Simple enzymes Conjugated enzymes m
m Only protein
peroxidase m Closely resembles substrate in molecular
Co-enzyme pH structure and inhibits enzyme activity
Apo-enzyme (inactive) Co-factor m Organic, loosely bound to apo-enzyme for Vmax m Consequently, substrate can not bind and as a
m Protein part m Non-protein part transient period (just during catalysis) result enzyme action declines.
e.g., NAD, NADP (Contain niacin vitamin)
reaction (V)
m Velocity of
Catalytically active enzyme Vmax m e.g., (1) Inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by
Metal ions 2
m Form coordination bond with active site and malonate
Catalytic activity is lost if co-factor is one or more coordination bond with substrate (2) Control of bacterial pathogens by
+2
removed m Zn for carboxypeptidase Km [S] competitive inhibitor
Digestion and Absorption
4
Chapter
1 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Digestion: The process of conversion of complex food 1. Food: m Provide energy and organic material for growth and repair of tissues. 2. Water:
m Important for metabolic processes.
substances to simple absorbable forms by mechanical and
Major components Minor components m Prevent dehydration of the body.
biochemical methods. lCarbohydrates, Proteins, Fats l Vitamins, Minerals
Parotid gland Teeth floor of oral cavity by the frenulum m Muscularis m Inner – Circular muscles
Oral cavity/ l Upper surface of the tongue has
m Outer – Longitudinal muscles
m Has Tongue
Buccal cavity small projections called papillae. m Sub-mucosa m Loose connective tissue with nerve, blood
Submaxillary Some papillae have taste buds. and lymph vessels.
and Pharynx Mucosa Innermost layer lining the lumen
sublingual
m Common passage for food and air m m
glands
Oesophagus m Thin, long tube Serosa
Gastro- m Passes through neck, thorax and diaphragm Inner-circular
oesophageal Muscularis
sphincter Outer-longitudinal
Sub-mucosa
Stomach m J-shaped bag in upper left side of abdominal cavity Mucosa
l 4 regions
Cardiac – Oesophagus opens here Lumen
Fundic
Pyloric
sphincter Body – Main central region
Modifications
Pyloric – Opens into small intestine mStomach m Oblique muscle layer is present
Duodenum – ‘C’-shaped m Irregular folds of mucosa called Rugae
Pancreas Small intestine 3 regions
m
Jejunum – Long coiled part m Small intestine m Finger like foldings of mucosa called villi
Ileum – Highly coiled, opens
m Cells lining villi produce microscopic
Ileo-caecal
valve into large intestine projections called microvilli giving brush
border appearance
Large intestine m 3 regions Caecum – Blind sac, host symbiotic microbes
l Vermiform appendix: m Villi, microvilli, rugae – Increase surface area for absorption
Vestigial organ, finger- m Villi are supplied with blood capillaries and lacteals (Lymph
Opens out like tubular projection vessel) m Gastric glands, goblet cells and crypts of Lieberkuhn –
through Present in mucosa m Brunner’s gland – Present in sub-mucosa
m The muscular activities of different parts of alimentary canal can
Colon Ascending be moderated by neural mechanisms, both local and through CNS.
Anus Transverse
Descending m Epiglottis prevents the entry of food into the glottis (opening of trachea/wind pipe)
Sigmoid during swallowing. m Sphincters are muscular structures that regulate the flow of
Fig.: Human digestive system Rectum partially digested food in the alimentary canal.
32 Digestion and Absorption NCERT Maps
7 DIGESTION OF FOOD
m Various types of movements in alimentary canal (e.g. peristalsis) are generated by muscularis layer that helps in a thorough mixing up of the food with various secretions and thereby
Mechanical process
facilitate digestion. m Bolus passes down into oesophagus by swallowing/deglutition. m Complex food substances Biochemical process
simple absorbable forms.
m Food in stomach mixes with acidic gastric juice by churning movements and is called chyme. m Breakdown of biomacromolecules into its simplest form occurs in the duodenum.
m 1 kilo calorie is the amount of energy required to raise Diarrhoea m Abnormal frequency of bowel movement and Increased liquidity of faecal discharge,
the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C reduces food absorption.
m Energy requirements of animals, and the energy Constipation m Faeces are retained within the colon as bowel movement occurs irregularly.
content of food expressed in terms of heat energy,
(calorie (cal) or joule (J)). Since this value is tiny Indigestion m Food not digested properly, feeling of fullness.
amount of energy, physiologists commonly use m Can be due to inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating and
kilocalorie (kcal) or kilo joule (kJ). spicy food.
Breathing and Exchange of Gases
5
Chapter
Conducting zone
glottis during swallowing) Common passage Traps dust present in
2 RESPIRATORY ORGANS Pharynx
In close contact with for air/food inhaled air
Habitats
m Based on thoracic lining Larynx Voice box Bring air to body temperature
Levels of organisation
Organism Mechanism Outer Respiratory zone — Exchange of gases
m Sponges, coelenterates m Simple diffusion 2 pleural Trachea Divides at
flatworms membranes 5th thoracic
Inner vertebra
m Earthworm m Moist skin
Bronchus 5 EXCHANGE OF GASES
m Insects m Tracheal tubes In contact Primary
Inside Lungs
m Aquatic arthropods, m Branchial/Gills with lung m Partial pressure drives respiration
molluscs, fish surface Secondary
Respiratory zone
Amphibians, reptiles, Site of exchange
m Pulmonary/lungs
m
m
Tertiary Till here supported Alveoli (Primary)
aves, mammals l
8 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
7 TRANSPORT OF GASES
m Humans have significant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory
O2
rhythm to suit the demands of the body tissues
Lungs Blood Tissue
Oxygen dissociation curve Regions Pneumotaxic Chemosensitive Aortic Carotid
CO2 involved center Area receptors receptors
Oxygen Carbon dioxide Location Pons Medulla Aortic arch Carotid artery
oblongata
m 5 ml of O2 is delivered to m 4 ml of CO2 is delivered to
the tissues by 100 ml of alveoli by 100 ml of Reduces duration Respiratory adjustments
oxygenated blood deoxygenated blood of inspiration
2 lower, larger – Ventricles Right ventricle Left ventricle P T m QRS complex Depolarisation of ventricles Contraction of ventricles
Q S
m Septum Interventricular septum m T wave Repolarisation of ventricles Relaxation of ventricles
Between auricles: Inter-atrial (thin, muscular) Apex
Between ventricles: Inter-ventricular (thick walled) l Number of QRS complexes in a given time period, determine the heart beat rate of an individual
Between auricle & ventricle: Auriculo-ventricular (thick fibrous) Valves are muscular l End of T-wave marks the end of systole
m Cardiac Between right auricle & right ventricle – Tricuspid flaps or cusps that allow l Any deviation in ECG indicates a possible abnormality or disease e.g. ECG machine makes sound
valves Between left auricle & left ventricle – Bicuspid/Mitral unidirectional flow of blood pip----pip---pee as patient goes into cardiac arrest.
At base of pulmonary artery – Semilunar and prevent its backward
At base of aorta flow 11
4 REGULATION OF CARDIAC CYCLE
m Cardiac muscles Contractile tissue Sino-auricular node/ Right upper corner of right atrium Activities of heart are regulated intrinsically i.e autoregulated as human heart is myogenic
(SA node/pacemaker)
Nodal tissue Medulla oblongata can moderate
(Auto excitable) Atrioventricular node/ Left lower corner of right atrium
AV node Cardiac functions through
m SAN – Maximum – 70-75 action AV bundle Interventricular septum
excitability potentials/min Purkinje fibres Divides at apex of ventricle Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
l Aquatic
Urinary bladder m Each nephron has two parts - (i) Glomerulus (ii) Renal tubule
body surface m Smooth muscles contract
amphibians as ammoium Urinary bladder (Store urine) Afferent arteriole Efferent arteriole
m Urethral sphincters relax
ions Activates
s
Release
al
m Urea Ureotelic Lesser l Kidneys filter Glomerulus Peritubular capillaries
gn
Stretch receptors Malpighian body/
Bowman’s
si
l Marine fishes urea from Urine Renal corpuscle
l Many terrestrial blood capsule Proximal convoluted
amphibians Types of Nephron tubule
l Mammals Distal convoluted
Parameters Cortical Juxtamedullary tubule
m Uric acid Uricotelic Least l Pellet/Paste
l Land snails m Number More Less Descending limb
l Insects Loop of Henle Too short Very long
Henle’s of loop Henle
m
l Reptiles m Extension into Very little Deep loop
l Birds
medulla (Hairpin Ascending limb
m Ammonia converts into urea in liver. m Vasa recta Absent / reduced Present shaped) of loop of Henle
m Elimination of urea, uric acid is meant for conservation
of water i.e., a type of terrestrial adaptation. m Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) : Vasa recta Collecting duct
m Kidneys do not play a significant role in removal of ammonia.
Sensitive region formed by cellular modifications in distal convoluted
tubule and afferent arteriole at the location of their contact.
m Some amount of urea may be retained in the kidney Fig. : Nephron
m Nephrons are dipped in interstitial fluid having specific osmolarity
matrix of some animals to maintain desired osmolarity.
– Cortex - 300 mOsm / L – Medulla - upto 1200 mOsm/L (Gradient)
3 EXCRETORY STRUCTURES m Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by afferent arteriole - a fine branch of renal artery
m Most invertebrates – Simple tubular forms m Malpighian corpuscle, PCT, DCT - Located in cortex
m Vertebrates – Complex tubular organs called kidneys m Loop of Henle - Dips into medulla
Structures Examples m Protonephridia are primarily concerned m Many DCTs open into straight tube called collecting duct, many of which converge into renal pelvis
m Protonephridia / m Platyhelminthes (Planaria) with osmoregulation through medullary pyramids in the calyces
m Rotifers Function of excretory structures :
flame cells m m Efferent arteriole emerging from glomerulus forms peritubular capillaries around renal tubule
m Some annelids Eliminate nitrogenous wastes
m Cephalochordates (Amphioxus)
m Vasa recta :
m Nephridia Maintain ionic and acid-base balance l Branch of peritubular capillaries
m Annelids (Earthworms)
m Malpighian tubules
of body fluids, i.e., osmoregulation l Parallel to loop of Henle
m Insects (Cockroaches)
m Antennal/ Green glands m Crustaceans (Prawn) l ‘U’ shaped
NCERT Maps Excretory Products and Their Elimination 49
Urea which enters in thin part of ascending limb of HL is transported back to m Urea - 25-30 gm/day
PCT : m
Lined by simple cuboidal interstitium by collecting tubule. m Various conditions can affect characteristics
m
brush border epithelium m This mechanism maintain interstitial concentration gradient that helps in easy of urine.
Nearly all essential nutrients, passage of water from collecting tubule thereby concentrating filtrate (urine).
m
H 2O NaCl H 2O
70-80% electrolytes and Abnormal Condition Indicate
water are reabsorbed VR HL constituents
Major site of reabsorption Urea Cortex of urine
m
300 mOsm/L
& selective secretion Glucose Glucosuria Diabetes mellitus
m
(thin fibrous (contractile) (MM) (Heavy) - Short arm regular distance and
& also for locomotion. Head Actin binding sites membrane) angle from each other
m Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of LMM - Tail from the surface of
ATP binding sites
muscular, skeletal and neural systems. (Light) polymerised myosin
Cross
arm filament and is known
3 MUSCLES as cross arm.
m Muscle tissue: Mesodermal in origin
m 40-50% of body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles. Basis Location Appearance Regulation Example
m Properties l Excitability l Contractility l Extensibility l Elasticity m Classification 1. Skeletal Striated Voluntary m Muscles of limbs
m Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in branching pattern to form a of muscles 2. Visceral Non-striated/smooth Involuntary m Inner walls of visceral organs
cardiac muscle 3. Cardiac Striated Involuntary m Muscles of heart
NCERT Maps Locomotion and Movement 55
6 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION/ m Globular head is active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites for ATP and active sites for actin.
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY m Thin filaments make I/Isotropic band – actin Arranged alternately throughout the length of myofibrils
m Contraction of muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin Thick filaments make A/Anisotropic band – actin + myosin parallel to each other and to longitudinal axis of myofibrils
filaments over the thick filaments.
m Sarcomere: Functional unit of contraction between 2 'Z' lines (elastic fibres) = 1 A-band + 2 half I-band
A motor neuron alongwith the muscle fibres connected to it
H-zone is non overlapped part of thick filament by thin filaments. Z line I band
constitute a motor unit. m A band
via Release
CNS Motor 7 SKELETAL SYSTEM
neuron m This system has significant role in movement shown by the body.
Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine
m Framework of 206 bones & few cartilages
m Principle division l Appendicular skeleton l Axial skeleton H zone
At Neuromuscular Junction / Motor end plate, action potential is Axial skeleton (Bones-80) Sarcomere
Bones distributed along main axis
generated in sarcolemma that causes release of Ca+2 in sarcoplasm
Structure Bones No. Name of bones Typical feature or basic function
from SR leading to Ca+2 increase in sarcoplasm included
Skull Frontal bone
Cranium 1- Frontal 1- Occipital - Protect brain
Ca+2 binds to troponin subunit, change in its confirmation, unmask Parietal bone 8 2- Parietal 1- Ethmoid - Articulates with superior region of vertebral
Sphenoid bone
2- Temporal 1- Sphenoid column by 2 occipital condyles (Dicondylic skull)
active site for myosin binding on actin filament
Ethmoid bone 2- Nasal 1- Mandible - Form front part of skull
Energised myosin (Myosin – ADP + Pi) binds to actin
Lacrimal bone Facial 14 2- Lacrimal 2- Maxilla
Nasal bone
2- Zygomatic 5- others
Zygomatic
bone Hyoid 1 1- U-shaped - Present at the base of buccal cavity
Cross bridge = Actin-myosin-ADP + Pi Maxilla
Ear 2-Malleus - Present in the middle ear
Mandible
Result ossicles 6 2-Incus
m Pull thin filaments toward centre Hyoid bone
2-Stapes
Shortening/ m Pull Z-line Occipital Temporal Occipital
contraction m Length of I-band reduced bone bone condyle
of sarcomere m Length of A-band retained Vertebral Cervical Dorsal 7- Cervical - Main framework of trunk
Column vertebra Vertebrae 12- Thoracic - Protects spinal cord
ADP+Pi released from myosin head (serially 26 5- Lumbar - Supports head
Thoracic arranged 1- Sacral-Fused - Point of attachment of ribs and muscles of back
vertebra units) 1- Coccygeal-Fused
New ATP binds to myosin head m 1 vertebra is atlas that articulates with
st
m Consists of bones of limbs (30 × 4 = 120) and girdles (6) m They are essential for all types of movements involving bony parts of the body.
m Point of contact between bones or bones and cartilages.
m Force generated by muscle is used to carry out movement through joint, where joint acts as fulcrum.
Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle m Types of joints (Basis – Major structural forms)
& upper arm & lower arm
Types Bones joined by Movement Examples
Half of girdle
Clavicle
Coxal bone
(Collar) Ilium Fibrous Dense fibrous Do not allow any Flat skull bones fused end to end
bone connective tissue movement via sutures to form cranium
Pubis
Scapula Ischium Cartilaginous Fibrous cartilage Limited movement Adjacent vertebrae
(Between Synovial Fluid filled synovial Considerable Humerus & pectoral girdle (Ball and socket joint)
Humerus Femur Thigh
2nd & 7th
(longest cavity between 2 bones movement, helps in Knee joint (Hinge joint)
ribs)
bone)
locomotion and Atlas & axis (Pivot joint)
Patella Knee (Ventral) many other Between carpals (Gliding joint)
Radius Tibia movements Carpal & metacarpal of thumb (Saddle joint)
Ulna Fibula
Wrist Carpals (8) (7) Tarsals
Palm Metacarpals (5) Metatarsals
Ankle 10 DISORDERS
Digits Phalanges Fingers
(14) Disease Causes Impact
Myasthenia gravis Autoimmunity m Affect neuromuscular junction
m Girdles helps in the articulation of limbs with axial m Fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles
skeleton
m Scapula, a dorsal triangular flat bone, have elevated Muscular dystrophy Genetic m Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles
ridge/spine, expanded to form acromion process that +2
Tetany Low Ca in body fluid m Rapid spasms in muscle (wild contractions)
articulates with clavicle
m Glenoid cavity in scapula articulates with humerus Arthritis m Inflammation of joints
head to form shoulder joint
Gout Accumulation of m Inflammation of joints
m Acetabulum, formed by fusion of ilium, ischium and
uric acid crystals
pubis, articulates with femur to form hip joint
m 2 halves of pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form pubic Osteoporosis Age related m Decreased bone mass, increased chances of fracture
symphysis containing fibrous cartilage Decreased levels of estrogen
Neural Control and Coordination
9A
Chapter
Parts
1 INTRODUCTION 2 SYSTEMS MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS 3 NEURON
Dendrite
m Coordination is the process through which two or more PARAMETERS NEURAL ENDOCRINE m Neuron is the structural and functional Cell body
organs interact and complement the functions of one SYSTEM SYSTEM unit of the neural system
another to maintain homeostasis in our body. m Integration Through Through m Composed of a cell body, dendrites
m The neural system and the endocrine system jointly neurotransmitters hormones and axon Nucleus Nissl's granules
coordinate and integrate all the activities of the organs m Coordination Quicker Slower Types Location
so that they function in a synchronised fashion. l Neural system provides an organised network of Schwann
cell
point to point connections with target cells.
2 or more Cerebral cortex
4 TYPES OF AXONS/NERVE FIBRES Myelin
Axon
6 GENERATION OF IMPULSE Bipolar 1 Retina of eye sheath
Parameters Myelinated Non-myelinated
m The electrical potential difference across the resting Unipolar 0 Embryonic stage Neurotransmitters
Myelin sheath + – plasma membrane is called the resting potential Node of
are stored in
Ranvier
Node of Ranvier + – m The electrical potential difference across the axonal m Above given neurons have only one axon. synaptic vesicles of
Synaptic knobs
membrane after receiving threshold stimulus is m Cell body contains cell organelles. Axon
Location Autonomic and called action potential/nerve impulse. m Impulse from dendrite moves towards cell terminal
somatic neural Cycle of events: body and in axon away from cell body.
m Fig.: Structure of a neuron
system +
+++ Threshold –––
Na influx
m Schwann cells surround both myelinated and ––– stimulus + ++ ¯¯ 8 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE
non-myelinated nerve fibres but they form myelin Change in m Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another across a
sheath only in myelinated fibres. Resting state permeability Depolarisation synapse.
(This state is of axolemma
for Na+ Change in Events observed: Axon
5 CONCENTRATION GRADIENT ACROSS maintained by
permeability m Neurotransmitters released
+
Na+/K+ pump) K efflux
AXONAL MEMBRANE +++
of axolemma
––– in synaptic cleft Axon terminal
m Excitability of neurons is attributed to polarised for K
+
ICF
+ +
K , Na ¯ m Flow of impulse Direct Through neurotransmitters
m Transmission Faster Slower
m Nature – Excitatory or inhibitory
m Ionic gradients across resting membrane are m Existence Rare Common
maintained by the active transport of ions by the
+
sodium-potassium pump which pumps 3Na Transmission of impulse across electrical synapse is very similar
+
outwards and 2K into the cell to impulse conduction along a single axon.
NCERT Maps Neural Control and Coordination 61
CNS to skeletal muscles involuntary organs and m Thalamus l Canal passes through midbrain
Protective l Outer/cortex Grey Concentrated cell bodies l Connects brain to spinal cord
m Skull
coverings l Inner White Myelinated nerve fibres l Has centres for controlling respiration,
m Meninges
cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions
m The cerebral cortex includes
m Brain Stem is composed of Midbrain, Pons and Medulla oblongata
Outer Middle Inner
m Name of Duramater Arachnoid Piamater Sensory areas Motor areas Association areas Basic Functions of Brain
meninx (Neither sensory nor motor) m Controls the voluntary movements m Controls hunger, thirst
m In contact Skull Brain Functions m Balance of body m Circadian rhythms
with Functioning of vital organs (kidneys, m Human behaviour
Inter sensory Memory Communication m
Major Divisions of Brain: associations lungs, heart) m Activities of endocrine
Contains and Colour vision Green m Sensation of different colours by various combinations
Aqueous humor Vitreous humor Blue m Equal stimulation of these gives sensation of white light
Appearance
Thin watery fluid Transparent gel m Photopigments contain an aldehyde of vitamin A/retinal and protein, opsin.
membrane is outside m These membranous canals are suspended/surrounded by perilymph of the bony canals
composed of (b) Mucus membrane on the inside m Vestibular apparatus is present above the coiled cochlea.
m Ear ossicles Arranged in a chain (M ® I ® S) m Receptors present in vestibular apparatus have hair cells.
l Structural Malleus is attached to tympanum
details Stapes is attached to the oval window
8 COCHLEA
l Function Increase efficiency of transmission of sound Reissner's
waves to the inner ear Demarcating Chambers Fluid present Terminating membrane
Scala
membrane within region media
9 MECHANISM OF HEARING Scala vestibuli Perilymph Oval window Scala
Reisnner's vestibuli
m Ear converts sound waves into neural impulses
Scala media Endolymph
m The cerebellum integrates information received from the semicircular Basilar Organ
canals of the ear and the auditory system. Scala tympani Perilymph Round window of Corti
Sound waves
Organ of Corti Tectorial
Received by
Vibrations membrane
Ear transmitted Ear m Located on Basilar membrane Basilar
External Transmits Scala tympani
extends drum through ossicles membrane
ear inwards
vibrations m Contains sensory hairs present in rows on internal side
to
of organ of Corti, that act as auditory receptors. Fig.: Sectional view of cochlea
Oval window
Auditory Impulse is analysed and
cortex sound is recognised Generate
waves in l Apical part – Possess stereocilia
Transmit
impulse to Perilymph l Above them there is thin elastic membrane
m Sensory hair
Auditory cells called Tectorial membrane
Hair cells Induce
nerve
of cochlea l Basal part – Is in close contact with afferent
Afferent Generates against Bend Ripples in the
nerve fibres forming the auditory nerve
transmitted neurons impulses tectorial basilar membrane
further to in Fig.: Sectional of organ of Corti
membrane
Chemical Coordination and Integration 10
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 4 HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
m Significance : As the nerve fibres do not innervate all m Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones that regulate synthesis and secretions from
cells of the body and the cellular functions require
pituitary gland enclosed in bony cavity, Sella tursica.
continuous regulation, hence the role of endocrine Hypothalamic neurons
system is integrated with neural system. Hypothalamus
2 ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES Connected through Connected through stalk but
secrete not via portal circulation
Endocrine glands Hormones Portal circulation
(Ductless) Stalk
glands form Anterior Pituitary Posterior pituitary
Invertebrates TYPES OF HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES
Together regulate Endocrine system (few hormones) Example Target Released hormone Stores and releases hypothalamic hormones
physiological functions &
Vertebrates Releasing GnRH Pituitary Gonadotrophins
in the body Neural system
(many hormones) hormone
HORMONES Inhibiting Somatostatin Pituitary û Pars distalis Pars intermedia Pars nervosa
hormone [Merged in humans]
m Released into blood and transported to target organ
m Non-nutrient chemicals
m Act as intercellular messengers Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
m Produced in trace amounts
Hormones of Pituitary Basic function Hormones released Basic functions
3 HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Growth hormone (GH) Growth of body Oxytocin m Acts on smooth muscles and
Hypothalamus
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by thyroid stimulates their contraction
Pineal Stimulates vigorous contractions of
gland m
Head Pituitary
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones from uterus at the time of child birth
Thyroid and Parathyroid adrenal cortex m Milk ejection from mammary glands
Thorax Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Male – Regulates spermatogenesis along with androgens Vasopressin/ADH/ m Acts at kidney and stimulates
Thymus
Female – Stimulates growth and development of ovarian Anti-diuretic hormone resorption of water and electrolytes
follicles
Pancreas by the distal tubules
Adrenal Gonadotrophins (stimulate
m Reduces loss of water through urine
gonadal activity)
Abdomen (Diuresis)
Testis (in male)
Luteinising hormone (LH) Male – Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of
Ovary (in female) androgens
Fig. : Location of endocrine glands Female – Induces ovulation of fully mature Graafian
follicle, maintains corpus luteum
m Other organs with diffused tissues and cells: ACROMEGALY
Prolactin Regulates the growth of the mammary glands and
gastrointestinal tract, heart, liver and kidneys Serious complications of hypersecretion of GH in
formation of milk in them
middle age can leads to premature death if unchecked.
5 PINEAL GLAND Melanocyte stimulating hormone Acts on the melanocytes of skin and regulates
(MSH) by pars intermedia pigmentation of skin
The disease is hard to diagnose in early stages and
m Location: Dorsal side of forebrain often goes undetected for many years, until changes in
m Hormone released: Melatonin DISORDERS external features become noticeable.
m Basic functions: Disease Age Cause Symptoms
l Regulate 24 hours diurnal rhythm of our body (sleep Pituitary dwarfism Hyposecretion of GH Stunted growth
wake cycle) Gigantism Hypersecretion of GH Abnormal growth of the body
l Influence body metabolism, temperature,
pigmentation, menstrual cycle and defense Acromegaly Middle age Hypersecretion of GH Severe disfigurement especially of face
capabilities Diabetes insipidus – Hyposecretion of ADH Diminished ability of the kidney to conserve water leading to water loss and dehydration
70 Chemical Coordination and Integration NCERT Maps
Thymus m Lobular structure located between 1 Thymosins m Play a role in differentiation of T-lymphocytes, 1 to 2 million Islets of Langerhans
lungs behind sternum on ventral side of (peptide hormones) thus provide cell mediated immunity (1-2% of pancreatic tissue) Major cells
aorta m Promote production of antibodies thereby
l Degenerates in old age so immune providing humoral immunity.
a-cells b-cells
responses become weak
m
cardiovascular system and the kidney functions glucose level (Hyperglycemic) (Hypoglycemic)
m Produces anti-inflammatory reactions and suppresses immune response m Glucose
m Stimulate glomerular filtration rate uptake and ¯
m Stimulate RBC production utilisation by cells
Adrenal gland
+ +
DISORDER
Zona fasciculata Major Mineralocorticoid m Stimulates reabsorption of Na and H2O and excretion of K and m Diabetes mellitus – Caused by prolonged hyperglycemia
–
(middle layer) is aldosterone PO4 ions, thus helps in maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, Characteristics – Loss of glucose in urine, Ketone bodies
osmotic pressure and blood pressure. formation
Adrenal cortex
Zona reticularis Androgenic steroid m Play a role in growth of axial hair, pubic hair and facial hair during Treatment – Insulin therapy
(inner layer) puberty.
Adrenaline/epinephrine
(Centrally located)
m Increase heart beat, the strength of heart contraction and Disorder Cause Characteristic
Nor-adrenaline/nor- the rate of respiration Addison's Underproduction Alters carbohydrate
epinephrine or m Stimulate breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased disease of hormones of metabolism causing
Catecholamines concentration of glucose in blood. adrenal cortex acute weakness and
or Emergency/fight/flight m Increase breakdown of lipids and proteins Adrenal fatigue
medulla
hormones
NCERT Maps Chemical Coordination and Integration 71
10 GONADS Primary sex organs: Form gametes and secrete hormones 11 HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Tissue Organ Hormone Basic function
m Atrial wall Heart m ANF m When blood pressure increases, it dilates blood
Parameter Male (Testis) Female (ovary)
vessels to reduce blood pressure.
Location Scrotal sac (outside abdomen) in abdomen
m m Juxtaglomerular Kidney m Erythropoietin m Stimulates erythropoiesis
Ovarian follicles and corpus luteum cells (JG cells)
m Structure Leydig cells/ interstitial cells
responsible m Endocrine cells GIT m Gastrin m Acts on gastric glands and stimulates secretion
in different parts of of HCl and pepsinogen
m Steroid hormone Androgens mainly testosterone Estrogen Progesterone gastro-intestinal
m Function tract
m GIP/gastric Inhibits gastric secretions and motility
l Development and maturation of male accessory l Growth and activities of l Supports pregnancy
m
Fig: Mechanism of action of a steroid hormone Fig: Mechanism of action of a protein hormone
m Clone: Morphologically and genetically similar individuals produced asexually. m Absence of gamete fusion/syngamy
m Cell division is in itself a mode of reproduction in unicellular organisms m Female gamete develops into new organism without fertilisation
e.g.: Amoeba, Paramecium. m Examples: Rotifers, honey bees, some lizards, birds (turkey). A gemmule
76 Reproduction in Organisms NCERT Maps
m
m Food storage r s l Fertilisation occurs inside l Fertilisation occurs in water
m A diploid parent produces haploid gametes by meiosis
m Number Less More ♀ reproductive tract
Name of Chromosome number Chromosome number l Mostly terrestrial organisms l Mostly aquatic organisms
Juvenile
organism in meiocyte (2n) in gamete (n) e.g. Reptiles, mammals e.g. Bony fishes and amphibians
Ovum
Humans 46 23 Disadvantages
House fly 12 6 Limited number of progeny Offsprings are extremely
Types of organisms Sperm m m
Leech Cockroach Great synchrony required between ♀ and ♂ during external fertilisation to
Fruit fly 8 4 m
Earthworm enhance chances of fertilisation.
Butterfly 380 190 Sponges
m Heterogametes are present in majority of sexually reproducing organisms.
Most vital event of sexual reproduction is fusion Basis: The time duration when mating occurs
Vital connecting link ensuring
Phase
m
l Ultimately leads to death The chances of survival of young ones is greater in viviparous m Examples Cows, deer, sheep, rats, Humans, apes, monkeys
organisms
dogs, tiger
Human Reproduction 2A
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION
l Humans are sexually reproducing viviparous organisms l Primary sex organs – Site for gamete formation l Accessory ducts Facilitate transport of gametes
l Reproductive system is composed of l External genitalia – Involved in copulation l Accessory glands
2 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 3 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Parts of Fallopian tube
Ureter Uterine fundus Last part of oviduct
m Location: Pelvic region m Location : Pelvic region Uterine cavity Isthmus Narrow lumen
Accessory glands Urinary bladder Joins the uterus
l Oviduct/fallopian tube
Accessory ducts
m Seminal plasma Seminal vesicle Vas deferens m 10-12 cm (length) Ampulla – Wider part
Accessory ducts
from these (1 pair)
m Extend from ovary
contains fructose, Prostate gland Urethra Infundibulum – Funnel shaped
to uterus
calcium, enzymes (one) Epididymis l Uterus/womb
Fimbriae – Finger like
Ovary projections that
m Its secretions Bulbourethral Vasa efferentia m Inverted pear shaped
lubricate the penis gland (1 pair) m Attached to pelvic wall by
Cervix collect ovum after
Rete testis
m Vas deferens receives a duct ligaments Cervical canal Birth ovulation
from seminal vesicle and Testicular lobules l Vagina Vaginal canal canal
opens into the urethra as the Testis Glans penis
Ejaculatory duct Foreskin Uterine wall consists of three layers:
Urethral meatus m
External genitalia of Male/Penis: 1. Endometrium – Lines lumen, glandular and undergoes cyclic changes during menstruation
2. Myometrium – Thick layer of smooth muscles that show strong contractions during delivery
Parts Features 3. Perimetrium – External thin membrane
Urethra Originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis External Genitalia of Female:
Special tissues Help in erection of penis to facilitate insemination
Parts Features
Glans penis Enlarged end of penis covered by loose fold of skin called foreskin
Mons pubis Cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
4 PRIMARY SEX ORGANS Labia majora Fleshy folds of tissue that extend down mons pubis and surround the vaginal opening
Labia minora Paired folds of tissue under the labia majora
Parameters Male Female
Organ Testis Ovary Clitoris Tiny finger like structure which lies at the upper junction of labia minora above the
Number 2 2 urethral opening
Shape Oval Almond Hymen l Membrane that partially covers the opening of vagina
Location Outside abdominal cavity Lower abdomen, one l Can be torn while - sudden jolt/fall, horse riding, cycling, insertion of vaginal tampon.
in a pouch called scrotum on each side l May or may not be torn during the first coitus so its presence or absence is not reliable
indicator of virginity or sexual experience.
Dimensions Length 4-5 cm, Width 2-3 cm Length 2 to 4 cm
Covering Dense connective tissue (outermost) Thin epithelium (outermost)
Functions Sperm formation, synthesise steroidal Ova formation, synthesise steroidal ovarian
testicular hormones like androgens hormones like estrogen and progesterone
m Scrotum helps in maintaining the temperature 2 to 2.5°C lower than
Compartments 250 testicular lobules Peripheral cortex and inner medulla zones in ovarian
body temperature, necessary for spermatogenesis.
l 1-3 coiled seminiferous tubules/lobule stroma have follicles in various developing stages
m Interstitial spaces outside seminiferous tubules contain
l Cells lining the seminiferous tubules Functions immunocompetent cells and Leydig cells
1. Male germ cells/spermatogonia Sperm formation m Ovary is connected to pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
2. Sertoli cells Provide nutrition to the germ cells
NCERT Maps Human Reproduction 81
m The cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is termed menstrual cycle Menstrual Hygiene
m Characteristic of female primates Monkeys 1. Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation during menstruation is
Apes very important
m Cycle occurs if ovum remains unfertilized
Humans 2. Take bath and clean yourself regularly use sanitary
m Begins at puberty - menarche m Lack of cycle may be an indication of
Reproductive phase – Pregnancy, stress, poor health etc. napkins/home made pads
m Ceases at 50 years - menopause
m Average duration in humans = 28/29 days 3. Change sanitary pads after every 4-5 hrs.
4. Dispose of used sanitary napkins properly by wrapping it in
Menstrual Cycle
used paper.
l Changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones
5. After handling the napkin wash hands with soap
Phase Duration Hormones & Events in ovary Events in uterus
their effects
Hormone levels
LH surge
Menstrual 3-5 days Drastic decline in Corpus luteum
Pituitary
l Breakdown of
progesterone degenerates endometrial FSH LH
lining and its
blood vessels
which forms
liquid that
Developing Regressing
comes out
Ovarian events
Developing follicle Mature follicle corpus luteum corpus luteum
through vagina
constituting
menstrual flow
Reproductive cycle
Hormone levels
Proliferative that stimulate to Graafian follicle through Estrogen peak
Ovarian
phase secretion of proliferation
estrogen from
follicles Progesterone
Ovulation th
14 day FSH and LH at Rupture of Graafian l Proliferation of
Uterine events
(Middle of peak, (LH surge) follicle and release endometrium
cycle) of only one ovum/ continues Menses
cycle
Luteal Fixed Secretion of Remnants of the l Endometrium is
or (14 days) progesterone Graafian follicle maintained Days
Secretory and estrogen transforms into l If ovum remains 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29/1
corpus luteum unfertilized, Menstruation Follicular phase Luteal phase Next cycle
(Proliferative phase) (Secretory phase) begins
endometrium is
sloughed off,
l If ovum gets fertilized, endometrium is maintained by progesterone
marking a new necessary for implantation and other events of pregnancy.
cycle l During pregnancy all events of menstrual cycle stop
Human Reproduction 2B
Chapter
(1) (1)
D
B
Nuclei fuse
E
7 ARTIFICIAL METHODS IV. Oral Contraceptive Pills (OCP) or tablets VII. Surgical/Sterilisation methods
(II). Spermicidal jellies, foams and creams Unwanted pregnancy due to rape, failure of
Uttar Pradesh =
= Kill the sperms by creating acidic pH contraception, casual unprotected intercourse
Used along with barrier methods to increase their efficiency V. Implants
If continuation of pregnancy could harm the
=
=
(III). Intra-uterine devices (IUDs) Placed under skin
= mother or foetus or both
= Inserted by doctors or expert nurses in uterus
= Effective periods are much longer Permission of how many medical
= IUDs are one of the most widely accepted method of contraception in =
9 AMNIOCENTESIS 11 INFERTILITY
m Analyse foetal cells and dissolved substances from m Infertile couple: Unable to produce children inspite of 2 years of unprotected sexual co-habitation
amniotic fluids m Reasons for infertility:
m Technique used to check for genetic disorders such
as Down’s syndrome, hemophilia, sickle-cell = Physical = Congenital m Infertility as a problem could be with either the male or female partner.
anemia etc. = Diseases = Immunological m In India, female is blamed often than male for the couple being childless
m Statutory ban on this technique in India to = Psychological
prevent female foeticide.
Help For Infertile Couples Comes In The Form of
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART)
10 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
(STIs)
Alternately named: Venereal diseases (VD) or m Other details of ART involved :
m
Parameter in-vitro fertilisation in-vivo fertilisation
reproductive tract infections (RTls) = Site of = Outside the body in simulated = In the female = ICSI : Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection
m High vulnerability/risk group: 15-24 years fertilisation conditions in laboratory reproductive tract v Sperm injected directly into the egg
= Can female = Yes = No = Artificial Insemination (AI):
m Mode of transmission (MoT): Sexual intercouse
produce ova? v Semen introduced in vagina or uterus
= Embryo transfer Yes No Low sperm count or inability of male to
Category Disease
= = v
= Example of ZIFT, IUT, ICSI GIFT, Al, IUl inseminate female
Bacterial Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Chlamydiasis = =
Viral Genital herpes, Hepatitis-B, Genital = GIFT : Gamete intra fallopian transfer
Site of Embryo Transfer (ET)
warts, AIDS v Female can provide conditions for
based on number of blastomeres
fertilisation and further development
m Bacterial and protozoan diseases are completely
curable if detected early and treated properly
Parameter Upto 8 blastomeres More than 8 blastomeres
m Other MoT for hepatitis-B virus and HIV = Location in fallopian tube in uterus
infection include:
= Technique = ZIFT: Zygote Intra = IUT: Intra uterine transfer Test tube baby programme involves techiques
= Sharing of injection needles, surgical fallopian transfer with in-vitro fertilisation
instruments with infected persons
= Transfusion of blood m Symptoms and Complications of STIs
= From infected mother to foetus
Early detection Late detection m Preventive measures to avoid STIs :
Complications
Symptoms = Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple
partners
Itching, fluid discharge, Pelvic inflammatory diseases (PIDs),
= Always try to use condoms during coitus
slight pain, swellings abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancies,
in the genital region infertility, cancer of reproductive tract
Evolution 4
Chapter
1EVOLUTION 3 THEORIES FOR ORIGIN OF LIFE
m Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth
m The origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of universe
m Stellar distances are measured in light years
m Big bang explosion (Singular huge explosion) Theory Proponents Connotations
Resulted in
leading to Special Conventional religious All living organisms that we see today were
Parameters Origin of Universe Origin of Earth l
l H2O vapour falls as rain to fill all the depressions and form oceans.
Biogenesis Pre-sterilised flasks l He showed that in pre-sterlised flasks, life
l Ozone layer was formed did not come from “killed yeast”
No life life
2 ORIGIN OF LIFE Oparin-Haldane Oparin - Russia, l Formation of life was preceded by chemical
m Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e, almost 4 hypothesis or Haldane - England evolution i.e., formation of diverse organic
billion years ago. Chemical molecules from inorganic constituents.
Probably originated 3 billion years ago Evolution Spark
l First form of life could have come from pre-existing
discharge non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, proteins,
First non-cellular Would have possibly originated from giant Simulate lightening
m
molecules (RNA, protein, polysaccharides, etc.) (energy source) etc.)
forms of life 800°C l This hypothesis was proved by Miller’s experiment,
Vacuum
These capsules reproduced their Simulate
1953, S.L. Miller (American scientist)
molecules perhaps. reducing
atmosphere Closed l In similar experiments others observed, formation
flask
Possibly originated 2 million years ago of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
m First cellular forms of life
Arose in water environment (aquatic) l Analysis of meteorite content also revealed
similar compounds indicating that similar
m This version of Biogenesis i.e., the first form of life arose slowly Amino acids processes are occuring elsewhere in space.
through evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is accepted by
Fig.: Diagrammatic representation of Miller’s experiment
majority.
98 Evolution NCERT Maps
4 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
l Fossils are remains of hard parts of life forms found Parameters Homologous organs Analogous organs
period in which they existed (epochs, periods, Type of evolution Divergent Convergent
eras)
l Rocks form sediments and a cross-section of earth's Examples l Placental Australian
crust indicates the arrangement of sediments one mammals marsupials
l Thorn of
over the other during the long history of earth. Bougainvillea
and tendril of
l Different-aged rock sediments contain fossils of Cucurbita
Anteater
different life-forms who probably died during the Numbat (anteater)
5 ADAPTIVE RADIATION Theories for the evolution of life forms: l Those characteristics which enable some to
m The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical Lamarck’s theory of evolution survive better in natural conditions (climate,
area starting from a point and literally radiating to other areas of l Given by French naturalist Lamarck food, physical factors etc.) would outbreed
geography (habitats) Examples others that are less-endowed to survive
Use and disuse of organs
l Main postulates : under such natural conditions.
Inheritance of acquired characters The fitness, according to Darwin, refers
Darwin’s finches Australian marsupials l
l Small black birds l Example: Long neck in Giraffes is attributed to ultimately and only to reproductive
Tasmanian fitness.
l Evolved from seed eating stretching the neck while foraging leaves on tall trees
Sugar glider wolf l Adaptive ability is inherited and has a
birds in Galapagos Island Tiger cat Darwin’s theory of natural selection
Marsupial mole genetic basis
l Altered beaks arose, enabling Darwin visited Galapagos island, Ship - H.M.S Beagle
Marsupial Banded
l l Fitness is the end result of the ability to
them to become insectivorous Koala radiation anteater l Observations by Charles Darwin: adapt and get selected by nature.
and vegetarian finches. Bandicoot Marsupial (i) Existing living forms share similarities to varying l Branching descent and natural selection
Wombat Kangaroo rat
degrees not only among themselves but also with are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory
Fig.: Adaptive radiation of life forms that existed millions of years ago. of evolution.
Fig.: Variety of beaks of finches that marsupials of Australia
Darwin found in Galapagos Island (ii) The geological history of earth correlates with the l Habitat fragmentation and genetic drift
m When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in biological history of earth. may accentuate variations leading to
l Influence of the work of Thomas Malthus on speciation.
an isolated geographical area (representing different habitats), one can
Darwinism: Weaknesses of Darwinism :
call this convergent evolution. l
(i) Population can grow exponentially (i) Unable to explain the origin of variations
Examples
(ii) Limited resources (ii) Could not explain speciation
Placental mammals Australian marsupials (iii) Nature keeps control/check on population size
(iii) Ignored work done by Mendel.
Mole Marsupial mole which are, hence, nearly stable
Mutation theory
Anteater Numbat (banded anteater) Darwin’s postulates: l Given by Hugo de Vries in first decade of
Mouse Marsupial mouse l According to Darwin, variations are small and th
20 century
directional and evolution for Darwin was gradual
Lemur Spotted cuscus l Worked on evening primrose
process.
l New species originate as a result of
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger (Sugar glider) l Darwin asserted that in a population exist variations,
mutations which are single step (saltation)
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat which are heritable and which make resource
large, random and directionless
utilisation better for few will enable only those to
Wolf Tasmanian wolf variations arising suddenly in a population
reproduce and leave more progeny.
6 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION l Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar conclusions as
l Metabolic capabilities of different cellular forms of life under the Charles Darwin around the same time.
influence of natural selection contributed to biological evolution. l When we describe story of this world we describe evolution as a process. W hen we describe the
story of life on earth, we treat evolution as a consequence of a process called natural selection.
l Rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life
l Evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism. It is a stochastic process based on
span. e.g., Microbes have the ability to multiply and become millions within chance events in nature and chance mutations in the organisms.
hours whereas fish or fowl would take millions of years as life span of these l Artificial selection : By intensive breeding programme, man has created breeds that differ from other
animals are in years. breeds (e.g., dogs)
100 Evolution NCERT Maps
Birds
Lizards Tuataras
Turtles Snakes Crocodiles
Mammals
Quaternary
Tertiary
Dinosaurs
(extinct)
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Therapsids
(extinct)
Triassic
Triceratops Derivatives :
Pteranodon l Triceratops – three horned dinosaur with bony frill around back of its head. l Pteranodon were possibly flying reptiles
l Archaeopteryx is a transitional fossil between non avian
Crocodilian Stegosaurus – Large triangular bony plates along the back and spiked tail
dinosaurs and birds
Archaeopteryx
Tyrannosaurus rex – 20 feet in height, had huge fearsome dagger-like teeth l Brachiosaurus and Tyrannosaurus arose separately, mostly
Brachiosaurus Brachiosaurus – Long giraffe like neck, long forelimbs likely, from a common ancestor.
Stegosaurus
Fig.: A family tree of dinosaurs and their living modern day counterpart organisms like crocodiles and birds
102 Evolution NCERT Maps
m Among the stories of evolution of individual species, the story of evolution of modern man is most interesting and appears to parallel l The skull of baby chimpanzee is more like
evolution of human brain and language. adult human skull than adult chimpanzee skull
1.5 mya 900 cc l Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 Fig.: A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human
Homo erectus
being, baby chimpanzee and adult chimpanzee.
l Probably ate meat
l Pre historic cave art-18,000 years ago. One
1,00,000-40,000 1400 cc l Lived in near East and Central Asia
Neanderthal man such cave paintings by pre-historic humans
years back l Used hides to protect their body and buried their dead
can be seen at Bhimbetka rock shelter in
Homo sapiens 75,000-10,000 l Arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
– into distinct races Agriculture came around 10,000 years
years ago (ice age) l
5
BACTERIAL DISEASES 6 PROTOZOAN DISEASES
Disease Pathogen Organ affected Common symptoms Disease Pathogen Area affected Symptoms
m Typhoid Salmonella Small intestine m Sustained high fever (39-40ºC) l Amoebiasis Entamoeba Large l Constipation
typhi and other organs m Stomach pain m Weakness /Amoebic histolytica Intestine l Abdominal pain
by migrating m Constipation m Headache dysentery l Cramps
Diagnostic test: through blood m Loss of appetite l Stool with excess mucous and blood clots
Widal test m In severe cases, intestinal l Malaria Plasmodium RBCs l Chills
perforation and death may occur. l P. vivax l High fever recurring every 3-4 days
m Pneumonia Streptococcus Alveoli of lungs m Problem in respiration due to fluid l P. malariae l If not treated, can prove to be fatal
pneumoniae, filled alveoli l P. falciparum
Haemophilus m Fever, chills, cough, headache
influenzae m In severe cases, lips m House flies act as mechanical carrier for amoebiasis
and finger nails turn gray m P. falciparum causes malignant malaria (Most serious form)
to bluish LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM Female Anopheles
When the infected mosquito bites another
m Acts as both host and vector
human, sporozoites (infective stage for
humans) are injected with the bite
Typhoid Mary (Mary Mallon), a cook by profession was a typhoid carrier who spread typhoid through
Mature infective stages
the food she prepared. (sporozoites) escape
from gut and migrate to
VIRAL DISEASES the mosquito salivary
Disease Pathogen Organ affected Symptoms glands
m Heat and moisture makes the fungi thrive in skin folds such as in groin and between toes Rupturing of RBCs releases the toxic substance, haemozoin
m Acquired from soil or belongings of infected individuals such as towels, combs, clothes etc. responsible for symptoms of disease
108 Human Health and Disease NCERT Maps
Prevention
There is always a time-lag between infection and appearance of AIDS m Different agencies like NGOs, NACO, WHO m Making blood banks safe from HIV
symptoms. This may vary from a few months to many years (usually 5-10 years) started number of programmes to m Use of only disposable needles and syringes in
Diagnostic Test Treatment educate/make people aware of AIDS (Don't public and private hospitals and clinics
m ELISA (Enzyme Linked m Anti-retroviral drugs, can only prolong die of ignorance) and some of the measures m Free distribution of condoms, advocating safe sex
Immuno Sorbent Assay) life but cannot prevent death preventing spreading of HIV infection. m Controlling drug abuse
Human Health and Disease 5B
Chapter
m T-lymphocytes are responsible for graft rejection. Tissue and blood group matching are essential before undertaking any graft/transplant and even after this patient has to take
immunosuppressants throughout life.
m If the pathogens succeed in gaining entry to our body, specific antibodies and T-cells serve to kill these pathogens.
NCERT Maps Human Health and Disease 113
Lymph nodes m Small solid structures located at different points along the infection in host m
Vaccination Colostrum
lymphatic system m Serve to trap the microbes/antigens m m Mother Infant
which happen to get into the lymph and tissue fluid. Deliberate injection of living/ (IgA)
Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for dead microbes/proteins
the activation of lymphocytes present there and cause
Immunisation
the immune response.
(Principle : Property of 'Memory' of immun system)
MALT m Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue is located within the
lining of major tracts like respiratory, digestive and
urinogenital tracts
m Constitutes about 50% of lymphoid tissue in human body. Active Passive
Preparation of antigenic proteins of Direct preformed antibodies/antitoxin is
pathogen/inactivated /weakened pathogen injected such as antitoxin against snake
6 ALLERGIES introduced into body bites
Exaggerated response of immune system to certain antigens present in the
environment.
Allergens – Substances to which exaggerated immune response is m The antibodies produced in the host body against antigens would neutralize the pathogenic agents
produced e.g. pollens, mites in dust, animal dander, etc. during actual infection.
Antibodies – IgE type m The vaccines also generate memory B-cells and memory T-cells that recognise the pathogen
Symptoms – Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty in breathing quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
Chemical – Histamine and serotonin from mast cells m Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the large scale production of antigenic polypeptides of
released pathogen in bacteria/yeast, hence greater availability for immunisation.
Diagnosis – Patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
possible allergens, and reactions studied.
Treatment – Anti-histamine antihistamine, adrenaline and steroids
7 AUTOIMMUNITY
quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy
m Memory based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates can distinguish foreign molecules as well
as foreign organisms (pathogens) from self-cells.
Effects of modern-day life style
l Protected environment provided early in life has resulted in If lost this ability
lowering of immunity and person is more sensitive to allergens Results – Self destruction/body attack self cells
l More and more children in metro cities of India suffer from allergies Reason – Genetic/unknown
and asthma due to more sensitivity to the environment Example – Rheumatoid arthritis
114 Human Health and Disease NCERT Maps
m Gastric ulcer l Unexplained absence from school/college l Poor personal hygiene, withdrawal, isolation
m Risk of cancers m Oral cavity l Aggressive and rebellious behaviour l Loss of interest in hobbies
m Throat l Change in sleeping and eating habits l Fluctuations in weight and appetite
m Lungs l Deteriorating relationships with family and friends
m Urinary bladder
m High doses lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral hemorrhage
m Tobacco has been used by humans for more than 400 years m Chronic use of drugs/alcohol damage nervous system and liver (cirrhosis)
m Packets of cigarettes, warns against smoking and says how it is
injurious to health. m Use of drugs during pregnancy adversely affect foetus.
Some far-reaching implications
11 ADOLESCENCE AND DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE m Abuser may turn to stealing
m Adolescence means both "a period" and "a process" during which a child m Addict becomes the cause of mental and financial distress to entire family and friends
mature in terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in Withdrawl syndrome
society.
If drug is abruptly discontinued, symptoms include:
m Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood.
m It’s a period between 12-18 years of age, a vulnerable phase of mental m Anxiety m Nausea m Shakiness m Sweating
and psychological development of an individual. m In severe cases, can be life threatening, person needs a medical supervision.
m It is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes. Prevention and control
m Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, "Prevention is better than cure"
motivate youngsters towards drug and alcohol use.
m Avoid undue peer pressure on child related to sudies, sports or other activities
m First use may be out of curiosity but later used to escape from stress,
pressures to excel in academics, perception that it is cool. m Education and counselling: Channelise energy of child into healthy pursuits like sports, yoga, reading,
m Television, movies, newspapers, internet, promote this perception. music, etc.
m Unstable or unsupportive family structures and peer pressure also promote m Sort out problems by seeking help from parents and peers.
drug and alcohol abuse. m Looking for danger signs :Alert parents, teachers and close friends need to look for and identify the
danger signs of substance (drug/alcohol) abuse and appropriate measures would then be required to
diagnose the malady and underlying cause.
m Proper remedial steps or treatment should be taken by seeking professional and medical help in the form
Use of durgs even once can be "fore-runner to addiction" and pull the of highly qualified psychologists, psychiatrists and de-addiction and rehabilitation programmes. This will
user into a vicious circle leading to their regular use/abuse. totally relieve the individual from these evils.
Strategies for Enhancement in 6
Food Production Chapter
1 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 3 MANAGEMENT OF FARM AND FARM ANIMALS
Definition: m A professional approach to boost our food production. m Practices involved
m Agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock Some of the management procedures employed in animal farm Stringent cleanliness of
l Effective housing
useful to humans. Dairy farm Adequate water
m Some of the products and the animals involved are :
system are Management : l
Cattle Handlers
Poultry farm l Maintain disease free
Useful products Source conditions Regular inspection by
1. Dairy farm management/Dairying: Cattle diet (fodder)
Milk Cows, buffaloes, Goats Management of animals for milk and its
l
veterinary doctor
Jersey
Eggs Poultry birds: Chicken, products for human consumption e.g., Quality (oil cake rich)
Ducks, Turkey, Geese cows, buffaloes Aimed at Quantity balanced
Meat Cattle, Sheep, Pigs Increasing yield Increased mechanisation in dairy farming particularly
Wool Sheep Depends on milking, storage and transport of milk, reduces chances
Silk Silk worms Improving quality
Quality of breed of direct contact of the produce with the handler
of milk
Honey Bees
m More than 70% population of livestock is in India and High yielding potential Resistance to 4 BEE-KEEPING (Apiculture)
under given climatic diseases to
China but contribution to world’s farm produce is 25% led m It is the maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production of
that result in problem ¯ conditions
honey
m Productivity per unit is low 2. Poultry farm management m Age old, high income yield cottage industry and is not labour intensive
Insufficient food supply due to ever increasing Eggs Most common bee in India : Apis indica
m m Involves use of birds for food m
population size. Meat Products obtained
l Birds : Fowl, chicken, Advantages
Solution ¯ ducks, turkey, geese a. Increases product yield from honey bee
Improvement in conventional practices of animal Leghorn
m m Practices involved: b. Enhances crop yield
breeding by applying biological principles. l Selection of disease free and suitable breeds Bees wax Honey
Application of newer technologies to Animal Husbandry Proper and safe farm conditions Salient points for
m l l Preparation of l Food: High nutritive
Poultry farming successful bee keeping
Extension of l Proper feed and water cosmetics and value
Animal husbandry (i) Knowledge of the nature polishes l Used in Indigenous
Fisheries l Maintaining proper health care and hygiene
and habits of bees medicine
(ii) Selection of suitable
2 FISHERIES Rearing, Fish, Disease Bird flu location for keeping the Bees are effective pollinators
to Catching, of Molluscs (shell-fish), Cause H5N1 virus beehives
m Industry devoted Processing Crustaceans Symptoms Areas for practice
Respiratory difficulty, fever, (iii) Catching and hiving of
& Selling (prawns, crabs), swarms (group of bees)
Aquatic animals malaise
(iv) Management of beehives Pastures Fruit
Aquaculture: Pisciculture: People at risk Poultry farmers exposed to during different seasons Crop orchards
m m l for shrubs
Enhancement in aquatic yield Increase in total fish yield infected birds. (v) Handling and collection of fields
including plants and animals l People who eats under honey and beeswax Sunflower
Products from fishery cooked eggs/poultry Brassica
Apple
Food : lobster, prawn, fish, edible oyster Pear
To meet the increasing demand on fisheries, different techniques Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering
Fresh water (FW) Marine (M)
have been employed that led to Blue revolution period increases pollination efficiency and yield
Catla, Rohu, Common carp Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel, Pomfrets
120 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production NCERT Maps