Chapter 1: Manufacturing and Material

Manufacturing Definition
The term manufacture may be defined as the process of making raw materials into finished products
especially when carried out systematically by machinery and the division of labor in large-scale industrial
operations.
The majority of metals and some other materials fall in a class that is often referred to as engineering
materials. Characteristic of this group are the properties of relatively high hardness, strength, toughness,
and durability. Glass, ceramics, wood, concrete, and textiles, although they may compete with metals in
many applications, have usually been excluded from these structural materials because of a difference in
the combination of properties, processing requirements, and type of goods produced. The list of so-called
engineering materials continues to grow with the addition of new metallic combinations, plastics, and
even materials that have been previously excluded from the list, as they are developed with better
properties or used in new applications
Shape Changes. Shape changing of most materials can be accomplished with the material in one of
several different forms or states: liquid, solid, or plastic. Melting of a material and control of its shape
while it solidifies is referred to as casting. Reshaping of the material in the plastic or semisolid form is
called molding, forging, press-working, rolling, or extrusion. Shaping by metal removal or separation in
the solid state is commonly performed to produce product shapes. If the removed mate rial is in chip
form, the process is machining. The joining of solid parts by welding usually involves small, localized
areas that are allowed to solidify to produce a complete union between solid parts.
Energy Form. The material condition and the energy form used to affect these shape changes may vary.
As noted, the material may be in a liquid, solid, or plastic form. The energy may be supplied in the form
of heat, mechanical power, chemical reaction, electrical energy, or even light sources
The Usual Processing Steps for Metals. Figure 1.1 shows the basic processes that are used in shaping
metals. The reduction of ores is essential to any further processing, and the choices in processing come
later. All but a very small percentage of the metal that is refined is first cast as a pig or ingot, which is
itself always the raw material for further processing.
Design relate to NDT
In every case, the designer's choices of materials, shapes, finishes, tolerances, and other factors restrict the
possible choices to be made in the manufacturing process. The designer may also specify the NDT
criteria, thus influencing the choice of NDT method.
NDT in Design. Similarly, the design engineering function must receive technical guidance from key
NDT personnel in order to ensure that the design requirements can be met. It is essential that the design
requirements contain the proper balance between the contribution from NDT to safety and reliability of
the product and the economic realities. Both the capabilities and limitations of the various methods of
NDT must be considered in the design phases of the product life cycle in order to achieve optimum
product effectiveness.
Manufacturing Process Effect on Product
Most Manufacturing Processes Are to Change Material Shapes. For manufacturing purposes in which
shape changing is the objective, the solid state may be thought of as existing in two forms. Below the
elastic limit, materials are dealt with as rigid materials. Processing involving this form causes no
significant relative movement of atoms or molecules of the material with respect to each other. Above the
elastic limit, solid materials may flow plastically, and shape changing may be accomplished by
application of external loads to cause permanent relocations within the structure of the material. The end
results of dealing with materials in the liquid form are similar to those with materials above the elastic
limit. No appreciable density or volume change occurs, and the shape may be changed without loss of
material.

Chapter 2: Classification, Structure and Solidification of Material

Although there are a number of ways to classify materials, engineering materials are often divided into
four groups: metals, ceramics, semi conductors, and polymers.
Properties and performance of engineering materials depend mainly on four factors:
1. Types of atoms as well as atomic and crystalline structure.
2. Fabrication, processing, and thermal treatment of the product.
3. Surface treatment.
4. Environment where the product is used.

METAL

Metals can be used in their pure form, for example, aluminum and copper, but they are more likely to be
alloyed with other metals or nonmetals. The metal atoms in alloys can be arranged in three ways:
1. A specific atom in a metal is replaced by another from a different element
2. Different atoms make a compound inside a metallic structure. These are known as intermetallic
compounds
3. Some smaller atoms "squeeze" themselves between metallic atoms, such as carbon
in iron. These are known as interstitial alloys
Basic properties of metals are:
• Metals tend to be good conductors of electricity and heat.
• They are often malleable-that is, they can be extensively deformed without fracturing at room
temperature, and at relatively high strain rates.
• They are relatively hard and strong at room temperature.
• Metals cannot be made transparent, unless the metal is thinner than the wave lengths of visible light. For
example, with physical vapor deposition (PVD), aluminum can be formed in thin enough layers to see
through. Also, anything thinner than visible light is transparent.
• They can be made stronger or tougher by thermal and chemical treatments as well as mechanical
strengthening methods.
• Some metals, such as Fe, Co, and Ni, have desirable magnetic properties.
• Metals can be remelted and recycled.

CERAMIC

In ceramics, the electrons are more tightly bonded to specific atoms, as opposed to the free electron
behavior of metals. Because the electrons tend to be relatively immobile, ceramics are often poor
conductors of heat and electricity. Also, most ceramics cannot be easily deformed without forming
cracks; hence, ceramics are brittle (not malleable). Atoms in ceramics tend to be strongly bonded to each
other. This makes ceramics hard (resistant to penetration of surfaces) and strong (capable of carrying a
significant load without permanent deformation). In spite of their high strength, most ceramics fracture
easily (low toughness) because of their brittle nature.
The properties of most ceramics can be summarized as:
• Ceramics are electrical and thermal isolators.
• Ceramics are strong.
• Ceramics are very sensitive to notches. Small cracks can initiate fracture and result in catastrophic
failure of the whole structure due to low toughness.
• Ceramics are chemically stable.
• Some ceramics are used as soft or hard magnetic materials.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Materials that have two energy states close enough for electrons to jump over from the full state to the
empty conduction band are called intrinsic semiconductors.
Some applications of these semiconductors are listed here:
1. Precise measurements of elevated temperatures are made using thermistors, which are made from
intrinsic semiconductors. Excitation energy is heat, and the conductivity of the semiconductor is an
exponential function of the temperature. By using a calibrated instrument to measure electrical
conductivity, the temperature of the medium can be accurately measured. Thermistors are used to
precisely measure high temperature, much higher than temperatures that can be measured with regular
mercury thermometers.
2. Road signs and safety strips on runners' shoes rely on a phenomenon called fluorescence, whereby
electrons that are excited into the conduction band with the vehicle's light "fall down" almost immediately
to the valence band, releasing light.
3. Some types of solar cells, whereby light energy excites electrons and produces electricity are made
with intrinsic semiconductors.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
Here, we will mention only three applications of extrinsic semiconductors in integrated circuits, but they
are extremely important:
1. Clever combinations of n- and p-type extrinsic semiconductors are used for junction devices (diodes).
Diodes allow high current flow only in one direction. Rectifiers are arrays of these diodes that change
alternating current into direct current.
2. Another type is the light-emitting diode (LED) used in digital displays, where electrons in the
conduction band move to the valence band, and in that process light is emitted.
3. Another critical semiconductor device is a transistor consisting of three semiconductors arranged in a
p-n-p or n-p-n combination. Transistors serve either as a gate or as an amplifier. Millions or even billions
of transistors are incorporated in "chips," or integrated circuits, providing the basis for calculators,
computers, cellphones, and other devices and gadgets without which we cannot imagine our life today.

POLYMERS
Polymers (often called plastics) are substances composed of long-chain repeating molecules.
Properties of Plastics. Compared with metals and ceramics, polymers (plastics) have the following
characteristics:
• Much less stiff; that is, for the same load, they deflect and deform much more than metals or ceramics
(for example about 30 times more than steel).
• At room temperature, many plastics "creep" or slowly deform with time, which can cause undesirable
deformation and lead to breaking.
• Thermosets are less strong than metals. However, they often have low density so that their strength
divided by density (specific strength) might be close to that of metals.
• Expandable when heated, at a rate often 10 times higher than for metals. They also soften and melt at
much lower temperatures than most other engineering materials.
• Flammable to different degrees.
• Chemically inert and do not corrode, but most of them disintegrate when repeatedly exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
• Some polymers (for example nylon) absorb water and swell.
• Most plastics are more affordable than other engineering materials.
• Most thermoplastic polymers are extremely ductile and malleable and can be easily formed into
complex shapes. The same is true for thermosetting polymers before they are cured. That is probably the
main reason that they are so often used in everyday life and are gaining a competitive edge in engineering
applications.
• Bioplastics are biodegradable and other thermoplastics, such as fluorocarbon resins, have advantageous
wear properties.

THERMOPLASTIC POLYMER THERMOSETTING POLYMER

Strong Lesser Better

Melting Temp Lower Higher
Ductile Better Lesser
Toughness Better Lesser
Remelt and Recycle ability Yes No

COMPOSITES
Compared with other engineering materials, engineering composites, in general, have the following
characteristics:
• Composites are stronger than unreinforced matrices.
• High-performance polymers with a thermosetting matrix can have a specific strength (that is, strength
per unit weight) higher than metals. Composites with a thermoplastic matrix are not so strong, but they
are stronger than unreinforced plastics.
• Composites are corrosion resistant.
• Composites used in everyday applications are often less expensive than the materials they replace.