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The 21st-Century Voice
The 21st-Century Voice
Contemporary and Traditional Extra-Normal Voice
Second Edition
Michael Edward Edgerton
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London
Published by Rowman & Littlefield
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowman.com
Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB
Copyright © 2015 by Michael Edward Edgerton
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval
systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
may quote passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Edgerton, Michael Edward, author.
The 21st-century voice : contemporary and traditional extra-normal voice /
Michael Edward Edgerton. — Second edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4422-4824-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8840-1
(pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8841-8 (ebook)
1. Voice—Physiological aspects. 2. Singing—Physiological aspects. I. Title.
MT821.E32 2015
783'.04—dc23 2014047260
™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper
for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America

To Tara Mae
Contents
List of Figures ix
List of Tables xvii
List of Recordings xix
Permissions xxiii
Preface to the First Edition xxvii
Preface to the Second Edition xxix
Introduction xxxi
PART I: AIRFLOW
1 Airflow 3
PART II: SOURCE

2 Vocal Folds 17
3 Laryngeal Semiperiodic Source 31
4 Register 35
PART III: RESONANCE/ARTICULATION

5 Filtering 47
6 Turbulent-to-Absolute Airflow Modification 67
PART IV: HEIGHTENED POTENTIALS

7 Combinatorial, Multiphonic Principles 95
8 Extremes 127
9 Multidimensional Voice 133
Appendix A: Voice Science 149

Appendix B: Glossary 169
Appendix C: Representative Compositions 175
Index 191
About the Author 195
vii
Figures
1.1 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

3
1.2 Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls
4
1.3 Geyer: Sedna
5
1.4 Holmqvist: Liquid Structures
5
1.5 Einbond: Without Words
6
1.6 Simple tube representations of lunged and unlunged airflow
6
1.7 Excerpt featuring lunged/unlunged and change of airflow
6
1.8 Contrast of lunged and unlunged airflow with a variety of articulation
7
1.9 Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice
7
7
1.11 Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu
8
1.12 Ordinary to breathy sound
8
1.13 Crescendo/decrescendo on fricatives
8
1.14 Unvoiced melodies controlled via oral cavity aperture and tongue movement
9
1.15 Edgerton: Keltainen huone
9
1.16 Dynamic flexibility of unvoiced production
10
1.17 Changing ratios of breath-to-air mixture
10
1.18 Green: B A 4
10
11
1.20 Exercise 1, sternum on exhalation (abdomen in vs. abdomen out)
12
1.21 Exercise 2, sternum on exhalation featuring dynamic movement
12
1.22 Exercise 3, /s/ to strengthen the support muscles
13
1.23 Exercise 4, increase dynamic power
13
1.24 Exercise 5, increase flexibility
13
1.25 Exercise 6, increase strength and flexibility through static posturing and resistance
13
1.26 Exercise 7, glottal pulsing versus diaphragmatic pulsing
14
ix
x Figures
2.1 Kourliandski: Voice-Off

18
2.2 Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon
19
2.3 Brooks: Tracce
19
2.4 Extremely rapid glottal articulations
19
2.5 Hopson: Nine Tas
20
20
2.7 Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows
20
2.8 Edgerton: Anaphora
21
2.9 Composing/performing ratios of pitch-to-air mixture
21
2.10 Olson: Le Revenant
22
2.11 Glottal configurations during the production of vocal fry
22
2.12 Exercise to help secure onset of vocal fry
23
2.13 Pressed voice features a greater intensity during adduction with a longer closing phase
23
24
2.15 The elements of vibrato may be emphasized separately
24
25
2.17 One process for developing asymmetry of oscillation
25
2.18 Theoretical mode shapes of the vocal folds showing both the superior and the frontal views of the
vocal folds
26
2.19 Example of biphonation produced with asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation
26
27
2.21 Edgerton: Cataphora
27
2.22 Steps to produce the glottal whistle (M4)
28
2.23 Edgerton: prāṇa
29
29
3.1 Potential supraglottal oscillators
31
32
33
3.4 a. Esophageal speech on an outgoing stream of air; b. Speech using an artificial larynx
33
4.1 Registral placement
35
4.2 Vocal fold length, thickness, and mode of three registers
36
4.3 Oscillatory movement between two adjacent registers, then between two nonadjacent ones
36
4.4 Namtchylak: Night Birds
37
37
4.6 Notation for cross-register oscillation from London’s Psalm of These Days II
38
38
Figures xi
4.8 Nasal filter with glottal stops in alternation with normal tones begins to feature pitch separation
38
4.9 Changing pitch contours while decoupling nasal production from glottal stops
39
4.10 Japan: Satsuma Biwa
39
40
4.12 Rodriguez: Voix
40
42
4.14 Oscillation within and between registers
42
4.15 Transition from harmonic voice to rough voice
43
5.1 Khubeev: Noir
47
5.2 Harizanos: The Bells
47
48
48
5.5 Elements of the IPA vowel pronunciation guide
48
5.6 Suprasegmentals and tones and word accents
49
5.7 Diacritical markings
49
5.8 Transcription of English text
49
5.9 Phonetic representation of a specific culture’s style of speech
50
5.10 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady, measures 19–27
50
5.11 Location of articulatory regions on upper palate and location of articulatory regions on lower palate
52
5.12 Location of articulatory regions in pharynx and notation for tongue regions and manners of filter
articulation
52
5.13 Vowel-to-vowel filter and Wishart, complex filters from On Sonic Art
53
5.14 Brooks: Tracce
53
53
5.16 Aperture shape to inner vowel
54
5.17 Rounded, lateral, and superior-inferior apertures can be combined with changing vowel
54
5.18 Protruded, intruded, lips to left, lips to right, and opposing orientations can be combined
54
54
5.20 Tongue tip placement with rounded aperture and superior-to-inferior orientation
55
5.21 Tongue tip placements with lateral aperture
55
5.22 Edgerton: aka Taffy Twisters
55
5.23 Dental placement and jaw protrusion/retraction
55
5.24 Combined dental position, pitch/rhythm, text, tongue region, palatal placement, and manner
56
5.25 Price: A Play on Words
56
5.26 Example of three-part filter
56
57
xii Figures
5.28 Edgerton: Keltainen huone

57
5.29 Contributions of nasal port: none, coupled with oral, and nasal alone
58
5.30 Scaling of timbres combining oral and nasal, then nasal, then nasal with placement
58
59
5.32 Glottal stops with non-nasal, half-nasal, and full-nasal resonance
59
5.33 Green: B A 4
59
5.34 Spectrogram of a reinforced harmonic sung melody from Tuva and frequency versus amplitude plot
that shows a harmonic with significantly higher amplitude than its fundamental period
60
5.35 Metaphor of amplifying glass over scaffolding
61
5.36 Spectrogram of reinforced harmonic production in which the fundamental frequencies and the
reinforced harmonics are designed to form a two-part counterpoint and frequency versus amplitude
plot that shows a balance between the fundamental period and its harmonic
62
5.37 Method 1 of reinforced harmonic production featuring bilabial opening as reinforced harmonic rises
and method 2 featuring tongue tip remaining on or near alveolar ridge with mid-tongue movement
toward hard palate as reinforced harmonic rises
62
5.38 Method 3 featuring tongue retraction for the low harmonics and tongue advancement for the higher
harmonics (e.g., /o/ to /i/) and method 4 dominated by movement in the pharynx while the tongue tip
and blade remain stable
63
5.39 Potentially robust fundamental frequencies for reinforced harmonic production
63
5.40 Green: B A 4
64
5.41 Green: B A 4
64
5.42 Rodriguez: Voix
65
67
6.2 Brooks: Tracce
67
6.3 IPA consonant pronunciation guide
68
6.4 IPA anatomical-to-manner consonant chart
68
6.5 Unlunged and ingressive turbulent behaviors
68
6.6 Brooks: Madrigals (No. 2, Bad Bottle Blues)
69
69
6.8 Regions for bilabial fricatives, buzzes, and whistles
73
6.9 Notation for bilabial salival/sibilant whistles
73
73
6.11 Kokoras: Hiss and Whistle
73
6.12 Offset bilabial articulation
73
6.13 Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma
74
6.14 Labial-dental regions of articulation
74
6.15 Green: B A 4
76
6.16 Bidental regions
76
Figures xiii

76
6.18 Offset bidental regions shown superior-anterior
77
6.19 Bidental and offset bidental articulation
77
6.20 Dental-labial and dental-vestibule articulation
77
80
81
81
81
6.25 Tongue trill articulation
81
81
6.27 Front, mid, and rear tongue trills
82
6.28 Green: B A 4
82
6.29 Cheek regions
85
85
6.31 Cheek and lips and cheek, lips, and tongue
85
6.32 Cheek and tongue and cheek and ingressive air
85
6.33 Cheek, saliva, teeth, and tongue; external cheek articulation
86
88
6.35 Uvula and soft palate charts
88
6.36 Epiglottic, pharyngeal, and salival regions
88
6.37 Green: B A 4
89
6.38 Green: B A 4
89
6.39 Green: B A 4
90
6.40 Green: B A 4
90
6.41 Price: A Play on Words
90
7.1 Complex multiphonics: two voiced sources, voiced and unvoiced sources, and two unvoiced sources
95
7.2 Chant-like phonation by a female Xhosa singer featuring subharmonics at 8ve, 10th, and 12th
97
7.3 Location of double sources in (imitated) chant mode
97
7.4 Coronal views of double source featuring supraglottal oscillation
98
7.5 Views of double source featuring asymmetrical vocal fold oscillation
98
7.6 Vocal folds in combination with vocal fry
99
7.7 Combination of vocal fold pitch with vocal fry
100
7.8 Combination of vocal fold pitch with false folds and vocal fry
100
7.9 Lower end of falsetto range is better for falsetto chant
100
7.10 Ingressive chant features increased range of pitch, intensity, and ability to produce multiphonics
101
7.11 Minton: Untitled
102
xiv Figures
7.12 Biphonation featuring contrary motion: Upper pitch moves up then down, while lower pitch moves
down then up
103
7.13 Biphonation: Upper pitch remains the same, while lower pitch moves down
103
104
7.15 Simple combination of sustained unvoiced sounds with voiced sounds
104
7.16 Contrapuntal ability of voice and lip buzz
105
105
7.18 Glottal pitch with whistle features significant contrapuntal independence
106
106
7.20 Regions of pharyngeal frications
106
7.21 Potential air characteristics combined with salival deposits
107
7.22 Glottal pitch with perceptible air sonority—each identified with separate dynamic markings
108
7.23 Voice with air sounds
108
108
108
7.26 Glottal pitch with tongue flutter
109
7.27 Tongue-teeth slaps from London’s Psalm of These Days II
109
7.28 Velar articulation
110
7.29 Glottal pitch with uvular trill
110
111
111
7.32 Notation for oral and pharyngeal frication
112
112
112
7.35 Notation for whistle with sustained oral cavity articulation
113
7.36 Notation for whistle with pharyngeal articulation
113
114
7.38 Notation for combining whistle with egressive nasal fricatives
114
7.39 Double tongue vibration (front, mid, and rear identified separately)
115
7.40 Tongue with lip flutter, featuring both coarse and fine behaviors
115
7.41 Salival-dental articulation with air, place, velocity, and volume
116
116
7.43 Notation for salival cheek fricative with indications for airflow
117
117
7.45 Salival frication with bilabial flutter, including airflow and manner
117
7.46 Nasal fricative with bidental stops, identifying left, mid, and right regions
118
Figures xv
7.47 Nasal air frication with bilabial articulation

118
7.48 Nasal frication with percussive lingual articulation
119
7.49 Notation for nasal frication with sustained alveolar or palatal articulation
119
7.50 Notation for nasal frication with lip buzz
119
7.51 A true vocal tract circular airflow phenomenon
119
7.52 Double source mode (chant) with lingual frication
120
7.53 Chant with whistle
120
121
7.55 Glottal pitch, pharyngeal and lingual articulation
121
7.56 Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration (voice, stem up; buzz, stem down; tongue vibration/flutter in box)
122
7.57 Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration (buzz, stem up; voice, stem down; tongue vibration on lower stave)
122
7.58 Voice, lip buzz, tongue vibration
122
7.59 Dual tongue vibration with glottal pitch
123
7.60 Glottal pitch, tongue vibration, labial-dental frication
123
125
125
128
8.2 Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls
128
129
8.4 Brooks: Madrigals
130
9.1 Edgerton: aka Taffy Twisters
133
134
9.3 Rodriguez: Voix
135
9.4 Cassidy: A Painter of Figures in Rooms
135
9.5 Johnson: A general interrupter to ongoing activity
136
9.6 Attractor states
137
137
139
139
140
9.11 Edgerton: Kut
141
9.12 Green: B A 4
141
9.13 Baldwin: Various Terrains
142
9.14. Condensed multidimensional and scaled networks for solo voice in The Old Folks at Home by
Edgerton
144
A.1 Gross anatomy of respiration
149
xvi Figures
A.2 Division of lower trachea into left and right bronchi

150
A.3 Clustered air sacs of the alveoli
151
A.4 Vertical cross-section of larynx; external laryngeal framework
152
A.5 Open glottis and nearly closed glottis
152
A.6 Superior view of vocal folds
153
A.7 Mucosal wave
154
A.8 Source characteristic—frequency
156
A.9 Source characteristic—amplitude versus frequency
156
A.10 Opening and closing characteristics of glottal cycle
157
A.11 Major elements of upper vocal tract articulatory system
157
A.12 Influence of vocal tract on signal
159
A.13 Formant structures compared with vocal tract shapes
159
A.14 Source, vocal tract, and radiation characteristic equals net output
159
A.15 Perturbation analysis
160
A.16 Attractors and bifurcations
162
A.17 Period-doubling attractor or subharmonics
163
A.18 Biphonation, or two independent frequencies
163
A.19 Sequence featuring limit cycle followed by chaos, then period-doubling, chaos, limit cycle, repeat
164
Tables
1.1 Egressive versus Ingressive Airflow 5

4.1 Operatic Fach Classification 36
4.2 Unusually Low and High Female and Male Voices 40
5.1 Childs: Music for Singer—Timbral Cues (1964) 60
6.1 Comprehensive Model of Articulation—Place/Manner Chart 71
6.2 Labial Chart 75
6.3 Dental Chart 78
6.4 Tongue to Palatal Regions 83
6.5 Cheek Regions Paired with Manners 87
6.6 Uvula, Soft Palate, Epiglottis, Pharynx, Salival, Head Oscillation, Body Oscillation,
and External Articulation 91
7.1 Multiphonics: Voiced and Voiced, Voiced and Unvoiced, Unvoiced and Unvoiced,
and Three or More 96
8.1 Factors Associated with Common Voice Disorders 130
9.1 Multiple Parameters within an Acoustic Framework 134
9.2 Multiphonic Combinations within an Acoustic Framework 138
9.3 Morphology in Rhotic by Blonk 143
9.4 Perceptual Distance in Rhotic by Blonk 144
9.5 Potential Outputs from Multidimensional Desynchronization in The Old Folks at Home
by Edgerton 145
A1.1 Components Influencing Onset of Phonation 153
A1.2 Common Modes of Phonation 155
xvii
Recordings
In this revised edition, audio samples identified in each chapter can be found at the publisher’s website: https://rowman.
com/ISBN/9780810888401, under the “Features” tab.
Track 1.1 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

Track 1.2 Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls
Track 1.3 Geyer: Sedna
Track 1.4 Manipulation of Articulation That Results in Different Rates of Unlunged Airflow Velocity
Track 1.5 Contrast of Lunged and Unlunged Airflow with Changing Articulation
Track 1.6 Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu
Track 1.7 Edgerton: Keltainen huone
Track 1.8 Wishart: Vocalize
Track 1.9 Green: B A 4
Track 1.10 Edgerton: Anaphora
Track 2.1 Kourliandski: Voice-Off
Track 2.2 Voiced Vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/
Track 2.3 Unvoiced Vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/
Track 2.4 Voiced Consonants /d/, /b/, /z/
Track 2.5 Unvoiced Consonants /t/, /p/, /s/
Track 2.6 Unvoiced, Pitched Sounds: Whistle, Bilabial Trill, Lingual Trill, Uvular Trill
Track 2.7 Hadzajlic: Freezing Moon
Track 2.8 Hopson: Nine Tas
Track 2.9 Edgerton: A Marriage of Shadows
Track 2.11 Composing/Performing Ratios of Pitch-to-Air Mixture
Track 2.12 Olson: Le Revenant
Track 2.13 Egressive Vocal Fry to Ingressive Vocal Fry
Track 2.14 Christi: Passage to Womanhood
Track 2.15 Ovcharenko: Invocation of Rain
Track 2.17 Homler: Signals
Track 2.18 Bijma: Why? Bye!
Track 2.20 Dutton: Ummm
Track 2.22 Miranda: in Principio
Track 2.23 Neubauer: Untitled
Track 2.24 Edgerton: prāṇa
Track 3.1 Untitled Kargyraa Style
Track 3.2 Blonk: Kolokol Uma
xix
xx Recordings
Track 3.3 Edgerton: Cataphora

Track 3.5 Esophageal Speech
Track 4.1 Namtchylak: Night Birds
Track 4.3 London: Psalm of These Days II
Track 4.6 Rodriguez: Voix
Track 4.7 Miranda: in Principio
Track 4.8 Low, Normal Modes
Track 4.9 Damped Asymmetries by Jaap Blonk
Track 4.10 Miranda: La Voz Cantante
Track 5.1 Khubeev: Noir
Track 5.2 Harizanos: The Bells
Track 5.4 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady
Track 5.5 Two-Part Filters, Aperture to Vowel (Round, Lateral, Superior to Inferior, Protrusion, Intrusion, Left,
Right, Opposite)
Track 5.6 Two-Part Filter, Aperture to Tongue Tip Placement
Track 5.7 Edgerton: aka Taffy Twisters
Track 5.8 Price: A Play on Words
Track 5.9 Edgerton: Keltainen huone
Track 5.10 Different Ratios of Nasality
Track 5.12 Untitled Kargyraa Style
Track 5.13 Untitled Khoomei Style
Track 5.14 Untitled Sygyt Style
Track 5.15 Hykes: True to the Times
Track 6.2 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 2, Bad Bottle Blues
Track 6.3 Kokoras: Hiss and Whistle
Track 6.4 Edgerton: Friedrich’s Comma
Track 6.9 Edgerton: Mountain Songs
Track 6.14 Price: A Play on Words
Track 7.1 Two Voiced Sources
Track 7.2 Voiced and Unvoiced Sources
Track 7.3 Two Unvoiced Sources
Track 7.4 Untitled, Chant-like
Track 7.5 Falsetto Chant by Unamunos Quorum
Track 7.6 Ingressive Chant
Track 7.7 Minton: Untitled
Track 7.8 Bijma: Why? Bye!
Recordings xxi
Track 7.10 Moss + Minton: Helden Tenors

Track 7.11 Blonk: Facial: Sabb
Track 7.12 Miranda: La Voz Cantante
Track 7.13 Namtchylak: White Food
Track 7.14 Neubauer: Untitled
Track 7.15 Biphonation, As Shown in Figures 7.12 and 7.13
Track 7.16 v.f. + gsub Multiphonic, Followed by gsub Alone, Followed by v.f. + gsub Multiphonic Followed by v.f.
Alone
Track 7.17 Blonk: Lautgedicht (Supraglottal with Voice)
Track 7.24 Examples from B.01 through B.14 (Voiced and Unvoiced Multiphonics)
Track 7.28 Examples C.01–C.23 (Unvoiced and Unvoiced Multiphonics)
Track 7.29 Examples D.01–D.21 (Three or More Perceived Tones)
Track 8.1 Namtchylak: Lost Rivers
Track 8.3 Blonk: Geen Krimp IV
Track 8.4 Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls
Track 8.6 Stäbler: Drüber
Track 9.1 Edgerton: aka Taffy Twisters
Track 9.4 Johnson: A general interrupter to ongoing activity
Permissions
SCORES
Baldwin, Michael. Various Terrains. Self-published manuscript, 2011.

Brooks, William. Madrigals. Frog Peak Music, 1982.
———. Tracce. Self-published manuscript, 2013.
Cassidy, Aaron. A Painter of Figures in Rooms. Self-published manuscript, 2012.
Dehaan, Daniel R. Three Études for Solo Voice. Self-published manuscript, 2010.
Dharmoo, Gabriel. Vaai Irandu. Self-published manuscript, 2009.
Edgerton, Michael Edward. Anaphora. BabelScores®, 2001.
———. Cataphora. Self-published manuscript, 2009.
———. Friedrich’s Comma. BabelScores®, 1999.
———. The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Self-published manuscript, 1989.
———. Keltainen huone. BabelScores®, 2008.
———. Kut. Self-published manuscript, 2002.
———. A Marriage of Shadows. BabelScores®, 2008.
———. prāna. Self-published manuscript, 2002.
———. Taffy Twisters. C. P. Press Publications, 1998.
Einbond, Aaron. Without Words, 2012. © 2014 Edition Gravis Verlag GmbH, Brühl, Germany. Printed with kind permission.
Geyer, Leo. Sedna. Self-published manuscript, 2011.
Green, Anthony. B A 4. Rashonn Music Resource Plus, 2013.
Hadzajlic, Hanan. Freezing Moon. Self-published manuscript, 2012.
Harizanos, Nickos. The Bells. Self-published manuscript, 2012.
Holmqvist, Kay. Liquid Structures. Self-published manuscript, 2012.
Hopson, Holland. Nine Tas. Creative Commons, 1994, 2008.
Johnson, Evan. A general interrupter to ongoing activity. Self-published manuscript, 2011.
Khubeev, Alexander. Noir. Self-published manuscript, 2010.
Kokoras, Panayiotis. Hiss and Whistle. Self-published manuscript, 2013.
Kourliandski, Dmitri. Voice-Off. Editions Jobert, 2008.
Olson, Tawnie. Le Revenant. Self-published manuscript, 2011.
Price, William. A Play on Words. Self-published manuscript, 1997.
Rodriguez, Mauricio. Voix. Self-published manuscript, 2005.
IMAGES
Figures 3.4a and 3.4b. The pictures titled Esophageal Speech on an Outgoing Stream of Air and Speech Using an Artificial Larynx
courtesy of InHealth Technologies (http://www.inhealth.com).
Figures 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7. “The International Phonetic Alphabet (2005)” licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2005_png.svg#mediaviewer/File:IPA_
chart_2005_png.svg.
Figures 5.13b and 5.13c. Complex Filters from On Sonic Art by Trevor Wishart, 1984.
xxiii
xxiv Permissions
Figure 5.37. Videofluroscopic images titled Method One, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic and Method Two, Low Harmonic and
High Harmonic; subject, Bernard Dubreuil; radiologist, Margaret Fagerholm; principle investigator, Michael Edward Edgerton.
Figure 5.38a. Videofluroscopic image titled Method Three, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic; subject, Rollin Rachele; radiologist,
Margaret Fagerholm; principle investigator, Michael Edward Edgerton.
Figure 5.38b. Videofluroscopic image titled Method Four, Low Harmonic and High Harmonic; subject, David Hykes; radiologist,
Margaret Fagerholm; principle investigator, Michael Edward Edgerton.
Figures 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5. “The International Phonetic Alphabet (2005)” licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2005_png.svg#mediaviewer/File:IPA_
chart_2005_png.svg.
Figure 7.7. Views of Double Source Featuring Asymmetrical Vocal Fold Oscillation from “Sketches of vocal folds during their sub-
harmonic vibratory cycle. Sketches 22–28 show the creation of the ‘ripple’ in the second open phase” from Jan G. Švec’s “On Vi-
bration Properties of Human Vocal Folds: Voice Registers, Bifurcations, Resonance Characteristics, Development and Application
of Videokymography,” thesis at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands, © 2000 Jan Švec, Olomouc, the Czech Republic.
Figures A.17, A.18, and A.19. The spectrograms Period Doubling Attractor or Subharmonics; Biphonation, or Two Independent
Frequencies; Sequence Featuring Limit Cycle Followed by Chaos, Then Period Doubling, Chaos, Limit Cycle, Chaos, Period
Doubling and Chaos from M. E. Edgerton, J. Neubauer, and H. Herzel, “Nonlinear Phenomena in Contemporary Musical Com-
position and Performance,” Perspectives of New Music 41, no. 2 (2003): 30–65.
Original material (artwork, line art, spectrograms, etc.) in figures 1.6, 1.25, 2.4, 2.11, 2.13, 2.15, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.22, 3.1, 4.2, 4.4,
4.10, 4.14, 4.15, 5.11, 5.12, 5.13a, 5.16, 5.17, 5.18, 5.20, 5.21, 5.23, 5.29, 5.30, 5.34, 5.35, 5.36, 6.8, 6.12, 6.14, 6.16, 6.18, 6.19,
6.20, 6.25, 6.27, 6.29, 6.31, 6.32, 6.33, 6.35, 6.36, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.5, 7.6, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13, 7.21, 7.30, 7.31, 9.6, A.11, A.12, A.14,
and A.16 by the author.
Newly composed musical material in figures 1.7, 1.8, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.16, 1.17, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.23, 1.24, 1.26, 2.9, 2.12, 4.3,
4.8, 4.9, 5.19, 5.24, 5.26, 5.32, 5.39, 6.9, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.15, 7.16, 7.18, 7.22, 7.23, 7.24, 7.25, 7.26, 7.28, 7.37, 7.38, 7.40,
7.41, 7.42, 7.43, 7.45, 7.47, 7.48, 7.49, 7.50, 7.51, 7.52, 7.53, 7.54, 7.55, 7.57, 7.58, 7.59, 7.60, 7.61, 7.62, and A.8 by the author.
Adapted by the author from other sources in figures 4.6, 5.8, 7.4, 7.27, A.1, A.2, A.3, A.4, A.5, A.6, A.7, A.9, A.10, A.13, and A.15.
RECORDINGS
Anonymous. Esophageal Speech, sample provided by Philip C. Doyle, PhD, Voice Production and Perception Laboratory, School of
Communication Sciences and Disorders, the University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
Bijma, Greetje. Why? Bye! Performed by Greetje Bijme, Intakt.
Blonk, Jaap. Facial: Sabb. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat.
———. Geen Krimp II. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat.
———. Geen Krimp IV. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat.
———. Kolokol Uma. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat.
———. Lautgedicht. Performed by Jaap Blonk, Staalplaat.
Brooks, William. Madrigals. Performed by Electric Phoenix, Wergo Records.
Christi, Ellen. Passage to Womanhood. Performed by Ellen Christi, Network Records.
Dharmoo, Gabriel. Vaai Irandu. Performed by Michèle Motard, self-published recording.
Dutton, Paul. Ummm. Performed by Paul Dutton, unpublished recording.
Edgerton, Michael Edward. Anaphora. Performed by Almut Kuehne, self-published recording.
———. Anaphora. Performed by Rebekka Uhlig, self-published recording.
———. Cataphora. Performed by Jan Heinke, self-published recording.
———. Friedrich’s Comma. Performed by Angela Rademacher and Hanno Koloska, self-published recording.
———. The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Performed by Patricia Repar and Claudia Watson, self-published recording.
———. Keltainen huone. Performed by Merle Noir, self-published recording.
———. A Marriage of Shadows. Performed by Angela Rademacher-Wingerath and ensemble Ars Nova.
———.prāna. Performed by Liina Ockenström, Marjo Pääkkönen, Teija Kormilainen, Salla Seppä, unpublished recording.
———. Taffy Twisters (a.k.a., Cantor’s Dust). Performed by Rebekka Uhlig, SPHN Galerie.
Geyer, Leo. Sedna. Performed by Manchester University Vocal Trio, self-published recording.
Globokar, Vinko. Airs de voyage vers l’intérieur. Performed by Atelier Schola Cantorum Stuttgart (director Clytus Gottwald), Bayer
Records.
Green, Anthony. B A 4. Performed by Bly and Lisbeth Sonne, self-published recording.
Hadzajlic, Hanan. Freezing Moon.
Halvorsen, Arne. Unvoiced and Unvoiced Multiphonic (track 7.28). Performed by Arne Halvorsen, self-published recording.
Harizanos, Nickos. The Bells. Performed by Elisabeth Kaiser, self-published recording.
Permissions xxv
Homler, Anna. Signals. Performed by Anna Homler, Intakt.

Hopson, Holland. Nine Tas. Performed by Merle Noir, self-published recording.
Hykes, David. True to the Times. Performed by David Hykes, New Albion Records.
Johnson, Evan. A general interrupter to ongoing activity. Performed by Carl Rosman, self-published recording.
Khubeev, Alexander. Noir. Performed by Ensemble Aleph.
Kokoras, Panayiotis. Hiss and Whistle. Performed by Ensemble Holophony Project.
Kourliandski, Dmitri. Voice-Off. Performed by Natalia Pschenitschnikova, self-published recording.
London, Edwin. Psalm of These Days II. Performed by the Extended Vocal Techniques Ensemble of the University of California,
San Diego, CRI.
Minton, Phil. Untitled. Performed by Phil Minton, self-published recording.
Minton, Phil, and David Moss. Groan Men. Performed by Phil Minton and David Moss, Intakt.
Miranda, Fatima. in Principio. Performed by Fatima Miranda, Unió Músics.
———. La Voz Cantante. Performed by Fatima Miranda, Unió Músics.
Moss, David, and Phil Minton. Helden Tenors. Performed by David Moss and Phil Minton, Intakt.
Namtchylak, Sainkho. Lost Rivers. Performed by Sainkho Namtchylak, Free Music Production Publishing.
———. Night Birds. Performed by Sainkho Namtchylak, Free Music Production Publishing.
———. White Food. Performed by Sainkho Namtchylak, Free Music Production Publishing.
Neubauer, Jürgen. Untitled. Performed by Jürgen Nuebauer, self-published recording.
Olson, Tawnie. Le Revenant. Performed by Stacie Dunlop and Krista Vincent, self-published recording.
Ovcharenko, Halyna. Invocation of Rain. Performed by the Ukranian State Broadcasting Corporation, self-published recording.
Price, William. A Play on Words. Performed by Thomas Couvillon, John Crabtree, John Endicott, and Aaron Johnson, voice; Alison
McCubbin, soprano; and William Price, conductor.
Quorum, Unamunos. Falsetto chant from Centipede’s Progress. Performed by Unamunos Quorum, Footloose Productions.
Rodriguez, Mauricio. Voix. Performed by Fondation Royaumont, Voix Nouvelles, Les Jeunes Solistes de Royaumont, Céline Bou-
card (soprano), Julie Mauchamps (mezzo), Jean-Christophe Jacques (baritone), and Rachid Safir (conductor).
Schipper, Elke. Frequenzgang III. Performed by Elke Schipper, Gertraud Verlag.
Schnebel, Dieter. !Madrasha. Performed by Atelier Schola Cantorum Stuttgart (director Clytus Gottwald), Bayer Records.
Stäbler, Gerhard. Drüber. Performed by Bärbel Boginski, Willi Lieverscheidt, Jürgen Lösche, Gabriele Müller, Gerhard Stäbler,
Johannes Vetter, Gerd Zacher, Rainer Zillhardt, and Wilhelm Schulz, Edition EarPort.
Tran Quang Hai. Low Normal Modes. Performed by Tran-Quang Hai, self-published recording.
Ward, Paul. Biphonation, as Shown in Figures 7.12, 7.13, from the film Diplophonia by Paul H. Ward, Ronald Goldman, Jay Sand-
ers, and Paul Moore, Division of Otolaryngology and the Bill Wilkerson Hearing and Speech Center at Vanderbilt University
School of Medicine in Nashville, Tennessee.
Wishart, Trevor. Vocalize. Performed by Trevor Wishart, Paradigm Records.
———. Vox III. Performed by Electric Phoenix, Wergo.
Xovalyg, Kaigal-ool. Untitled Chant-Like. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin.
———. Untitled Kargyraa style. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin.
———. Untitled Khoomei Style. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin.
———. Untitled Sygyt Style. Performed by Kaigal-ool Xovalyg, University of Wisconsin.
Zender, Hans. Fragmente (Canto V). Performed by Atelier Schola Cantorum Stuttgart (director Clytus Gottwald), Bayer Records.
Excerpts recorded by the author: Tracks 1.4, 1.5, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.11, 2.13, 5.5, 5.6, 5.10, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.16, 7.24, 7.28,
and 7.29.
Preface to the First Edition
A historical presentation of extra-normal voice is exceedingly complicated and lengthy, for it would not only include
western experimental processes, beginning mainly in the mid-1950s (although at various times the Sumerian hymn
[–800 B.C.], Grecian odes [600 B.C.], Judaic responsorial and antiphonal psalms [+500 B.C.], Christian plainchant
[A.D.], organum [9th century], Ars Nova [14th century], and later the nuove musiche of the baroque would have been
thought to be radical developments in their own day), but also nonwestern music and nonlinguistic verbal utterance. To
be clear, a historical examination is neither my specialty nor a particularly strong interest. Rather my interests are with
composition, and therefore this book is designed to serve creative, explorative activity that is nonetheless historically
and globally aware. As a result, this book presents a framework for further vocal sound exploration and not a retelling
of the distant or near past.
Beginning in the late 1950s, such composers as Dieter Schnebel, Luciano Berio, John Eaton, Giacinto Scelsi, Gyorgy
Ligeti, Kenneth Gaburo, Pauline Oliveros, Sylvano Bussotti, Robert Erickson, and Mauricio Kagel began to explore
the production and organization of nonstandard vocal music. Perhaps because much of this new art represented attacks
on the forms and concepts of modernism through the emphasis of antinarrative, isolation, incoherency, and the physi-
cal body as theatrical marker, most of this work did not attempt to utilize extensions of technique systematically. This
is completely understandable, for unlike instruments the human voice cannot very easily be taken apart and put back
together. Because of the lack of standardized fingering charts for vocal sound production within the larynx, most com-
posers attempted to explore performance technique and expression through phonetically based articulatory procedures
or, to a far lesser degree, through the combination of multiple vocal sound sources, combining primarily harmonic with
inharmonic input, or less with special phenomenon, such as subharmonics or overtone singing. For many, these results
were thrilling and fine, but as such, they often resembled a series of nonscalable novelties that often found little percep-
tual density necessary to experience the multiple layers during repeated hearings of interesting work. As a result, the era
of extended vocal techniques came to a screeching end sometime during the late 1970s or so.
Today, in the early twenty-first century, this book proposes to lay out the structural foundations that underlay de-
coupled and scaled multidimensional phase spaces of voice. It is this author’s contention that continued artistic explora-
tion could be achieved by decoupling select robust parameters involved in the production of sound. This is a demanding
conception that has its basis in the nonlinear dynamical world of many, if not all, natural phenomena. A simplified way
to conceive of nonlinearities in a system is that, under certain conditions, a small change of one parameter may produce
large changes in the output (i.e., a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil causes the ice storm in Berlin), while conversely
a large parameter change may produce small or no changes to the output of a system. For performers, this may mean
having to relearn their instruments. At output, these methods often produce extra-complex sonorities (nonlinear and
transient phenomena) that incidentally offer the possibility of increasing redundancy across the multidimensional phase
space of sound production. Then, depending upon the density of redundancy, a more tightly knit structure may be per-
ceived as a positive value.
Several publications have documented the extended technique movement in different ways and include On Sonic Art
by Trevor Wishart (1984) and Alternative Voices by Istvan Anhalt (1984). Further literature includes master’s or doctoral
theses “Writing for Singers in the Sixties” by R. M. Newell at the University of California–San Diego (1970), “Aspects
of Vocal Multiphonics” by Bonnie Barnett at the University of California–San Diego (1972), “Aspects Involving the
Performance of Contemporary Vocal Music” by A. M. Chase at the University of California–San Diego (1975), “An
xxvii
xxviii Preface to the First Edition
Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems” by Deborah
Kavasch at the University of California–San Diego (1980), and “Emphasizing the Articulatory and Timbral Aspects of
Vocal Production in Vocal Composition” by E. M. Clark at the University of Illinois (1985). Last, a recent introductory
book to extended vocal techniques is titled Exploring Twentieth-Century Vocal Music: A Practical Guide to Innovations
in Performance and Repertoire by Sharon Mabry.
This book is the result of an invitation I received in 1995 from Barney Childs and Phillip Rehfeldt to contribute a
text discussing voice for the New Instrumentation series, then at the University of California Press. Immediately, it was
clear that the voice as an instrument with no buttons, levers, or keys presents particular difficulties when discussing
extra-normal behaviors that are not based upon loosely fitting metaphor. As a result a decision was made to organize the
presentation within a bioacoustical framework that would attempt to communicate quantifiable information to a large
readership with diverse interests. As might be expected, such an approach is necessarily interdisciplinary and requires
information to be drawn from music, acoustics, voice science, linguistics, ethnography, engineering, and physics.
I am especially indebted to Dr. William Brooks for his sustained encouragement and support, beginning well before
this project and continuing through today. In 1995, I was living in Redlands, California, and had already begun to
work with voices in a manner that was influenced by voice physiology and acoustics. To my benefit, the editors of the
University of California Press, New Instrumentation series, were looking to complete the series, and it was at this time
that they saw my work with voice and invited me to contribute this book on voice. Therefore, to Barney Childs, Phillip
Rehfeldt, and Bert Turetzky I am especially indebted. Much of the scientific framework upon which this book rests was
gathered during a three-year postdoctoral fellowship with the National Center for Voice and Speech, Ingo Titze, director.
My postdoctoral mentor was Dr. Diane Bless, an otolaryngologist at the University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics,
Waisman Center, who fully supported financially and intellectually the interdisciplinary nature of voice research. To
both Dr. Bless and Dr. Titze I am especially indebted. In 1984, Trevor Wishart self-published On Sonic Art, in my view
the most relevant text preceding The 21st-Century Voice, and until now it is the only systematic treatment that presents
acoustical and physiological information in the service of a presentation designed to offer a pragmatic approach to ex-
plorative vocal artistic practice. In this way, I am especially indebted to Trevor Wishart.
Numerous scholars and artists from different descriptions have encouraged this project and offered helpful sug-
gestions. Others have suggested areas of exploration or have offered materials supporting the examination of poten-
tials. In particular I would like to thank Hanna Auerbacher, Bonnie Barnett, David Berry, Jaap Blonk, Paul Dutton,
Margaret Fagerholm, Clytus Gottwald, Ed Harkins, Folkmar Hein, Hanspeter Herzel, Deborah Kavasch, Ray Kent,
Aliaa Khidr, Phil Larson, Ted Levin, Ewald Liska, Paul Malenkovich, Roger Marsh, Phil Minton, Meredith Monk,
David Moss, Juergen Neubauer, Carol Plantamura, Martin Riches, Xavier Rodet, Owe Ronstrom, Nelson Roy, Dieter
Schnebel, Gerhard Stäbler, Brad Story, Johann Sundberg, Jan Švec, Steve Tasko, Tran Quang Hai, Susan Thibeault,
Rebekka Uhlig, and Gary Weismer.
Next, I would like to acknowledge those who have provided critical advice or assistance with other matters supple-
mental to this book, without whom the text could not have been written. They include Ramon Anthin, Herbert Brün,
Bruce Campbell, Kristy Cheadle, Jesper Elen, Joel Eriksson, Tecumseh Fitch, John Fonville, Kenneth Gaburo, Carol
Hobson, Jere Hutcheson, Jarmo Kähkönen, Cheong-Mook Kim, Helmut Lachenmann, George Lewis, Ed London,
Frank Mueller, Jae-Sung Park, Morgan Powell, Miller Puckett, Greg Smith, Keychun Song, Mark Sullivan, Gary
Verkade, and August Wegner.
Finally, thanks to Bruce Philips, Nicole Carty, Sam Grammer, Melissa Ray, and Jeff Wolf at Scarecrow Press for their
roles in helping to complete this project. Naturally, all mistakes and misunderstandings are my own.
Preface to the Second Edition
The year 2014 is a hopeful time for new vocal music. A fragmented cultural economy and the decline in importance
of massive score and recording publishers are forcing creative artists to turn to less established ways to promote their
work. In turn, without the controlling hand of dominant cultural authorities, large segments of artists are beginning to
push boundaries in ways that resemble a time past in which experimentation was seen as a natural course of events in a
healthy cultural landscape. This seems especially true in large cities, where small venues of experimentation operate for
a few weeks and then disappear. The idea, of course, is not to sell to the masses or even to the small market of classical
music consumers but simply to continue the time-mandated inquiry into “What’s next?”
These experiments of course are multifaceted, but one development seems to stand apart from the others. Based on
increasing technical sophistication, this trend involves an increasing microscopic investigation of sound. For example,
in the composition Voice-Off by Dmitri Kourliandski, mostly unvoiced sounds produced within the oral cavity are made
not only audible but also prominent through the use of close microphone placement. Such techniques enhance source
production within the vocal tract so dental stops, salival fricatives, and air timbres become prominent; they also project
and make audible the resonant environment inside the mouth.
Another trend is the exploration of vocal fold asymmetries by various vocalists. Vocal improvisers dominate these
explorations, although a growing number of new music vocalists are becoming acquainted with such aesthetics and
techniques. In my composition Anaphora, I ask the vocalist to produce the illusive glottal whistle (M4). To my knowl-
edge, this technique (seen only in the domain of vocal improvisers) consists of a whistle-like sound produced deep in the
throat, and its profile often consists of two or more time-varying frequency contours in a single face. Since performances
of Anaphora by Rebekka Uhlig, Angela Rademacher-Wingerath, and Almut Kühne, I have begun to notice more singers
using this fascinating and strange sonority.
Chapter 9 presents the issues of multidimensionality via desynchronized and scaled networks. For me, this is less an
issue of compositional complexity and more designed to explore the dynamical basis of sound production based on the
intended use of bifurcations between different sound classes. The contexts this applies to are many and do not presume
any sort of aesthetic preference. Examples of this type of multiparametric decoupling can be heard in limited guises in
pop and jazz, as well as in serious, new music.
Since the first edition of this book, I’ve continued to explore voice throughout Europe with dedicated professional
vocalists as well as amateur singers and children. Then in 2012, this study continued with a major change of venue
when I accepted the position of associate professor at the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, where I have been
conducting Merle Noir, a vocal group focused on contemporary voice. For this second edition, I thank Bennett Graff
and Monica Savaglia at Rowman & Littlefield for their roles in helping to complete this project. Naturally, all mistakes
and misunderstandings are my own.
In this second edition, audio samples identified in each chapter can be found at the publisher’s website, https://
rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401, under the “Features” tab. Additionally, videos associated with each chapter can
be found on a YouTube channel titled “The 21st-Century Voice,” under the “Playlists” tab, at http://www.youtube
.com/channel/UCff1EskPTb_leIh7slQrIAQ/playlists.
xxix
Introduction
This second edition continues the exploration of voice within an anatomical and acoustical framework. The new book
retains the same fundamental structure as the first but adds new methods for training the extra-normal voice. Addition-
ally, I improved the musical examples with the intention of fleshing out and adding perspective to the composition and
performance of the 21st-century voice. The book no longer includes a CD; instead, audio samples are available on the
Rowman & Littlefield website at https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810888401, under the “Features” tab. These examples
are supplemented by an expanding list of videos at the YouTube channel “The 21st-Century Voice,” under the “Playlist”
tab, at http://www.youtube.com/channel/UCff1EskPTb_leIh7slQrIAQ/playlists.
I have replaced chapters 9 (interface) and 10 (context) from the first edition with a discussion of multidimensional
voice that focuses on the possibility of unlocking dynamical bifurcations among sound categories rather than any specific
aesthetic intent.
FOUNDATIONS
The classical acoustic theory of speech production is an appropriate framework to discuss contemporary vocal tech-
niques. This theory suggests that voiced sounds are produced by a wavelike motion of the vocal folds that chops up a
mostly outgoing airstream, resulting in a series of air pulsations. These pulses carry an acoustically complex tone with
a fundamental frequency and associated harmonic spectrum.
This disturbance to the airflow is known as a sound source, which passes through the upper vocal tract to be shaped
by the properties of the resonant environment. Associated with the resonant properties of the vocal tract is articulation,
or the movement of the lips, jaw, tongue, velum, and so on. The movement of the articulators acts as a filter on the out-
ward (or inward) airflow, which imposes a passive filter, and features dominant regions of resonant energy separated by
low-amplitude valleys between the peaks. Normally in speech and song, the first three or four formants are considered
perceptually relevant.
AIR
Air pressure is the driving force of speech and song. For egressive (outward) phonation, the volume of the air in the
lungs is slightly decreased as air is sent upward into the subglottal, glottal, and supraglottal regions. In the subglottal
region, an excess of air is built up in order to send a stream of air through the glottis. Typical subglottal air pressure
varies a moderate amount for speech, while during singing the variation can be extensive. During speech, the variation
is so small that it is considered to be negligible, while during singing the pressure variation can affect pitch and dynamic
articulation, resulting in an error of fundamental frequency (singing out of tune) or inaccurate pressure pulsation during
staccato or marcato passages.
In chapter 1, the property of air as an explicitly emphasized perceptual component is discussed in the following ways:
(1) direction of airflow, (2) lunged or unlunged airflow, and (3) air as prominent inharmonic sonority.
xxxi
xxxii Introduction
SOURCE
A source refers to the acoustic disturbance within an environment, such as a percussive strike of a mallet to a drumhead
or the oscillation of paired vocal folds. The human voice source features wide variations of fundamental frequency, each
with many overtones (or harmonics). The fundamental frequency (F0) is determined by the length and vibrating mass of
the vocal folds so that long, thin folds produce high pitches, while short, fat folds produce low pitches. The cricthyroid
and the thyroarytenoid muscles, in particular, control these properties. At a normal intensity, the spectrum typically
decreases at about 12 dB/octave. When the intensity is increased, the slope of the spectral amplitude curve is decreased,
and the higher overtones increase in energy.
Loudness is determined by a coupling of the voice source with subglottal air pressure. With all other factors remain-
ing constant, a rise in subglottal pressure will raise the frequency of the voice source a few hertz. However, musically,
a crescendo (increase of intensity) may require that the voice source remains at a constant (or decreasing) pitch. In
other words, to stay in tune, a singer needs to reduce the activation of the laryngeal muscles that regulate F0 while
increasing air pressure.
The mode of phonation affects both the timbre (and quality) and register of the voice source. Vocal timbre often
is classified as pressed, breathy, or flow phonation. These differences occur through a change of adduction (aver-
age percentage of closing phase of one glottal cycle). An increased percentage of adduction results in a reduction of
amplitude that sounds pressed, or tense, strained, or strangled. At the opposite extreme, a reduced percentage of ad-
duction, in which loosely adducted folds nearly fail to close the glottis, results in breathy phonation. Between these
two extremes is a quality known as flow phonation, which features a clear closed phase and high peak amplitude with
a strong fundamental voice source.
In addition to timbre, the mode of phonation affects the voice register. In the male voice, there are at least three reg-
isters: (1) vocal fry (pulse), (2) chest (modal), and (3) falsetto (loft). In vocal fry, the vocal folds are thick and lax and
appear to produce air pulsations that are equally spaced or that appear in groups of pulses separated by pauses. The F0
of glottal pulses occurs as a change of mode at a pitch lower than what is normally considered to be voiced phonation—
often well below 100 Hz. During chest register, the folds are less lax while the glottal pulses are more regular, with a
long closing phase (more than 50 percent). In falsetto, the vocal folds are stretched thin and feature incomplete glottal
closure. Though less clear, it is assumed that female voices use both the modal and loft registers.
The 21st-Century Voice devotes chapters 2 through 4 to how source characteristics can explicitly heighten vo-
cal potential. Chapter 2 discusses source, laryngeal manipulation, unvoiced to barely voiced, voiced, onset to offset,
breathiness, vocal fry, low damped phonation, open-to-close ratio manipulation, pressed to loose, wide vibrato/ tremolo,
asymmetries, and glottal whistle. Chapter 3 discusses other laryngeal or near-laryngeal issues, including supraglottal,
subglottal, and esophageal phonation. Chapter 4 discusses issues related to register, including oscillation, color (timbre),
unusual tessitura, emphasis of shifting mechanism, and glissandi.
ARTICULATION/RESONANCE
Fundamentally, the voice source may be characterized as separate from the vocal tract because the mode of oscillation
is not affected by changes in articulation. This category of articulation and resonance represents two different but con-
nected principles that comprise chapters 5 (“Filtering”) and 6 (“Turbulent to Absolute Airflow Modification”).
Articulation refers to movement of the tongue, lips, jaw, soft palate, and so on during speech and song. Resonance
refers to the inherent acoustic properties that the vocal tract assumes at every moment. An important acoustic property
of the resonant environment of the vocal tract is seen in the configuration of the regions of high and low acoustic pres-
sure. These regions of high pressure are known as formant frequencies and are seen as high-amplitude frequency peaks
within a frequency-to-amplitude spectrum envelope plot. The frequencies of these resonant peaks depend on the length
of a tube (vocal tract) and its configuration (articulation). The length of the vocal tract influences formant frequencies;
longer tracts feature, on average, lower formant frequencies, so that males generally have lower formant frequencies than
females, while tenors feature somewhat higher formant frequencies than basses. This length differential prominently
figures into the perception of voice quality.
Voice source may be considered separate from vocal tract. Two examples may illuminate the principle: First, produce
the vowel /i/ on any pitch, and then change the vowel from /i/ to /o/ while retaining the same F0. Second, exchange the
behaviors; choose a low F0 on the vowel /i/. While retaining the vowel /i/, move the F0 from a low pitch to a higher one
Introduction xxxiii
and then back to the previous low pitch. What both examples have shown is that the resonant frequencies are separate
from the source frequencies. In the former case, the source frequencies remain the same while the resonant frequencies
shift predictably higher and lower. In the latter case, the resonant frequencies remain the same while the source frequen-
cies move higher and lower.
A phenomenon known as the singer’s formant has been well documented with the western classical singing voice.
This formant provides the acoustic power to project over and through unusually loud and dynamic environments, such
as an orchestra. This quality appears to boost the intensity of the voice in a region where the ear is particularly sensitive,
which results in a shiny or brassy quality. Acoustically, this phenomenon is characterized by a high amplitude spectral
peak in the region of 3 to 3.5 kHz. This high amplitude peak may be explained as a clustering of F3, F4, and F5. This
formant cluster may be explained as a widening of the pharynx by lowering the larynx. Acoustically the lower 2 centi-
meters above the larynx, the laryngeal tube, is considered a separate resonator that is not much influenced by the rest of
the vocal tract. When the pharynx is widened, the supraglottal resonator joins the upper vocal tract resonator. This has
often been reported for opera singers or soloists in orchestral settings.
Formants are often modified to increase the effect of coupling the resonant frequency F1 with the source frequency F0.
However, there are cases when this coupling is avoided, such as when the value of F1, which may vary between 250 Hz
and 1000 Hz, is low and the pitch is high. Then it is clear that the F0 may easily have a higher frequency than F1, which
places extreme demands on the control parameters of the multidimensional parameter space. However, singers tend to
avoid the situation where F0 is higher than F1; sopranos often widen their jaw opening as the pitch rises in order to tune
the resonant and source frequency, which results in an increased pitch amplitude and radiated sound level.
Chapters 5 and 6 explain the radical concept of composing with elements of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
in order to heighten the complexity of resultant sound output, which carries the similar quality for instrumental sound
exploration and composition in the late 1950s and through the 1960s. However, the IPA is limited in place and acoustic
output based on the efficiency of the communicative act within a particular linguistic origin. Therefore, as this text is
about potential for sound production, a model needed to be developed that would account for all regions and manners
available for human sound production while maintaining flexibility and ease of absorption and retention. The result is the
a mapping of vocal tract articulation for filter-like, turbulent, and absolute airflow modification. One further advantage
of this model is that it develops an environment for the conceptualization and production of a contrapuntal complex of
harmonic and inharmonic sources within one face.
HEIGHTENED POTENTIALS
Chapters 7, 8, and 9 discuss heightened and special potential uses of the voice that expand upon the basic framework
of air, source, resonance, and articulation. Chapter 7 presents four large categories of multiphonic source production,
including (1) voiced and voiced, (2) voiced and unvoiced, (3) unvoiced and unvoiced, and (4) three or more. These
categories represent the least used techniques in composed music. Not surprisingly, these techniques are more regularly
heard in performances by experimental vocal improvisers (e.g., Stratos, Minton, Blonk) than in performances of con-
temporary composed music. In addition to the recordings of chapter 7, a few of the recordings of chapter 2 present other
multiphonic productions.
Chapter 8 presents the nasty issue of pushing the instrument to an extreme. This is a delicate issue, and after the pre-
sentation of three different emphases (complex and unstable oscillation, forced blown, and rasp), the causes and treat-
ments of vocal disorders are presented. Last, as many performers around the globe are willing to pursue such behaviors,
it is warranted that a method for training hygienic extreme vocal production is presented.
Chapter 9 presents a discussion of the multidimensional voice focused on bioacoustic diversity that occurs when any
one sound production element is desynchronized from the ordinary. These procedures have been understood since the
1990s in reference to bioacoustics and pathological voice but have been slow in gaining any foothold in musical thought.
The basic premise is that each parameter involved in sound production by instruments or voices can be shifted away
from normal, which produces a corresponding change in sound quality or even class. Then, further, each parameter can
be scaled between minimal and maximal values, which not only produces changes of sound but also offers the potential
for intelligently composing ratios of relatedness ranging from closely related to distantly and even nonrelated. There is a
growing number of composers and performers who are exploring these notions, and I present a diverse sampling of such
methods. To be clear, I do not propose that these methods imply an adherence to some notion of complexity but, rather
simply, a decoupling of one or more elements from normal, no matter its context.
xxxiv Introduction
ENDING MATERIAL
Also included are appendixes A (“Voice Science”), B (“Glossary”), and C (“Representative Compositions”).
This is a book about potential based on a comprehensive biomechanical network of vocal sound production. In this
light, it is necessary to separate instrumental possibilities from current fashionable trends of form, technique, context,
and philosophy. This book does not consist of a historical survey but is an active continuation of exploration. Of course,
the text offers brief insights into western, contemporary vocal traditions but importantly suggests that “extended” vocal
techniques, while often thrilling, left little room for integral and developed compositional work. Artistic freedom and
responsibility is a shifting and subjective paradigm. Readers will bring personal emotions, acquired traditions, and social
networks into their views of sound and its organization. Therefore, and most importantly, this book is intended as a prag-
matic tool for exploration, presenting a clear and concise framework into which all possible means of sound production
can be placed. New and extended methods of production and conceptualization are presented so a higher functionality
can be enjoyed from this most inherently nonlinear instrument of musical expression—the human voice.
SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Anhalt, I. Alternative Voices. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984.

Aurbacher-Liska, H. The Voice in New Music. Wilhelmshaven, Germany: Florian Noetzel Verlag, 2007.
Bartolozzi, B. Metodo per Oboe. Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1969.
———. New Sounds for Woodwinds. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Chase, A. M. “Aspects Involving the Performance of Contemporary Vocal Music.” Master’s thesis, University of California–San
Diego, 1975.
Dempster, S. The Modern Trombone. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.
Dick, R. The Other Flute. St. Louis, MO: Multiple Breath Music Company, 1989.
Edgerton, M. E., J. Neubauer, and H. Herzel. “Nonlinear Phenomena in Contemporary Musical Composition and Performance.”
Perspectives of New Music 41, no. 2 (2003): 30–65.
Erickson, R. Sound Structure in Music. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.
Erickson, R., and J. MacKay. Music of Many Means. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1995.
Fant, G. Acoustic Theory of Speech Production. The Hague: Mouton, 1960.
Gottwald, C. Hallelujah und die Theorie des Kommunikativen Handelns. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta, 1998.
Hein, F., ed. Musik und Sprache. Berlin: Akademie der Künste, 1986.
Howell, T. The Contemporary Flute. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
Jensen, K. “Extensions of Mind and Voice.” Composer 2 (1979): 13–17.
Kavasch, D. An Introduction to Extended Vocal Techniques: Some Compositional Aspects and Performance Problems. Reports from
the Center for Music Experiment at the University of California, San Diego, vol. 1, no. 2. La Jolla, CA: Center for Music Experi-
ment, 1980.
Kent, R., and C. Read. The Acoustic Analysis of Speech. San Diego: Singular, 1992.
Kientzy, D. Les sons multiples aux saxophones. Paris: Éditions Salabert, 1981.
Large, J., and T. Murry. “Studies of Extended Vocal Techniques: Safety.” NATS Bulletin 34 (1978): 30–33.
Linklater, K. Freeing the Natural Voice. New York: DBS, 1976.
Liska-Aurbacher, H. “Die Stimme kann mehr als singen und sprechen.” Musik und Kirche, Zeitschrift für Kirchenmusik 4 (2000): 218.
Neil, L. A. Writing for the Pedal Harp. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Newell, R. M. “Writing for Singers in the Sixties.” D.M.A. thesis, University of California–San Diego, 1970.
Peyser, J. 20th Century Music. New York: Schirmer Books, 1971.
Raphael, B. “Dancing on Shifting Ground: Voice Coaching in Professional Theater.” Voice and Speech Review (2000): 165–70.
Rehfeldt, P. R. New Directions for Clarinet. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
Schnebel, D. “Sprech- und Gesangsschule.” Melos 4 (1972): 198–206.
Schneider, J. The Contemporary Guitar. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982.
Shere, C. Thinking Sound Music. Berkeley, CA: Fallen Leaf Press, 1995.
Strange, P., and A. Strange. The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques. Berkeley: University of California Press,
2001.
Sundberg, J. Science of the Singing Voice. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987.
Titze, I. R. Principles of Voice Production. Englewood Cliffs, CA: Prentice Hall, 1994.
Turetzky, B. The Contemporary Contrabass. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
Wishart, T. The Book of Lost Voices. York, UK: Philip Martin, 1979.
———. “The Composers View: Extended Vocal Technique.” Musical Times 5 (1980): 313–14.
———. On Sonic Art. London: Gordon and Breach, 1983.
I
AIRFLOW
Chapter One
Airflow
Breath is the basis of speech and song. During expiration, the amount of air in the lungs lowers until inspiration occurs.
The breath cycle begins when air pressure rises, which helps to open the vocal folds, allowing air to pass through the
glottis. During the production of speech and song, the vocal folds open and close rapidly at a rate equal to its fundamental
period. Air and muscular properties (myoelastic-aerodynamic) combine to produce efficient self-sustaining oscillation
of the opening and closing sequence. Airflow affects extra-normal voice production through the following categories:
egressive/ingressive, lunged/unlunged, air prominent, support mechanism to affect sound in extra-normal ways, and end
of breath. At the end of this chapter, I present a few pedagogical issues of breath support.
EGRESSIVE/INGRESSIVE
Voice may use an outward (egressive)– or inward (ingressive)–moving airflow. In figure 1.1, the soprano and tenor
alternate between ingressive and egressive airflow. The arrow pointing to the left refers to ingressive airflow; the arrow
pointing to the right refers to egressive airflow.
Figure 1.1. Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady. Courtesy of

W. Brooks.
Track 1.1, Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady
Of course, the differences between egressive and ingressive airflow can be heightened to develop effective perform-
ances. The excerpt in figure 1.2 shows how the unique properties of ingressive airflow are used dynamically.
3
4 Chapter One
Figure 1.2. Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls. Courtesy of M. Edgerton.
Track 1.2, Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls
Ingressive phonation is not well understood, especially during singing. From my experience, some comparisons be-
tween egressive and ingressive phonation, relevant to composers and performers of extra-normal voice, are itemized in
table 1.1. Additionally, in 2012 an important dissertation by DeBoer titled “Ingressive Phonation in Contemporary Vocal
Music” was completed, and those findings are summarized beneath mine.
The pedagogy of ingressive singing asks for an increased sensitivity primarily to vocal fold adductory pressure, rate
and volume of airflow, dehydration, duration, and endurance. For adductory pressure, it is important to not press the
voice too much and to ensure that the voice has frequent pauses to recoup. Additionally, the amount and force of incom-
ing air needs to be trained slowly so the singer begins with small volumes and force, only increasing with increased
stamina. Last, dehydration is a crucial element to monitor. Preparation is important, so drinking plenty of fluids (water)
before performance will help, as well as having a sip or two during any lengthy breaks in singing. Also during singing,
the shape of the lips and oral cavity helps reduce dryness by narrowing the air canal leading to the vocal folds. Lastly,
the duration of ingressive singing is important, so durations are shorter on inspiration. As intensity increases, ingressive
durations lessen. Endurance is an issue with ingressive singing. Generally, singers need more rests or periods of egres-
sive phonation to balance their voices and rehydrate the vocal folds.
Ingressive phonation, though seemingly not normal, is seen in some languages and performance settings. For example,
the Inuit throat singing featured in a type of gambling game contains an alternation of ingressive and egressive utter-
ances. Seemingly fascinated by these practices, Geyer references Inuit throat singing in his composition Sedna. As the
composer indicates, elements of Inuit throat singing are used in this piece but in such a way that is possible for untrained
throat singers to perform. In this excerpt, the crossed note asks the singer to whisper on egressive breath with a slight
growl; the crossed note with a circle is an inhaled whisper. The effect is continuous breathing in and out with slight
voicing (see figure 1.3).
Next, in the composition Liquid Structures, Holmqvist is definitely not referencing world music practices when he asks
for an ingressively produced tone. Here he is not asking for a multiphonic but rather a indistinct tone (see figure 1.4).
In the excerpt from Without Words by Einbond, the vocalist sings ingressively across a wide range while using relative
amounts of breathiness, pressure, and vocal fry. The singer articulates text fragments to avoid the notions of a narrative
text and derive new and perhaps unintended meanings (see figure 1.5).
Table 1.1. Egressive versus Ingressive Airflow
Action Egressive Ingressive
Tessitura Narrower, more uniform Wider, less uniform—middle range seems
inconsistent
Scalar movement Uniform throughout range Not uniform throughout range
Pitch control More fine-tuned control Less fine-tuned control—can be emphasized and
considered a virtue in some contexts
Dynamic control More fine-tuned control Less fine-tuned control—can be emphasized and
considered a virtue in some contexts
Timbre Wide diversity of timbre Even wider diversity of timbre
Multiphonics Depending on singer, a broad topology available Especially for the novice, multiphonics are more
accessible
Vocal fry Harder to produce, less resonant Easier to produce, more resonant
Breathy tones Available, though not naturally occurring except Naturally occurring
in pathology
“Normal” tones Yes Yes but not as proficient
Intensity Wide dynamic range Smaller dynamic range than egressive
Duration Greater Lesser
Recover/rest Efficient until overtaxed Can require longer periods than egressive to
recover prephonatory posture during ingressive
Hydration Unless extreme air volume is used, vocal folds Even with healthy singers at moderate air volume,
will remain hydrated if singer is healthy ingressive phonation has the potential to
dehydrate relatively quickly
Findings from DeBoer 2012
Rate of airflow Lower than ingressive Higher than egressive
Pitch Lower than ingressive Higher than egressive
Closing phase, glottal cycle Longer closed phase than ingressive Shorter closed phase than egressive
Vibratory cycle Closing inferior to superior Closing reversed—superior to inferior
Larynx position Higher than ingressive Lower than egressive
Vocal folds Vocal folds shorter and thicker Vocal folds lengthened and thinner
Comprehension Articulation ordinary Comprehension of consonants lower
Subglottal pressure and flow At higher pitches, similar to ingressive At higher pitches, similar to egressive
At lower pitches, lower pressure and flow At lower pitches, higher pressure and flow
Vibrato Occurs naturally Not naturally occurring
Loudness Loudness and resonance higher Loudness and resonance diminished
Figure 1.3. Geyer: Sedna. Courtesy of L. Geyer.
Track 1.3, Geyer: Sedna
Figure 1.4. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holm-

qvist.
6 Chapter One
Figure 1.5. Einbond: Without Words.
LUNGED/UNLUNGED
Egressive airflow may be either lunged (pulmonic) or unlunged (nonpulmonic). A lunged airflow refers to air that is sent
from the lungs, while an unlunged airflow uses the static air above the closed vocal folds. This classification is indebted
to Trevor Wishart in his book On Sonic Art (1983), where he suggests a three-part division of lunged, half-lunged (air-
flow above the closed glottis), and unlunged (oral cavity) air (see figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6. Simple tube representations of lunged and un-

lunged airflow.
Figure 1.7 decouples airflow direction from airflow origins (lunged vs. unlunged) using an unvoiced /t/. In this ex-
cerpt, airflow direction is indicated by the arrows (to the left equals ingressive; to the right equals egressive), while
origins are indicated above or below the center horizontal line.
Figure 1.7. Excerpt featuring lunged/unlunged and change of airflow.
Another difference between lunged and unlunged airflow is that lunged airflow expels air at a far greater volume and
force than unlunged sound. In language, unlunged sounds include mouth sounds (such as /t/) or those farther back in the
throat (such as /x/). Of course, unlunged sounds can be ejected at a greater velocity than habitually produced consonants
Airflow 7
by using (1) pharyngeal contraction and expansion, (2) tongue movement, or (3) cheek expansion and contraction (with
or without bilabial constriction or some external device, e.g., the hand). Figure 1.8 asks the singer to produce unlunged
sounds at different rates of velocity with tongue and pharyngeal movement and constriction.
Figure 1.8. Contrast of lunged and unlunged airflow with a variety of articulation.
Track 1.4, Manipulation of Articulation That Results in Different Rates of Unlunged Airflow Velocity
Track 1.5, Contrast of Lunged and Unlunged Airflow with Changing Articulation
Dehaan in Three Études for Solo Voice asks the singer to transition between unlunged and lunged airflow during a
sequence in which an unvoiced /ti/ transitions to an unvoiced /ta/ (see figure 1.9).
Figure 1.9. Dehaan: Three Études for Solo Voice. Courtesy of D. Dehaan.
Similarly, Holmqvist in Liquid Structures frames the distinctions between lunged and unlunged origins with unvoiced
utterances. Note how the composer indicates the relative perceptual height of the different vowels by their vertical place-
ment on the stave (see figure 1.10).
Figure 1.10. Holmqvist: Liquid Struc-

tures. Courtesy of K. Holmqvist.
Dharmoo in Vaai Irandu asks the singer to simultaneously produce both lunged (upper line) and unlunged (lower line)
material. The upper line sings the majority of sustained sounds using lunged consonants and vowels, while the lower line
produces mostly unlunged consonants superimposed upon them (see figure 1.11).
8 Chapter One
Figure 1.11. Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu. Courtesy of G. Dharmoo.
Track 1.6, Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu
AIR PROMINENT
Air can be an interesting sound source and not only an origin of kinetic energy to support vocal fold acoustic distur-
bance. Figure 1.12 asks the singer to transition from an ordinary to a breathy tone. This excerpt indicates a duration of
four pulses but practically depends on how much air is expelled during the breathy phase, as well as how much time the
singer has to prepare for this gesture. A plausible sequence may involve increasing durations from three to ten seconds.
Figure 1.12. Ordinary to breathy sound.
Figure 1.13 asks the singer to increase then decrease the perceptible amount of air using an /s/ sibilant that is filtered
by a series of unvoiced vowels produced at the lips. Here we wish to develop the dynamic capability of unvoiced sounds.
Try to have a consistent volume timbre during the increase and decrease of airflow.
Figure 1.13. Crescendo/decrescendo on fricatives.
In addition to noisy sonorities, unvoiced sounds can also alter their relative height to produce, essentially, melodies.
The next example shows an example of unvoiced melodies that are determined by lip and tongue movements and air
volume. In this passage, the lips stay static in the /u/ position while the tongue moves between the five cardinal vowels
to produce first an ascending melody, then an ascending leapfrog melody, followed by a descending leapfrog melody.
Physically, the melody is associated with the frequency of the dominant resonant peak of the unvoiced vowels, which
is normally F2. In this example, the lips are tuned to /u/ in order to emphasize the second formant. As in chapter 5, this
articulatory strategy is beneficial for producing reinforced harmonics (see figure 1.14).
Airflow 9
Figure 1.14. Unvoiced melodies controlled via oral cavity aperture and tongue movement.
Unvoiced melodies can be prominent and able to differentiate height quite well. In my composition Keltainen huone
(Yellow Room) written for children’s choir, the voices explore predominantly unvoiced melodies. Note in this excerpt
how the voices are asked to produce both rapidly articulated stops as well as sustained sibilants (see figure 1.15).
Figure 1.15. Edgerton: Keltainen huone. Courtesy of Babel Scores.
Track 1.7, Edgerton: Keltainen huone
Figure 1.16 retains a static position at the lips and inside the mouth, here focusing on dynamic changes of airflow.
In this case, an unchanging and unvoiced palato-alveolar fricative /ʃ/ is filtered by a bilabial /u/, while airflow is scaled
between pp (very low) and ff (very high).
10 Chapter One
Figure 1.16. Dynamic flexibility of unvoiced production.
Figure 1.17 asks the singer to decouple intensity of airflow from intensity of vocal fold pitch. This is a difficult ma-
neuver but possible, as the muscles of the larynx are able to asymmetrically vary both the rate and intensity of airflow
and voicing. The result is that the mixture of pitch to air can be controlled and repeated by performers. This example
shows how both air and pitch mixture may use separate intensity markings.
Figure 1.17. Changing ratios of breath-to-air mixture.
Finally, in Vocalize, Trevor Wishart explores the voice as an instrument. In this example, he uses unvoiced sounds to
focus on this unique vision and not simply as markers to identify phonemic or textual boundaries.
Track 1.8, Wishart: Vocalize
SUPPORT MECHANISM TO AFFECT SOUND IN EXTRA-NORMAL WAYS
The abdomen and diaphragm, along with other elements of the support system, have the potential to render a normal sound
into an extra-normal sound. In the following example by Green, the singer is tasked with a large diaphragmatic change
in order to produce a hollow sound with the belly in (see figure 1.18). Other uses of the support mechanism bifurcating a
normal tone to an extra-normal tone may be seen in exercises 2, 4, and 7 in the last section labeled “Support Pedagogy.”
Figure 1.18. Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.
Track 1.9, Green: B A 4

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all say it; they say it every day, and it is the sole detail
upon which they all agree. There is some approach to agreement
upon another point: that there will be no revolution. … Nearly
every day some one explains to me that a revolution would not
succeed here. 'It couldn't, you know. Broadly speaking, all
the nations in the empire hate the government—but they all
hate each other too, and with devoted and enthusiastic
bitterness; no two of them can combine; the nation that rises
must rise alone; then the others would joyfully join the
government against her, and she would have just a fly's chance
against a combination of spiders. This government is entirely
independent. It can go its own road, and do as it pleases; it
has nothing to fear. In countries like England and America,
where there is one tongue and the public interests are common,
the government must take account of public opinion; but in
Austria-Hungary there are nineteen public opinions—one for
each state. No—two or three for each state, since there are
two or three nationalities in each. A government cannot
satisfy all these public opinions; it can only go through the
motions of trying. This government does that. It goes through
the motions, and they do not succeed; but that does not worry
the government much.' …
"The recent troubles have grown out of Count Badeni's

necessities. He could not carry on his government without a
majority vote in the House at his back, and in order to secure
it he had to make a trade of some sort. He made it with the
Czechs—the Bohemians. The terms were not easy for him: he must
pass a bill making the Czech tongue the official language in
Bohemia in place of the German. This created a storm. All the
Germans in Austria' were incensed. In numbers they form but a
fourth part of the empire's population, but they urge that the
country's public business should be conducted in one common
tongue, and that tongue a world language—which German is.
However, Badeni secured his majority. The German element was
apparently become helpless. The Czech deputies were exultant.
Then the music began. Badeni's voyage, instead of being
smooth, was disappointingly rough from the start. The
government must get the 'Ausgleich' through. It must not fail.
Badeni's majority was ready to carry it through; but the
minority was determined to obstruct it and delay it until the
obnoxious Czech-language measure should be shelved.
"The 'Ausgleich' is an Adjustment, Arrangement, Settlement,

which holds Austria and Hungary together [see above; also, in
volume 1, AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867]. It dates from 1867, and
has to be renewed every ten years. It establishes the share
which Hungary must pay toward the expenses of the imperial
government. Hungary is a kingdom (the Emperor of Austria is
its King), and has its own parliament and governmental
machinery. But it has no foreign office, and it has no army—at
least its army is a part of the imperial army, is paid out of
the imperial treasury, and is under the control of the
imperial war office. The ten-year rearrangement was due a year
ago, but failed to connect. At least completely. A year's
compromise was arranged. A new arrangement must be effected
before the last day of this year. Otherwise the two countries
become separate entities. The Emperor would still be King of
Hungary—that is, King of an independent foreign country. There
would be Hungarian custom-houses on the Austrian frontier, and
there would be a Hungarian army and a Hungarian foreign
office. Both countries would be weakened by this, both would
suffer damage. The Opposition in the House, although in the
minority, had a good weapon to fight with in the pending
'Ausgleich.' If it could delay the 'Ausgleich' a few weeks,
the government would doubtless have to withdraw the hated
language bill or lose Hungary.
"The Opposition began its fight. Its arms were the Rules of
the House. It was soon manifest that by applying these Rules
ingeniously, it could make the majority helpless, and keep it
so as long as it pleased. It could shut off business every now
and then with a motion to adjourn. It could require the ayes
and noes on the motion, and use up thirty minutes on that
detail. It could call for the reading and verification of the
minutes of the preceding meeting, and use up half a day in
that way.
{40}
It could require that several of its members be entered upon
the list of permitted speakers previously to the opening of a
sitting; and as there is no time limit, further delays could
thus be accomplished. These were all lawful weapons, and the
men of the Opposition (technically called the Left) were
within their rights in using them. They used them to such dire
purpose that all parliamentary business was paralyzed. The
Right (the government side) could accomplish nothing. Then it
had a saving idea. This idea was a curious one. It was to have
the President and the Vice-Presidents of the parliament
trample the Rules under foot upon occasion! …
"And now took place that memorable sitting of the House which
broke two records. It lasted the best part of two days and a
night, surpassing by half an hour the longest sitting known to
the world's previous parliamentary history, and breaking the
long-speech record with Dr. Lecher's twelve-hour effort, the
longest flow of unbroken talk that ever came out of one mouth
since the world began. At 8.45, on the evening of the 28th of
October, when the House had been sitting a few minutes short
of ten hours, Dr. Lecher was granted the floor. … Then burst
out such another wild and frantic and deafening clamor as has
not been heard on this planet since the last time the
Comanches surprised a white settlement at midnight. Yells from
the Left, counter-yells from the Right, explosions of yells
from all sides at once, and all the air sawed and pawed and
clawed and cloven by a writhing confusion of gesturing arms
and hands. Out of the midst of this thunder and turmoil and
tempest rose Dr. Lecher, serene and collected, and the
providential length of him enabled his head to show out above
it. He began his twelve-hour speech. At any rate, his lips
could be seen to move, and that was evidence. On high sat the
President imploring order, with his long hands put together as
in prayer, and his lips visibly but not hearably speaking. At
intervals he grasped his bell and swung it up and down with
vigor, adding its keen clamor to the storm weltering there
below. Dr. Lecher went on with his pantomime speech,
contented, untroubled. … One of the interrupters who made
himself heard was a young fellow of slight build and neat
dress, who stood a little apart from the solid crowd and
leaned negligently, with folded arms and feet crossed, against
a desk. Trim and handsome; strong face and thin features;
black hair roughed up; parsimonious mustache; resonant great
voice, of good tone and pitch. It is Wolf, capable and
hospitable with sword and pistol. … Out of him came early this
thundering peal, audible above the storm:
"'I demand the floor. I wish to offer a motion.'
"In the sudden lull which followed, the President answered,

'Dr. Lecher has the floor.'
"Wolf. 'I move the close of the sitting!'
"President. 'Representative Lecher has the floor.'

[Stormy outburst from the Left—that is, the Opposition.]
"Wolf. 'I demand the floor for the introduction of a

formal motion. [Pause.] Mr. President, are you going to grant
it, or not? [Crash of approval from the Left.] I will keep on
demanding the floor till I get it.'
"President. 'I call Representative Wolf to order. Dr.

Lecher has the floor.' …
"'Which was true; and he was speaking, too, calmly, earnestly,

and argumentatively; and the official stenographers had left
their places and were at his elbows taking down his words, he
leaning and orating into their ears—a most curious and
interesting scene. … At this point a new and most effective
noisemaker was pressed into service. Each desk has an
extension, consisting of a removable board eighteen inches
long, six wide, and a half-inch thick. A member pulled one of
these out and began to belabor the top of his desk with it.
Instantly other members followed suit, and perhaps you can
imagine the result. Of all conceivable rackets it is the most
ear-splitting, intolerable, and altogether fiendish. … Wolf
went on with his noise and with his demands that he be granted
the floor, resting his board at intervals to discharge
criticisms and epithets at the Chair. … By-and-by he struck
the idea of beating out a tune with his board. Later he
decided to stop asking for the floor, and to confer it upon
himself. And so he and Dr. Lecher now spoke at the same time,
and mingled their speeches with the other noises, and nobody
heard either of them. Wolf rested himself now and then from
speech-making by reading, in his clarion voice, from a
pamphlet.
"I will explain that Dr. Lecher was not making a twelve-hour
speech for pastime, but for an important purpose. It was the
government's intention to push the 'Ausgleich' through its
preliminary stages in this one sitting (for which it was the
Order of the Day), and then by vote refer it to a select
committee. It was the Majority's scheme—as charged by the
Opposition—to drown debate upon the bill by pure noise—drown
it out and stop it. The debate being thus ended, the vote upon
the reference would follow—with victory for the government.
But into the government's calculations had not entered the
possibility of a single-barrelled speech which should occupy
the entire time-limit of the sitting, and also get itself
delivered in spite of all the noise. … In the English House an
obstructionist has held the floor with Bible-readings and
other outside matters; but Dr. Lecher could not have that
restful and recuperative privilege—he must confine himself
strictly to the subject before the House. More than once, when
the President could not hear him because of the general
tumult, he sent persons to listen and report as to whether the
orator was speaking to the subject or not.
"The subject was a peculiarly difficult one, and it would have

troubled any other deputy to stick to it three hours without
exhausting his ammunition, because it required a vast and
intimate knowledge—detailed and particularized knowledge—of
the commercial, railroading, financial, and international
banking relations existing between two great sovereignties,
Hungary and the Empire. But Dr. Lecher is President of the
Board of Trade of his city of Brünn, and was master of the
situation. … He went steadily on with his speech; and always
it was strong, virile, felicitous, and to the point. He was
earning applause, and this enabled his party to turn that fact
to account. Now and then they applauded him a couple of
minutes on a stretch, and during that time he could stop
speaking and rest his voice without having the floor taken
from him. …
{41}
"The Minority staid loyally by their champion. Some

distinguished deputies of the Majority staid by him too,
compelled thereto by admiration of his great performance. When
a man has been speaking eight hours, is it conceivable that he
can still be interesting, still fascinating? When Dr. Lecher had
been speaking eight hours he was still compactly surrounded by
friends who would not leave him and by foes (of all parties)
who could not; and all hung enchanted and wondering upon his
words, and all testified their admiration with constant and
cordial outbursts of applause. Surely this was a triumph
without precedent in history. …
"In consequence of Dr. Lecher's twelve-hour speech and the

other obstructions furnished by the Minority, the famous
thirty-three-hour sitting of the House accomplished nothing. …
Parliament was adjourned for a week—to let the members cool
off, perhaps—a sacrifice of precious time, for but two months
remained in which to carry the all-important 'Ausgleich' to a
consummation. …
"During the whole of November things went from bad to worse.

The all-important 'Ausgleich' remained hard aground, and could
not be sparred off. Badeni's government could not withdraw the
Language Ordinance and keep its majority, and the Opposition
could not be placated on easier terms. One night, while the
customary pandemonium was crashing and thundering along at its
best, a fight broke out. … On Thanksgiving day the sitting was
a history-making one. On that day the harried, bedeviled and
despairing government went insane. In order to free itself
from the thraldom of the Opposition it committed this
curiously juvenile crime: it moved an important change of the
Rules of the House, forbade debate upon the motion, put it to
a stand-up vote instead of ayes and noes, and then gravely
claimed that it had been adopted. … The House was already
standing up; had been standing for an hour; and before a third
of it had found out what the President had been saying, he had
proclaimed the adoption of the motion! And only a few heard
that. In fact, when that House is legislating you can't tell
it from artillery-practice. You will realize what a happy idea
it was to sidetrack the lawful ayes and noes and substitute a
stand-up vote by this fact: that a little later, when a
deputation of deputies waited upon the President and asked him
if he was actually willing to claim that that measure had been
passed, he answered, 'Yes—and unanimously.' …
"The 'Lex Falkenhayn,' thus strangely born, gave the President

power to suspend for three days any deputy who should continue
to be disorderly after being called to order twice, and it
also placed at his disposal such force as might be necessary
to make the suspension effective. So the House had a
sergeant-at-arms at last, and a more formidable one, as to
power, than any other legislature in Christendom had ever
possessed. The Lex Falkenhayn also gave the House itself
authority to suspend members for thirty days. On these terms
the 'Ausgleich' could be put through in an hour—apparently.
The Opposition would have to sit meek and quiet, and stop
obstructing, or be turned into the street, deputy after
deputy, leaving the Majority an unvexed field for its work.
"Certainly the thing looked well. … [But next day, when the
President attempted to open the session, a band of the
Socialist members made a sudden charge upon him, drove him and
the Vice President from the House, took possession of the
tribune, and brought even the semblance of legislative
proceedings to an end. Then a body of sixty policemen was
brought in to clear the House.] Some of the results of this
wild freak followed instantly. The Badeni government came down
with a crash; there was a popular outbreak or two in Vienna;
there were three or four days of furious rioting in Prague,
followed by the establishing there of martial law; the Jews
and Germans were harried and plundered, and their houses
destroyed; in other Bohemian towns there was rioting—in some
cases the Germans being the rioters, in others the Czechs—and
in all cases the Jew had to roast, no matter which side he was
on. We are well along in December now; the new
Minister-President has not been able to patch up a peace among
the warring factions of the parliament, therefore there is no
use in calling it together again for the present; public
opinion believes that parliamentary government and the
Constitution are actually threatened with extinction, and that
the permanency of the monarchy itself is a not absolutely
certain thing!
"Yes, the Lex Falkenhayn was a great invention, and did what
was claimed for it—it got the government out of the
frying-pan."
S. L. Clemens (Mark Twain),

Stirring Times in Austria
(Harper's Magazine, March, 1898).
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1897 (December).
Imperial action.
On the last day of the year the Emperor closed the sittings of
the Austrian Reichsrath by proclamation and issued a rescript
continuing the "Ausgleich" provisionally for six months.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1898.
Prolongation of factious disorders.
Paralysis of constitutional government.
Though scenes in the Austrian Chamber were not quite so

violent, perhaps, as they had become near the close of 1897,
the state of factious disorder continued much the same
throughout the year, and legislation was completely stopped.
The work of government could be carried on only by imperial
decrees. The ministry of Baron von Gautsch, which had
succeeded that of Count Badeni, attempted a compromise on the
language question in Bohemia by dividing the country into
three districts, according to the distribution of the several
races, in one of which German was to be the official tongue,
in another Czech, while both languages were to be used in the
third. But the Germans of the empire would accept no such
compromise. In March, Baron von Gautsch retired, and Count
Thun Hohenstein formed a Ministry made up to represent the
principal factions in the Reichsrath; but, the scheme brought
no peace. Nor did appeals by Count Thun, "in the name of
Austria," to the patriotism and the reason of all parties, to
suspend their warfare long enough for a little of the
necessary work of the state to be done, have any effect. The
turbulence in the legislature infected the whole community,
and especially, it would seem, the students in the schools,
whose disorder caused many lectures to be stopped. In Hungary,
too, there was an increase of violence in political agitation.
A party, led by the son of Louis Kossuth, struggled to improve
what seemed to be an opportunity for breaking the political
union of Hungary with Austria, and realizing the old ambition
for an independent Hungarian state.
{42}
The ministry of Baron Banffy had this party against him, as
well as that of the clericals, who resented the civil marriage
laws, and legislation came to a deadlock nearly as complete in
the Hungarian as in the Austrian Parliament. There, as well as
in Austria, the extension of the Ausgleich, provisionally for
another year, had to be imposed by imperial decree.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1898 (April).

Withdrawal from the blockade of Crete and
the "Concert of Europe."
See (in this volume)

TURKEY: A. D. 1897-1899.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1898 (June).

The Sugar Conference at Brussels.

SUGAR BOUNTIES.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1898 (September).

Assassination of the Empress.
Jubilee of the Emperor's reign.
On the 10th of September, Elizabeth, Empress of Austria and

Queen of Hungary, was assassinated at Geneva by an Italian
anarchist, named Luigi Luccheni, who stabbed her with a small
stiletto, exceedingly thin and narrow in the blade. The
murderer rushed upon her and struck her, as she was walking,
with a single attendant, on the quay, towards a lake steamer
on which she intended to travel to Montreux. She fell, but
arose, with some assistance, and walked forward to the
steamer, evidently unaware that she had suffered worse than a
blow. On the steamer, however, she lost consciousness, and
then, for the first time, the wound was discovered. It had
been made by so fine a weapon that it showed little external
sign, and it is probable that the Empress felt little pain.
She lived nearly half an hour after the blow was struck. The
assassin attempted to escape, but was caught. As Swiss law
forbids capital punishment, he could be only condemned to
solitary confinement for life. This terrible tragedy came soon
after the festivities in Austria which had celebrated the
jubilee year of the Emperor Francis Joseph's reign. The
Emperor's marriage had been one of love: he had suffered many
afflictions in his later life; the state of his realm was such
as could hardly be contemplated without despair; men wondered
if he could bear this crowning sorrow and live. But he had the
undoubted affection of his subjects, much as they troubled him
with their miserably factious quarrels, and that consciousness
seems to have been his one support.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1899-1900.
Continued obstruction by the German parties in Austria.
Extensive secession of German Catholics from their
Church, and its significance.
Withdrawal of the Bohemian language decrees.
Obstruction taken up by the Czechs.
During most of the year the German parties in the Austrian

Reichsrath continued to make legislation impossible by
disorderly obstruction, with the avowed purpose of compelling
the government to withdraw the language decrees in Bohemia. A
still more significant demonstration of German feeling and
policy appeared, in a wide-spread and organized movement to
detach German Roman Catholics from their church, partly, it
would seem, as a proceeding of hostility to the Clerical
party, and partly as a means of recommending the Germans of
the Austrian states to the sympathy of the German Empire, and
smoothing the approach to an ultimate union of some of those
states with the Germanic federation. The agitation against the
Catholic Church is called "Los von Rom," and is said to have
had remarkable results. "Those acquainted with the situation
in Austria," says a writer in the "Quarterly Review," "do not
wonder that in various parts of the Empire there is a marked
tendency among the German Catholics to join Christian
communions separated from Rome. Many thousand Roman Catholics
have recently renounced their allegiance to the Holy See.
Further secessions are announced as about to take place. The
movement is especially strong in great centres like Eger,
Asch, and Saatz, but has made itself felt also in Carinthia,
and even in coast districts. This is a grave political fact,
for it is a marked indication of serious discontent, and a
sure sign that some arrangement under which certain districts
of Austria might be joined to Germany would not be unwelcome
to a section of the people."
Quarterly Review,
January, 1899.
In September the Austrian Ministry of Count Thun resigned, and

was succeeded by one formed under Count Clary-Aldingen. The
new premier withdrew the language decrees, which quieted the
German obstructionists, but provoked the Czechs to take up the
same rôle. Count Clary-Aldingen resigned in December, and a
provisional Ministry was formed under Dr. Wettek, which lasted
only until the 10th of January, 1900, when a new Cabinet was
formed by Dr. von Körber. In Hungary, Baron Banffy was driven
from power in February, 1899, by a state of things in the
Hungarian Parliament much like that in the Austrian. M.
Koloman Szell, who succeeded him, effected a compromise with
the opposition which enabled him to carry a measure extending
the Ausgleich to 1907. This brought one serious difficulty of
the situation to an end.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1899-1901.
Attitude towards impending revolt in Macedonia.

TURKEY: A. D. 1899-1901;
and BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1900.
Military and naval expenditure.

WAR BUDGETS.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1900 (February).

Attempted pacification of German and Czech parties by a
Conciliation Board.
"On Monday last [February 5] the German and Czech Conciliation

Board met for the first time in Vienna, under the presidency of
the Austrian Premier, Dr. von Körber, and conferred for two
hours. … Dr. von Körber is at the head of what may be called a
'business' Ministry, composed largely of those who had filled
subordinate offices in previous Ministries. It was hoped,
perhaps, that, since the leading politicians with a political
'past' could apparently do nothing to bring about a
settlement, men with no past, but with a capacity for
business, and in no way committed on the racial question,
might do better in effecting a working arrangement. The
appointment of this Conciliation Board seemed a promising way
of attempting such a settlement. Dr. von Körber opened
Monday's proceedings with a strong appeal to both sides,
saying: 'Gentlemen, the Empire looks to you to restore its
happiness and tranquillity.' It cannot be said that the Empire
is likely to find its wishes fulfilled, for when the Board came
down to hard business, the old troubles instantly revealed
themselves.
{43}
The Premier recommended a committee for Bohemia of twenty-two
members, and one for Moravia of fifteen members, the two
sitting in joint session in certain cases. Dr. Engel then set
forth the historical claims of the Czechs, which immediately
called forth a demand from Dr. Funke, of the German party,
that German should be declared the official language
throughout Austria. Each speaker seems to have been supported
by his own party, and so no progress was made, and matters
remain in 'statu quo ante.' The singularly deficient
constitution of this Board makes against success, for it seems
that the German Nationalists and Anti-Semites have only one
delegate apiece, the Social Democrats were not invited at all,
while the extreme Germans and extreme Czechs, apparently
regarding the Board as a farce, declined to nominate delegates
to its sittings. … There is unhappily little reason for
believing that the Board of Conciliation will effect what the
Emperor himself has failed to accomplish."
Spectator (London),
February 10, 1900.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1900 (June-December).

Co-operation with the Powers in China.

CHINA.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1900 (September-December).

Warnings by the Emperor.
Clerical interference in politics.
The attitude of Hungary.
Economic decline of Austria.
Pessimistic views in Vienna.
The pending elections.
The Vienna correspondence of the "London Times" seems to be

the best source of information concerning the critical
conditions that are prevailing in the composite Empire, as the
Nineteenth Century closes, and the events by which those
conditions are from time to time revealed. The writer, whose
reports we shall quote, is evidently well placed for
observation, and well prepared for understanding what he sees.
In a dispatch of September 14, he notes the significance of a

reprimand which the Emperor had caused to be administered to
the Archbishop of Sarajevo, for interference in political
affairs:
"The chief of the Emperor's Cabinet called the Archbishop's

attention to newspaper reports of a speech made by him at the
close of the Catholic Congress recently held at Agram, in
which he was represented to have expressed the hope that
Bosnia would be incorporated with Croatia at the earliest
possible date. As that question was a purely political one and
foreign to the sacred vocation of the Archbishop, and as its
solution fell exclusively within the jurisdiction of certain
lay factors, and more especially within the Sovereign
prerogatives of his Majesty, the chief of the Cabinet was
instructed, in case the reports were correct, to communicate
to his Grace the serious warning and firm expectation of the
Emperor that his Grace would abstain in future, both in word
and deed, from interference in political questions. As was to
be expected, this sharp reprimand to an ecclesiastic of such
high position and repute has made a great sensation. It meets
with warm approval from the entire Hungarian Press. … There
is, on the other hand, bitter mortification in Clerical
circles. It is evidently felt that the warning to abstain from
politics may be of more than mere local and individual
significance."
In another dispatch on the same day the correspondent reported

a still more significant imperial utterance, this time from
the Emperor's own lips: "Yesterday the Emperor, who is
attending the manœuvres in Galicia, received the Polish
Parliamentary Deputation and, addressing their president,
informed him that the dissolution of the Reichsrath and the
coming elections were the last constitutional means which
would be employed by his Government. That implies that, if the
new Parliament will not work, the Constitution will be
suspended. … The dissolution of the Reichsrath takes place in
opposition to the wish of the moderate element of all parties,
who did their utmost to dissuade the Prime Minister from
taking such a drastic measure. The opinion of those who did
not approve of dissolution is that in the absence of a new
suffrage the next Parliament will prove more unruly than the
last. … Yesterday's Imperial warning requires no comment.
It means no more than it says—namely, an eventual suspension
of the Constitution. It does not point to any alternative
regime in case the Parliamentary system should break down.
Indeed, there is nothing to show that any such alternative has
been under the consideration of the Emperor and his Ministers. No
less an authority than Dr. Lueger, the Anti-Semitic
burgomaster of Vienna, has just expressed his opinion on the
subject to a local journalist in the following words:
'I am firmly convinced that nobody, not a single man in

Austria, including all statesmen and Parliamentary
politicians, has the faintest idea of how the situation will
develop.'"
A few days later (September 25) the "Times" correspondence

summarized an important speech by the Hungarian statesman,
Count Apponyi, to his constituents, in which the same forecast
of a political catastrophe in Austria was intimated. Count
Apponyi,—"after dwelling upon the importance of maintaining
the Ausgleich, remarked that affairs in Austria might take a
turn which would render its revision indispensable owing
either to a complete suspension of the constitutional system
in Austria, the maintenance of which was one of the conditions
of the arrangement of 1867, or such modifications thereof as
would make the existing form of union between the two
countries technically untenable or politically questionable.
In either case the revision could only confirm the
independence of Hungary. But even then Count Apponyi believed
that by fallowing the traditions of Francis Deák it would be
possible to harmonize the necessary revision with the
fundamental principles of the Dual Monarchy. It would,
however, be a great mistake to raise that question unless
forced to do so by circumstances. Count Apponyi went on to say
that the importance of Hungary, not only in the Monarchy but
throughout the civilized world, was enormously increased by
the fact that it secured the maintenance of Austria-Hungary,
threatened by the destructive influence of the Austrian chaos,
and thus constituted one of the principal guarantees of
European tranquillity. The peace-abiding nations recognized
that this service to the dynasty, the Monarchy, and the
European State system was only possible while the
constitutional independence and national unity of Hungary was
maintained. It was clear to every unprejudiced mind that
Hungarian national independence and unity was the backbone of
the Dual Monarchy and one of the most important guarantees of
European peace. But the imposing position attained by Hungary
through the European sanction of her national ideal would be
imperilled if they were of their own initiative to raise the
question of the union of the two countries and thus convert
the Austrian crisis into one affecting the whole Monarchy."
{44}
An article in the "Neue Freie Presse," of Vienna, on the

hostility of the Vatican to Austria and Hungary was partially
communicated in a despatch of October 11. The Vienna journal
ascribes this hostility in part to resentment engendered by
the alliance of Catholic Austria with Italy, and in part to
the Hungarian ecclesiastical laws.
See above: A. D. 1894-1895.

It remarked: "Never has clericalism been so influential in the
legislation and administration of this Empire. The most
powerful party is the one that takes its 'mot d'ordre' from
the Papal Nunciature. It guides the feudal nobility, it is the
thorn in the flesh of the German population, it has provoked a
20 years' reaction in Austria, and, unhindered and protected,
it scatters in Hungary that seed which has thriven so well in
this half of the Monarchy that nothing is done in Austria
without first considering what will be said about it in Rome."
A day or two later some evidence of a growing resentment in
Austria at the interference of the clergy in politics was
adduced: "Thus the Czech organ, inspired by the well-known
leader of the party, Dr. Stransky, states that a deputation of
tradespeople called on the editor and expressed great
indignation at the unprecedented manner in which the priests
were joining in electoral agitation. They added that they
'could no longer remain members of a Church whose clergy took
advantage of religious sentiment for political purposes.' The
Peasants' Electoral Association for Upper Austria has just
issued a manifesto in which the following occurs:—'We have for
more than 20 years invariably elected the candidates proposed by
the Clerical party. What has been done during that long period
for us peasants and small tradespeople? What have the Clerical
party and the Clerical members of Parliament done for us? How
have they rewarded our long fidelity? By treason. … We have
been imposed upon long enough. It is due to our self-respect
and honour to emancipate ourselves thoroughly from the
mamelukes put forward by the Clerical wirepullers. We must
show that we can get on without Clerical leadingstrings.'"
On the 26th of October the writer summarized a report that day

published by the Vienna Stock Exchange Committee, as
furnishing "fresh evidence of the disastrous effects of the
prolonged internal political crisis." "The report begins by
stating that the Vienna Stock Exchange, formerly the leading
and most important one in Europe, and which, in consequence of
the geographical situation of the town, was called upon to be
the centre of financial operations with the Near East, has for
years past been steadily declining. Every year the number of
those frequenting the Bourse diminishes, and there has been an
annual decrease in the amount of capital that has changed
hands. Of late years, and particularly within the last few
months, this has assumed such dimensions that it has become an
imperative duty for the competent authorities to investigate the
causes of the evil and to seek a remedy. It is recognized that
the deplorable domestic situation has largely contributed to
the decline of the Bourse. The deadlock in the Legislative
Assembly has occasioned stagnation in industry and commerce,
whereas outside the Monarchy there has been an unprecedented
development of trade. Further prejudice has been caused by
what is called in the report the anti-capitalist tendencies,
which represent all gains and profits to be ill-gotten. The
profession of merchant has been held up by unprincipled
demagogues as disreputable. The authorities are reproached
with having encouraged those tendencies by undue tolerance."
Early in November, the Vienna letters began accounts of the

electioneering campaign then opening, though elections for the
new House were not to take place until the following January:
"Every day," wrote the correspondent, "brings its contingent
of electoral manifestos, and all parties have already had
their say. Unfortunately, nothing could be less edifying. It
may be said of them all that they have profited little by
experience, and it is vain to search for any indication of a
conciliatory disposition among Czechs or Germans, Liberals or
Clericals. One and all are as uncompromising as ever, and
neither the leaders nor the rank and file are prepared to
reckon with the real exigencies of the situation, even to save
their own Parliamentary existence. The feudal nobility, who
stand aloof from Parliamentary strife, have alone lost nothing
of their position and influence. They disdainfully refuse to
take either the requirements of the State or the legitimate
wishes of the Crown into account. They are preparing in
alliance with Ultramontanism to hold their own against the
coming storm. Their action in the pending electrical campaign
is of an occult nature; their proceedings are seldom reported
by the newspapers, and when they meet it is by groups and
privately.
"The political speeches which have hitherto been delivered in

various parts of the country are bewildering. The Germans are
split up into several fractions, and even on the other side
there have been separate manifestos from the Young Czechs and
also from the Old Czechs, who have long ceased to play a part
in the Reichsrath. It is confusion worse confounded, in fact
complete chaos. The prospect of a rallying of the
heterogeneous and mutually antagonistic groups on the basis of
resistance to Hungarian exigencies, though possible, is not
yet at hand, whatever the future may reserve. … The words of
warning that came from the Crown as to this being the last
attempt that would be made to rule by constitutional methods
has clearly failed to produce that impression among
Parliamentary politicians which might justly have been
anticipated. Not even the most experienced and best informed
among the former members of the Reichsrath are disposed to
make any prophecy as to what will follow the dissolution of
the next Chamber."
{45}
In the following month, a significant speech in the Reichsrath

at Buda-Pesth, by the very able Hungarian Prime Minister, M.
Szell, WIIS reported. "He foreshadowed the possibility of a
situation in which Austria would not be able to fulfil the
conditions prescribed in the Ausgleich Act of 1867 with regard
to the manner of dealing with the affairs common to both halves
of the Monarchy. He himself had, however, made up his mind on
the subject, and was convinced that even in those
circumstances the Hungarians would by means of provisional
measures regulate the common affairs and interests of the two

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The 21st Century Voice Contemporary

and Traditional Extra Normal Voice 2nd

Harmony and Voice Leading 5th Edition Edward Aldwell

Black Dance a Contemporary Voice 1st Edition Pawlet

Voice, Slavery, and Race in Seventeenth-Century

The voice book caring for protecting and improving your

Voice Ergonomics 1st Edition

The Contemporary Literature Music Relationship

The Uncaged Voice 1st Edition Keith Leckie

Music in Contemporary Indian Film Memory Voice Identity

Michael Edward Edgerton

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB

Copyright © 2015 by Michael Edward Edgerton

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States of America

PART II: SOURCE

PART III: RESONANCE/ARTICULATION

PART IV: HEIGHTENED POTENTIALS

Appendix A: Voice Science 149

1.1 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

2.1 Kourliandski: Voice-Off

5.28 Edgerton: Keltainen huone

6.17 Holmqvist: Liquid Structures

7.47 Nasal air frication with bilabial articulation

A.2 Division of lower trachea into left and right bronchi

1.1 Egressive versus Ingressive Airflow 5

Track 1.1 Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

Track 3.3 Edgerton: Cataphora

Track 7.10 Moss + Minton: Helden Tenors

Baldwin, Michael. Various Terrains. Self-published manuscript, 2011.

Homler, Anna. Signals. Performed by Anna Homler, Intakt.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Anhalt, I. Alternative Voices. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984.

Figure 1.1. Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady. Courtesy of

Track 1.1, Brooks: Madrigals, No. 4, Nellie Was a Lady

Track 1.2, Edgerton: The Hidden Thunder of Screaming Souls

Figure 1.3. Geyer: Sedna. Courtesy of L. Geyer.

Track 1.3, Geyer: Sedna

Figure 1.4. Holmqvist: Liquid Structures. Courtesy of K. Holm-

Figure 1.5. Einbond: Without Words.

Figure 1.6. Simple tube representations of lunged and un-

Figure 1.7. Excerpt featuring lunged/unlunged and change of airflow.

Figure 1.10. Holmqvist: Liquid Struc-

Figure 1.11. Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu. Courtesy of G. Dharmoo.

Track 1.6, Dharmoo: Vaai Irandu

Figure 1.12. Ordinary to breathy sound.

Figure 1.13. Crescendo/decrescendo on fricatives.

Figure 1.15. Edgerton: Keltainen huone. Courtesy of Babel Scores.

Track 1.7, Edgerton: Keltainen huone

Figure 1.16. Dynamic flexibility of unvoiced production.

Figure 1.17. Changing ratios of breath-to-air mixture.

Track 1.8, Wishart: Vocalize

SUPPORT MECHANISM TO AFFECT SOUND IN EXTRA-NORMAL WAYS

Figure 1.18. Green: B A 4. Courtesy of A. Green.

Track 1.9, Green: B A 4

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