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 Structural
Geology
 Structural
Geology
Principles, Concepts, and Problems
Third Edition

Robert D. Hatcher, Jr
University of Tennessee

Christopher M. Bailey
College of William & Mary

New York  Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

Copyright © 2020 by Oxford University Press

Copyright © 1995 by MacMillan/Prentice-Hall
Copyright © 1990 by Merrill

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Opportunity Act, please visit www.oup.com/us/he for the
latest information about pricing and alternate formats.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without
the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly
permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
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the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford
University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hatcher, Robert D., 1940– author. | Bailey, Christopher M., author.
Title: Structural geology / Robert Hatcher (University of Tennessee,
Knoxville), Chuck Bailey (College of William & Mary).
Description: Third edition. | New York : Oxford University Press, [2020] |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018059976| ISBN 9780190601928 (hardcover : acid-free
paper) | ISBN 9780190601966 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Geology, Structural. | Geology, Structural—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QE601 .H35 2020 | DDC 551.8—dc23 LC record available at https://
lccn.loc.gov/2018059976

COVER: Bighorn River water gap through Sheep Mountain anticline, north of
Greybull, Wyoming. Photo by Michael Collier.

Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by LSC Communications, Inc.
United States of America
We dedicate this book to our parents, teachers, and other mentors.
Brief Contents
Preface xviii

PART ONE
Introduction 1
1 Introduction 2
2 Fundamental Concepts and Nontectonic
Structures 19
3 Geochronology in Structural Geology 44
4 Geophysical Techniques and Earth
Structure 65

PART TWO
Mechanics: How Rocks Deform 111
5 Stress 112
6 Strain and Strain Measurement 131
7 Mechanical Behavior of Rock Materials 165
8 Microstructures and Deformation
Mechanisms 181

PART THREE
Fractures and Faults 217
9 Joints and Shear Fractures 218
10 Faults and Shear Zones 247
11 Fault Mechanics 269
12 Thrust Faults 283
13 Strike-Slip Faults 315
14 Normal Faults 331
PART FOUR
Folds and Folding 355
15 Anatomy of Folds 356
16 Fold Mechanics 381
17 Complex Folds 408

PART FIVE
Fabrics and Structural Analysis 427
18 Cleavage and Foliations 428
19 Linear Structures 458
20 Structural Geology of Plutons 473
21 Structural Analysis 501

PART SIX
Appendices 539
Appendix 1 Structural Measurements and
Observations 540
Appendix 2 Stereographic Projections and
Fabric Diagrams 549
Appendix 3 Structural Cross Sections—Methods
for Cross-Section Construction 558
Appendix 4 Woodall Shoals Fabric Data 569

Glossary 576 | References Cited 597 | Index 619

 Contents

Preface xviii
Acknowledgments xx

PART 1: Introduction

1 Introduction 2
Plate Tectonics 7
Equilibrium 11
Geologic Cycles 15
Chapter Highlights 17
Questions 17
Further Reading 17

2 Fundamental Concepts and

Nontectonic Structures 19
Fundamental Concepts 19
Primary Sedimentary Structures 22
Bedding 22
Mud Cracks 25
Ripple Marks 27
Rain Imprints 27
Tracks and Trails 28
Sole Marks, Scour Marks, Flute Casts 28
Dewatering Structures 28
Fossils 29
Reduction Spots 29
Sedimentary Facies 30
Unconformities 30
Primary Igneous Structures 32
Gravity-Related Features 35
Landslides and Submarine Flows 35
ESSAY: Deciphering a Major Structure in the
Southern Highlands of Scotland 36
Salt Structures 37
Impact Structures 39
Chapter Highlights 42
Questions 42
Further Reading 43
viii
 Contents ix

3 Geochronology in Structural Geology 44

Geochronology 44
Radioactivity and Isotope Geochronology 45
Closure Temperature 46
Assumptions 47
Radioisotopic Dating Techniques 48
Cosmogenic Surface Exposure Dating 58
The Vital Role of Geochronology in Structural Geology 59
Stable Isotopes 60
ESSAY: Rock Bodies That Appear to Be the Same in the Field
May Not Turn Out to Be When Their Ages Are Determined 60
Chapter Highlights 63
Questions 64
Further Reading 64

4 Geophysical Techniques and Earth Structure 65

Seismic Reflection 65
Seismic Refraction 71
Earthquakes and Seismic Waves 71
Earthquake Waves and Whole-Earth Structure 71
Locating Earthquakes 73
Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity 75
Seismic Tomography 77
Focal Mechanisms and “Beach Balls” 78
Potential Field Methods 78
Terrestrial Magnetism 79
Remanent Magnetism 81
Magnetic Reversals 82
Induced Magnetism 82
Applications Using Magnetism 82
Gravity 83
Applications Using Gravity 89
Electrical Methods 90
Borehole Geophysics 90
Natural Gamma-Ray Log 95
ESSAY: Geophysical Data and the Structure of Mountain Chains 96
Electrical Logs 98
Photoelectric Logs 101
Neutron Logs 102
Temperature, Caliper, and Sonic Logs 102
Utility of Conventional Geophysical Logs—Geology from Wiggly Lines 103
Borehole Imaging Logs 103
Suspension Logging 106
Vertical Seismic Profiles 106
Chapter Highlights 107
Questions 108
Further Reading 108
x Contents

PART 2 Mechanics: How Rocks Deform 111

5 Stress 112
Definitions 113
Stress on a Plane 115
Mohr Circle Derivation 116
Mohr Construction 119
Amontons’ Law and the Coulomb–Mohr Hypothesis 121
Stress Ellipsoid 123
Stress at a Point 123
Measuring Present-Day Stress in the Earth 124
ESSAY: The Earthquake Cycle 127
Chapter Highlights 129
Questions 129
Further Reading 130

6 Strain and Strain Measurement 131

Definitions 132
Measures of Strain 133
Strain Ellipse and Ellipsoid 134
Simple, General, and Pure Shear 137
ESSAY: Daubrée and Mead Experiment 138
Progressive Deformation, Strain Symmetry,
and Strain Path 139
Mohr Circle for Strain 141
Tensor Operations for Strain 142
Measuring Strain in Rocks 143
Strain Measurement Techniques 146
Linear Markers 146
Initially Elliptical Markers 148
From Two to Three Dimensions 153
The Utility of Strain Analysis 154
Concluding Thoughts 157
ESSAY: Finite Strain from Deformed Pebbles 159
Chapter Highlights 161
Questions 162
Further Reading 163

7 Mechanical Behavior of Rock Materials 165

Definitions 166
Elastic (Hookean) Behavior 167
Permanent Deformation—Ductility 169
 Contents xi

Viscous Behavior 169

Plastic (Saint-Venant) Behavior 170
Elasticoviscous (Maxwell) Behavior 172
Controlling Factors 173
Behavior of Crustal Rocks 173
Ductile-Brittle Transition 173
ESSAY: Jelly Sandwiches, Crème Brûlée, and the Mechanical
Behavior of the Lithosphere 175
Strain Partitioning 177
Chapter Highlights 179
Questions 179
Further Reading 180

8 Microstructures and Deformation Mechanisms 181

Lattice Defects and Dislocations 182
Point Defects 183
Line Defects—Dislocations 183
Planar Defects—Stacking Faults 187
Translation (Dislocation) and Twin Gliding 188
Deformation Mechanisms 188
Cataclasis 188
Creep Processes 189
Superplastic Flow 195
Geochemical Processes 196
Mass-Transfer Processes 196
Factors That Influence the Rates of Chemical Reactions 200
Microstructures 200
Inclusion Trails and Deformation Lamellae 200
Unrecovered Strain, Recovery, and Recrystallization 200
Crystallographic Preferred Orientations 202
Laboratory Models of Deformation Processes 206
Final Thoughts 210
ESSAY: Fault Rocks—A Fourth Class of Rocks 211
Chapter Highlights 214
Questions 215
Further Reading 216

PART 3 Fractures and Faults 217

9 Joints and Shear Fractures 218

ESSAY: Fracking 221
Fracture Analysis 226
Significance of Orientation 226
Fracture Formation in the Present-Day Stress Field 228
Fold- and Fault-Related Joints 229
Fracture Mechanics: Griffith Theory 229
Joints and Fracture Mechanics 232
xii Contents

Fracture Surface Morphology 234

Joints in Plutons 238
Nontectonic and Quasitectonic Fractures 239
Sheeting 239
Columnar Joints and Mud Cracks 239
ESSAY: Mesozoic Fracturing of Eastern North American
Crust—Product of Extension or Shear? 241
Chapter Highlights 245
Questions 245
Further Reading 245

10 Faults and Shear Zones 247

Fault Anatomy 248
Anderson’s Classification 250
Recognizing Faults 252
ESSAY: Seismic Risk Associated with Tectonic
Structures 254
Shear Zones 255
Shear-Sense Indicators 256
Composite Foliations 260
Strain in Ductile Shear Zones 260
Brittle Shear Zones 263
ESSAY: Existence and Displacement Sense of
Large Faults 264
Chapter Highlights 267
Questions 267
Further Reading 268

11 Fault Mechanics 269

Anderson’s Mechanics and Fundamental
Assumptions 270
Anderson’s Fault Types 271
Type 1. Thrust Faults 271
Type 2. Strike-Slip Faults 271
Type 3. Normal Faults 271
Role of Fluids 273
Frictional Sliding Mechanisms 274
Movement Mechanisms 274
Fault Surfaces and Frictional Sliding 275
Shear (Frictional) Heating In Fault Zones 276
Reality of Fault Mechanics 278
ESSAY: Artificial Earthquakes 280
Chapter Highlights 281
Questions 282
Further Reading 282
 Contents xiii

12 Thrust Faults 283

Nature of Thrust Faults 284
Detachment Within a Sedimentary Sequence 286
Propagation and Termination of Thrusts 290
Features Produced by Erosion 293
ESSAY: Debate About Thrust Faults 295
Crystalline Thrusts 301
ESSAY: Gravity Model Foldbelt 303
Cross-Section Construction and the Room Problem 305
Thrust Mechanics 308
Mechanics of Crystalline Thrusts 311
Chapter Highlights 312
Questions 313
Further Reading 313

13 Strike-Slip Faults 315

Properties and Geometry 315
Tectonic Setting of Strike-Slip Faulting 319
Geometry Related to Other Fault Types 319
Terminations of Strike-Slip Faults 321
Releasing and Restraining Bends 324
Transtension and Transpression 324
Transforms 325
Mechanics of Strike-Slip Faulting 326
ESSAY: Rigid Indenters and Escape Tectonics 326
Chapter Highlights 329
Questions 329
Further Reading 329

14 Normal Faults 331

Properties and Geometry 332
Environments and Mechanics 336
Growth Faults 337
Rift Zones 343
Regional Crustal Extension 343
Hyperextension of Continental Crust and Mantle 347
Oceanic Core Complexes 348
Collapse Structures and Related Features 349
Relationship to Strike-Slip Faults 349
Final Thoughts 349
ESSAY: Inverted Faults and Tectonic Inheritance 350
Chapter Highlights 353
Questions 353
Further Reading 353
xiv Contents

PART 4 Folds and Folding 355

15 Anatomy of Folds 356

Descriptive Anatomy of Folds 357
Fold Anatomy 357
Kinds of Folds 359
Fold Shape 364
Use of Parasitic Folds in Determining Position in a Fold 366
ESSAY: Gravity–Driven Soft-Sediment Folds and Faults 368
Folds at Map and Cross Section Scale 370
Fold Classifications 373
Ramsay’s Classification 374
Donath and Parker Classification 374
Which Classification to Use? 378
ESSAY: Folds and the Development of the Petroleum Industry 378
Chapter Highlights 379
Questions 380
Further Reading 380

16 Fold Mechanics 381

Fold Mechanisms and Accompanying Phenomena 382
Bending 383
Buckling 384
Flexural Slip 389
Parallel and Similar Folds 389
Passive Slip—A Problematical Mechanism 390
Kink Folding 390
Flexural Flow 394
Passive Flow (Passive Amplification) 394
Combined Mechanisms 395
Deformation Mechanisms and Strain 396
Discussion 400
Nucleation and Growth of Folds 400
ESSAY: A Tale of Two Folds: Deciphering the Fold Mechanisms
of Two Small Folds 403
Chapter Highlights 406
Questions 406
Further Reading 407

17 Complex Folds 408

Occurrence and Recognition 409
Superposed Folds and Fold Interference Patterns 409
Type 0 410
Type 1 411
Type 2 411
Type 3 412
Modifications 412
Recognition of Multiple Fold Phases 412
Noncylindrical and Sheath Folds 414
 Contents xv

Formation of Complex Folds 418

Mechanical Implications of Complex Folding 418
ESSAY: The Value of Rosetta Stones 422
Chapter Highlights 424
Questions 424
Further Reading 425

PART 5 Fabrics and Structural Analysis 427

18 Cleavage and Foliations 428

Definitions 428
Cleavage-Bedding Relationships 438
Cleavage Refraction 439
Mechanics of Slaty Cleavage Formation 441
ESSAY: Early Ideas on the Origin of Slaty Cleavage 441
Progressive Cleavage Development in Fine-Grained Sediment 443
Strain and Formation of Slaty Cleavage 447
Crenulation Cleavage 449
Cleavage Fans and Transecting Cleavages 449
Transposition 451
ESSAY: Cleavage Formation and the Identification of Elephants 455
Chapter Highlights 456
Questions 456
Further Reading 457

19 Linear Structures 458

Definitions 458
Nonpenetrative Linear Structures 458
Penetrative Linear Structures 460
Boudinage 464
Lineations as Flow and Transport Indicators 464
Folds and Lineations 465
Folded Lineations 466
Interpretation of Linear Structures 468
ESSAY: Pitfalls in Interpreting Linear Structures 469
Chapter Highlights 471
Questions 471
Further Reading 472

20 Structural Geology of Plutons 473

The Nature of Magma 475
Distinguishing Magmatic from Solid-State Tectonic Structures 475
The Enigma of Tabular Pluton Emplacement 477
xvi Contents

Emplacement of Stocks and Batholiths 484

ESSAY: A Tale of Two Plutons 494
Chapter Highlights 498
Questions 499
Further Reading 499

21 Structural Analysis 501

Cross-Section Analysis 502
Deformation Plan in an Orogen 502
Structural Analysis Procedures 505
Geologic Mapping 505
Mesoscopic Structural Analysis 506
Domain Analysis 507
Microtextural Studies 507
Finite- and Incremental-Strain Studies 509
Fracture Analysis 509
Chronology of Development of Structures 510
Structural Analysis in Foreland Fold-Thrust Belts (FFTBs) 510
Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed Rocks in
the Cores of Orogens 512
ESSAY: Historical Development of Structural Analysis Methods in
Metamorphic Rocks 516
Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed and Transposed Rocks 517
Pitfalls in Using Style and Orientation in Polyphase-Deformed Rocks 517
ESSAY: Structural Analysis at Woodall Shoals 518
Analysis of Salt Structures 524
Structural Analysis in Continental Interiors 531
Structural Analysis in Seismically Active
Regions—Insight into Paleoseismology 532
Background 532
Structural Analysis of the Lima Reservoir Fault 532
Chapter Highlights 537
Questions 537
Further Reading 538

PART 6 Appendices

Appendix 1: Structural Measurements and

Observations 540
Directional Reference Frame and Location 540
Orientation of Planes: Strike and Dip 543
Orientation of Lines: Trend and Plunge; Rake 544
Recording Data 546
 Contents xvii

Appendix 2: Stereographic Projections and Fabric

Diagrams 549
How to Begin Plotting Manually 551
Plotting Planar Structures 552
Plotting Linear Structures 553
Locating Fold Axes Using Equal-Area Plots: β and π Diagrams 554
β Diagrams 554
π Diagrams 554
Contouring Data 554

Appendix 3: Structural Cross Sections—Methods for

Cross-Section Construction 558
Introduction 558
Rules of Cross-Section Construction 560
1. Surface Topography 560
2. Transferring Geologic Contacts from Map to the Section 561
3. Transfer of Dip Orientations from the Geologic Map to the Cross Section 561
4. Maintaining Constant Thickness 562
5. Thickness of Rock Units Related to Dip Angle 562
6. Vertical Exaggeration and Scale 562
7. Section Location and Map Name 562
8. Explanation of Rock Unit Symbols 562
9. Use of and Projection of Data from the Section Line 562
10. Calculation of Dip of All Contacts from Outcrop Patterns 564
Editorial Tips for Constructing Cross Sections 564
Taking Cross Sections to the Next Level—Cross-Section
Balancing 566
Introduction 566
Balanced Section Construction 567
Limitations 567

Appendix 4: Woodall Shoals Fabric Data 569

Glossary 576
References Cited 597
Index 619
 Preface to the
Third Edition
The third edition of Structural Geology: Principles, Concepts, and Problems is a complete revi-
sion from the first two editions. Each chapter has been rewritten with many new figures and
color added to numerous illustrations throughout the book. We have added a new chapter on
geochronology, and the 3rd edition integrates many new and exciting developments in struc-
tural geology and tectonics from the past two decades. Chuck Bailey joined as co-author; this
will be evident in chapters where his expertise has had a major impact on improvement of the
technical quality, but also on the overall quality of the book. Our numerous meetings, e-mail,
and phone conversations proved especially valuable in that they enabled us to work through
issues that arose and helped with incorporation of review comments. We feel, however, that
the basic thread woven through the first two editions has carried into the third: to present a
balanced coverage of all topics in modern structural geology at a level appropriate for students
in junior-senior-level structural geology courses offered today in most geology programs in
North America.

To the Users of This Book

The arrangement of chapters in the book follows the same outline as previous editions, with
no major organizational changes. One thing that may be noticeable is that much of the dis-
cussion of the historical basis of concepts and ideas has been moved to essays. This permits
students who are interested in the historical development of structural geology to explore fur-
ther, but it does not interrupt the overall flow of chapters.
One of the pedagogical tenets we have followed in this and previous editions is including
more information in each chapter than can be covered in one or two class periods. This makes
the book both a text and a reference document, which we consider a positive attribute of our
book. Another is the use of different letter styles throughout the book for terms we consider
to be most important for students to remember (in bold italic), important but not imperative
to be learned (in italic), or for information only (regular type). The Glossary at the end of the
book contains all of the first two categories and many of the last.
The 21 chapters are arranged in five parts. The introductory section is intended for review
and to present information not usually included in structural geology texts. One of our goals
was to provide an initial section of four chapters that reviews basic concepts, and presents
two topics rarely covered in the courses most students have taken before taking structural
geology: geochronology and geophysics. These two chapters are not intended to be exhaustive
summaries of these subjects, but to present a basic understanding of geochronology and geo-
physics that bears on the subject of structural geology. They are intended to form an integral
part of understanding the basis of processes related to rock deformation, timing of deforma-
tion, and geometry of structures. A section introducing down-hole geophysics was included
in the geophysics chapter, because so many students receive bachelors and masters degrees
and then become employed in the engineering/environmental, seismic hazard assessment,
and petroleum industries where down-hole geophysical data are commonly utilized. The four
introductory chapters can be presented as an integral part of the course, or assigned as col-
lateral reading. We feel that they belong at the front of the book so they can be covered—or

xviii
 Preface to the Third Edition xix

not—at the beginning of the course to review existing concepts like plate tectonics and non-
tectonic structures, then introduce the basis of radiometric age determinations and the prin-
cipal topics from geophysics that are useful in structural geology—and afterward move on to
the basic subject matter of structural geology.
The section on mechanics introduces stress, strain, material behavior, and microstruc-
tures. In discussing the order of presentation in this section, we feel that the presentation of
strain should follow the discussion of stress, recognizing that some structural geologists advo-
cate presenting strain early with stress toward the end of the course. Our feeling is that these
subjects belong together early in the course, and should be covered sequentially with stress
first. The chapters on stress, strain, and material behavior present some of the topics found in
the basic strength of materials courses in engineering curricula—with a geologic bias—and
with less mathematics. The microstructures chapter provides an introduction to deformation
processes that occur on a micro-scale. It lays a foundation for presentation of microstructures
later in the book.
The section dealing with fractures and faults begins by introducing the most pervasive
geologic structures on the Earth’s surface: joints. This is followed by a chapter describing the
basic properties of faults and shear zones, and introduces shear-sense indicators that permit
us to determine the movement sense on a fault at the outcrop- or micro-scale. It also empha-
sizes that not all faults are simple brittle structures confined to the upper crust, but may be
broad, ductile shear zones that form along faults in the deep crust. The chapter on fault mech-
anics presents the mechanical basis for faulting. The following three chapters discuss the three
primary fault types and their nature in greater detail.
The section on folds and folding contains three chapters: a chapter dealing with the funda-
mental properties of folds, another dealing with fold mechanics, and a third deals with com-
plex folds. This section also serves to bring out the fact that folds are not all ductile structures
as frequently presented—they form in the brittle realm as well.
The last section in the text dealing with rock fabrics and structural analysis contains four
chapters. The chapter on cleavage and foliations introduces the most common planar struc-
ture in metamorphic rocks, and discusses the mechanics of how these structures form. The
chapter on lineations (not lineaments) discusses the different kinds of linear structures in
rocks. The chapter on structures in plutons discusses the wide variety of plutons and their as-
sociated structures. The structural analysis chapter outlines various ways to analyze geologic
structures that can be brought to bear for structures that formed at different scales in different
geologic environments. It involves integration of different techniques and many of the struc-
tures discussed in earlier chapters.
Our wish beginning with the first edition remains the same: as teachers, we want students
to enjoy their structural geology course. Earth’s structures and the tectonic processes that
form them are both important and intriguing. We view the world around us with a sense of
wonder, and hope this book provides a scientific framework to help understand it. The learn-
ing process need not be difficult or painful, but it should be challenging and can be approached
as a game: the rules of the game should be spelled out by your instructor at the beginning of
the course. The degree to which your instructor becomes involved in the course from the be-
ginning largely determines the quality of the course and how much students derive from it.
The text chosen helps to determine the level at which the course is taught and the kinds of ma-
terial to be covered. The balanced coverage in this text is intended to enhance the involvement
of both students and instructors in structural geology. Finally, we hope this book will kindle
the interests of students who use it and some will choose to become structural geologists—a
measure of success for any structural geology course.
 Acknowledgments

The late Nancy L. Meadows, in the Tectonics and Structural Geology Research Group at the
University of Tennessee, played a critical role in quality control of pre-publisher editing and
proofing chapters, checking references, compiling the glossary and references, and, in the first
two editions, constructing and checking the indexes. We are eternally grateful for her long-
term contributions to the quality of this book. Andrew L. Wunderlich, also in our research
group, made a major contribution to this third edition by providing outstanding graphics and
ArcGIS support, constructing preliminary layouts of each chapter and appendices in ­InDesign
prior to review, compiling the spreadsheet with old and new glossary terms, and conducting
the final check of references against the text. Rebecca J. Christ did some editing and particu-
larly compiled a massive spreadsheet containing the information on permissions for figures.
The Science Alliance Center of Excellence at the University of Tennessee has provided
both salary and stipend support for RDH (and many graduate and undergraduate students)
for the past three-plus decades. This has permitted travel to many places, particularly moun-
tain chains and continental shields, which would have otherwise been inaccessible, to better
understand the structure and evolution of continental crust. Many of the photos published in
this textbook could not have been made without this support.
We have benefitted from the many outstanding undergraduate and graduate research
students that we’ve worked with during the past several decades. These students enabled us
to become better structural geologists, and challenged us to provide cogent explanations of
sometime complex mechanics and processes. They also have encouraged us to learn along with
them, so that we benefitted from their questions and persistence to understand our subject.
Both of us have led and participated in numerous field trips where professionals and stu-
dents are presented with possible solutions to complex structures and tectonic histories. Many
times, the additional sets of eyes have pointed out critical—previously unseen—features that
facilitated the understanding of the structural and tectonic histories of poorly known areas.
Gilles Allard (University of Georgia, Emeritus) kindly provided contact with Réal
Daigneault (Québec Geological Survey and Université du Québec à Chicoutimi), who gave us
two illustrations for Chapter 6. Rick Law (Virginia Tech) patiently listened to and answered
numerous questions about quartz deformation by RDH and contributed an illustration that
was incorporated into Chapter 8. We are grateful to former University of Tennessee under-
grad and M.S. student Ching Tu (Schlumberger Corp.), and Walter Wunderlich (TVA design
engineer, retired), who offered useful improvements to some of the mathematics in Chapter 5.
Our third edition has benefited enormously from constructive reviews of chapters com-
missioned by Oxford University Press. A few of the reviewers disagreed with our pedagogical
philosophy, but their comments were constructive and quite useful in improving our book.
These reviewers are: two anonymous reviewers, Joseph Allen (Concord University), Andy
Bobyarchick (University of North Carolina–Charlotte), Maria Brunhart-Lupo (Colorado
School of Mines), Gabriele Casale (Appalachian State University), Robert Cicerone (Bridge-
water State University), Randy Cox (University of Memphis), Anna Crowell (University of
North Dakota), Ernest Duebendorfer (Northern Arizona University), Eric Ferré (Southern
Illinois University), Mary Hubbard (Montana State University), Kristin Huysken (Indiana
University Northwest), Jamie Levine (Appalachian State University), Ryan Mathur (Juniata
College), Melanie Michalak (Humboldt State University), Devon Orme (Montana State Uni-
versity), Terry Panhorst (University of Mississippi), Mitchell Scharman (Marshall University),

xx
 Acknowledgments xxi

Christian Schrader (Bowdoin College), John Singleton (Colorado State University), Jaime Toro
(West Virginia University), Frederick Vollmer (SUNY–New Paltz), David West (Middlebury
College), Paul Wetmore (University of South Florida), Laura Wetzel (Eckerd College), Michael
Williams (University of Massachusetts), and Martin Wong (Colgate University).
Earlier constructive reviews of third-edition chapters commissioned by Pearson/Prentice
Hall were also beneficial in the evolution of this edition of our book, and are much a­ ppreciated.
These reviewers are: Jeffrey Amato (New Mexico State University), Cynthia Coron (South-
ern Connecticut State University), David Foster (University of Florida), Ron Harris (Brigham
Young University), Eric Horsman (East Carolina University), Eric Jerde (Morehead State Uni-
versity), Paul Karabinos (Williams College), and John Weber (Grand Valley State University).
We also express our deep appreciation to our most recent Pearson/Prentice Hall editor
Andrew Dunaway and our Oxford editors, Dan Kaveny and Dan Sayre, for their encourage-
ment and enthusiastic support of our efforts to complete the third edition of this textbook.
Bob Hatcher
Chuck Bailey
 PART 1

Introduction
OUTLINE
1 Introduction 2
2 Fundamental Concepts
and Nontectonic Structures 19
3 Geochronology in Structural
Geology 44
4 Geophysical Techniques and Earth
Structure 65
 1

Introduction

15°
LT
A stone, when it is examined, will be For centuries the shapes
P of continents and ocean basins, the linearity of
er
mountain ranges, the distribution
u
– of volcanoes, and the cause of earth-
found a mountain in miniature.

A
quakes have fascinated humans C (Figure 1–1). Today we know that most of

l t
these features are produced by deep-seated processes operating since the
h

i p
ile
JOHN RUSKIN, 1858, Modern Painters Earth formed; these processes have shaped both past and present configu-

l a n
rations of tectonic plates (Figure 1–2). The effects of earthquake and volca-
Trench

nic activity are constant reminders that the Earth is a dynamic planet and
that tectonic plates PACIFIC
o
are driven by awesome forces. Most of Earth’s human
OCEAN
population is influenced by tectonic activity; unfortunately, earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions threaten many people (Figure 1–1).
0 500
25° S
kilometers
72° W 60° W

(a)
PERU Earthquake focal
depth (km)
15° 15° 0 – 70
71 – 150
LT
P
LT BOLIVIA 151 – 300
P e
er ru 301 – 500
u –
>501
–
A
A

C Holocene
l t
l t

volcano
C
h
h

i p
i p
ile

ile

l a n
l a n

Trench
Trench

PARAGUAY
o

PACIFIC
o

PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN
CHILE ARGENTINA

0 500 0 500
25° S 25° S
kilometers kilometers
72° W 60° W 72° W 60° W

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1–1
PERU Earthquake
(a) Shaded relief map of part of western focal
South America.
depth (km)
The Andes Mountains stand out in strong relief. As the Nazca Plate is
subducted along the Peru-Chile Trench, South America undergoes
0 – 70 crustal thickening, uplift, and volcanism. The Altiplano is a high plateau
15°
with an average elevation LT
over 3,300 m. LT—Lake Titicaca.71(Map
– 150 created from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission [SRTM] image PIA03388.)
P BOLIVIA 151 – 300
e and focal depths of earthquakes (Mw ≥ 6) since
(b) Locations 1973 and distribution of Holocene volcanoes. Notice that earthquake focal
301 – 500
ru
depths generally increase with distance inland from the Peru-Chile
>501 Trench. (Data from U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Informa-
– the Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Program.)
A

tion Center and Holocene

l t

volcano
C
h

2
i p
ile

l a n
T
 Introduction | 3

Eurasian
Plate North
American Eurasian Plate
Plate Iranian Plate
Juan de Fuca
Plate
Caribbean
San Andreas Plate
fault
Arabian Plate
Cocos Plate
Philippine Sea
Plate
South African Plate
Nazca
Plate American
Australian Plate Plate
Pacific Plate

Antarctic Plate Antarctic Plate

(a)

Elevation
(meters)
8,000
5,000
3,000

1,000
500
250
100
0
–1,500
–3,000

–4,000

–5,000

–6,000
–10,000

(b)

FIGURE 1–2 (a) Names and distribution of Earth’s tectonic plates. Arrows indicate plate motion direction, and length of arrows indicate rate
of motion. (U.S. Geological Survey.) (b) Shaded relief map of continents and ocean basins illustrating their relationship to plates and plate
boundaries. Relief map generated from U.S. Geological Survey Global 30 Arc-Second Elevation (GTOPO30) and Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission/International Hydrographic Organization General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) digital elevation models.
 4 | Introduction
Aside from the imminent danger and practical need
to comprehend and mitigate the dangers associated with
these hazards, most geologists feel a basic scientific urge
to understand these processes. Structural geologists are
concerned with deformation of rocks and why parts of
the Earth’s crust are bent into smoothly curved shapes—­
producing folds—but others, sometimes in the same re-
gions, are broken by faults. We also want to understand
both the processes that produce structures and the his-
tory of how the structures formed. The opening quote
by Ruskin is applicable to the structural geologist as we
consider the nature and origin of structures from regional
scale down to grain scale.
Structural geology is the study of rock deformation.
It considers the geometry, dynamics, kinematics, and
mechanics of earth structures and has great relevance
to society and the world economy. It is readily applied
to engineering problems that involve the foundations of
bridges, dams, buildings, and power plants where large
excavations are necessary, as well as highways where ex-
cavations extend for long distances. Studies of geologic
structures beneath buildings, dams, and highway cuts are
of great importance because of the potential for renewed
motion along faults and other fractures, as well as concern
for the stability of slopes and geologic materials. Siting
large engineered structures in active fault zones, like the
(a)
FIGURE 1–3 (a) Oblique aerial view to
the south of Yucca Mountain crest showing
coring activities. (b) Oblique aerial view of the
feet above sea level
south portal into Yucca Mountain; note 25 ft
diameter tunnel boring machine. (a and b
retrieved from University of North Texas Web 3,000
Archive, http://www.ymp.gov.) (c) ­Geologic
cross section through Yucca Mountain il-
lustrating gently tilted volcanic rocks cut
by a series of steeply dipping normal faults. 1,000
(­Modified from Day et al., 1998.) (c)
U.S. West Coast, is not desirable, but sometimes it is im-
possible to build them in tectonically quiet areas. There-
fore, geologists and engineers must work together from
the design stage through construction to evaluate which
structures are still active and might affect engineering
works, as well as to minimize cost.
Environmental problems and land-use planning—such
as earthquake hazards, waste isolation and disposal, and
controls on the distribution of ground water—provide ad-
ditional applicability for structural geology. Documenting
the antiquity or recent movement of faults is an important
aspect that requires understanding of structural ­geology.
Location of sites for disposal of municipal, industrial, and
radioactive waste requires application of structural and tec-
tonic principles. Understanding the controls of large struc-
tures, such as folded layers of permeable and impermeable
rocks that contain ground water, and small structures, such
as fractures, on the distribution of ground water provides
additional applications for this discipline. The proposed
(now shelved) Yucca Mountain Repository in southern
Nevada (Figure 1–3) is a controversial underground stor-
age facility intended to safely house the United States’ spent
nuclear fuel and radioactive waste for at least 25,000 years.
Over the past two decades the structural geology, mechani-
cal characteristics, seismic history, and ground water flow
paths were extensively studied in order to characterize the
(b)
WEST Yucca Crest EAST
5,000
Repository tunnel
Topopah Spring
Tuff
 Introduction | 5

site; key questions include recurrence interval and magni-

tude of seismic and volcanic activity, and permeability as-
sociated with fractures in the volcanic bedrock.
Structural geology has long had a close working rela-
tionship with petroleum and mining geology. The abil-
ity to project fault surfaces, geologic contacts, and other
structures to depth is used to great advantage by geolo-
gists who explore for valuable minerals and petroleum.
­Tectonic principles have been applied to understanding
larger trends and regional processes that control the con-
centration of mineral deposits and hydrocarbons.
Structural geology considers the geometry, dynam-
ics, kinematics, and mechanics of earth structures. Geom-
etry refers to the shape and orientation of structures on
any scale. A first-order, and non-trivial, task for structural (a)
geologists is to accurately describe the geometry of Earth
structures. Geometric understanding occurs over a wide
range of scales, from field mapping of regional-scale struc-
tures to measuring the orientation of crystal axes in indi-
vidual mineral grains under the microscope.
Dynamics deals with the study of motion of bodies in
response to forces that produced the motion. In contrast,
kinematics deals with the motion of materials independent
of the forces that caused the motion. Rock masses can be
uplifted from great depths in the crust, rotated between
fault blocks, and translated hundreds to thousands of kilo-
meters from their place of origin. Rock structures provide
important kinematic clues, and this evidence is observable
over a wide range of scales.
Mechanics focuses on the effects of forces or stresses (b)
on materials. Understanding the geometry and mechani- FIGURE 1–4 Structures are three-dimensional. Consider the
cal properties of a rock mass provides information related famed Sydney Opera House (a) and its distinctive shell roof, and
to how it will behave when put under stress. It is impor- then think about the shapes of folds such as the Sheep Mountain
tant to remember that we typically study structures after anticline in Wyoming (b). This oblique aerial view (U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture) nicely illustrates the three-dimensionality
they form, frequently millions to billions of years later; of the anticline. It is cored with Precambrian crystalline rocks and
thus we must infer the nature and magnitude of forces flanked by Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of differing
that affected the rocks as well as the physical conditions resistance to erosion that hold up flanking ridges and underlie
(pressure, temperature, fluid content) present when the valleys. Note the small folds in the lower left-hand part of the
structures formed. Some structural geologists conduct ex- photo that mimic the shape of the main fold.
periments deforming rocks under controlled conditions in
the laboratory; this mechanical understanding is valuable
for ­interpreting natural structures.
Structural geology is similar to architecture in that between structures formed near the Earth’s surface and
both disciplines require an ability to visualize objects in those formed at great depth under the weight of overlying
three dimensions. Visualizing objects in three dimensions rocks and at high temperatures indicates profound differ-
can be difficult. Perhaps begin by thinking about familiar ences in physical conditions. As the elevation of a mountain
objects such as the room where you live, the decorations range is reduced by erosion, physical conditions affecting
on the wall, and the locations of furniture; and then move the crust change both near the surface and at depth. An
on to less familiar geologic structures (Figure 1–4). Keep appreciation of structural geometry thus permits us to
in mind that most of us also had difficulty with 3-D visu- make better interpretations of kinematics and mechanics,
alization when we began studying structural geology, but and ultimately of the origins of earth structures.
learning to visualize objects in three dimensions comes Tectonic structures are produced in response to stresses
through practice. The shapes of geologic structures change generated, for the most part, by plate motion within the
through time, along with the physical conditions that Earth, and include faults and folds, along with other struc-
formed them. In particular, the contrast in shape and type tures. They make up the tectonic framework of the Earth.
 6 | Introduction
(a)
FIGURE 1–5 Continuous (ductile) and discontinuous brittle structures in rocks. (a) Folded gneissic layering produced by ductile flow in
metasedimentary rocks along Long Island Sound near Lyme, Connecticut. (b) Brittle deformation produced several sets of fractures in
Precambrian metasedimentary rocks near Central City, Colorado. Scale is indicated by 3 to 5 m tall trees in foreground. (RDH photos.)
The kinds of structures that form in different parts of
the crust are determined by: (1) prevailing temperature and
pressure; (2) rock composition; (3) the nature of layer-
ing; (4) contrast in properties with direction between and
within individual layers (anisotropy) or the lack of con-
trast (isotropy); and (5) amount and character of fluids
within the rock mass. How rapidly the mass is deformed
and the orientations of stresses applied to it also influence
the kinds of structures produced. These factors determine
whether deformation will be continuous (ductile defor-
mation) or discontinuous (brittle deformation), produc-
ing a great variety of structures both in the Earth and on
other planets (Figure 1–5).
Structures may also form as products of nontectonic
processes, such as extraterrestrial impacts, landslides, and
other features formed by gravity. It is useful to distinguish
between tectonic and nontectonic structures (Chapter 2),
because some nontectonic structures closely resemble—
even mimic—structures formed by tectonic processes.
Much knowledge about geologic structures is derived
from observing and attempting to understand structures in
the field; thus, one of our goals is to improve our abilities to
recognize, describe, measure, and interpret both subtle and
obvious geologic structures in rocks. Also, a better under-
standing of physical and chemical principles and the abil-
ity to use mathematics and computers are needed to bridge
the gaps between field, laboratory, and theoretical studies.
The link between field and laboratory studies is both es-
sential and supportive, for structural geology is divisible
into subdisciplines of scale, structures, and processes, most
of which overlap in geologic time. For example, laboratory
studies determining fluid pressure that facilitates move-
ment on faults are supported by field observations of evi-
dence that fluid was present when a fault was active.
The study of field relationships is an exceptionally im-
portant aspect of structural geology because it provides
(b)
limitations for formulating kinematic and mechanical
models. In structural geology, we try to understand how
small structures form and how they are related to larger
structures and, ultimately, to crustal deformation and plate
tectonics. A geologist undertaking a field-based structural
study may: (1) make accurate geologic maps and cross
sections of the structural geometry; (2) measure orienta-
tions of small structures to provide information about the
shapes and relative positions of larger structures in the
field; (3) study the overprinting sequence of structures to
determine the variation in deformation conditions through
time; (4) use these structures to understand the kinematic
history; and (5) apply rock-mechanics principles and data
to relate structures to forces that were present in the Earth
during deformation. These different components will not be
completed at the same time or in the sequence listed here.
Today there are many tools available to structural
geologists that improve our work in the field. The Global
­Positioning System (GPS) permits the precise geolocation of
structural data and samples. Software on “smart” phones
and tablet computers facilitates recording, viewing, and
manipulating data in the field, and some feature compasses
and clinometers that make accurate strike and dip measure-
ments (Appendix 2).
Rock mechanics is the application of physics to the
study of rock materials. It deals with rock properties and
the relationships between forces and resulting structures,
as well as with the study of structures produced in the
laboratory in an attempt to duplicate natural structures
(Figure 1–6). In the laboratory, we can simulate the higher
temperatures and pressures that exist at great depths.
­A lternatively, very weak materials such as salt, gelatin,
clay, putty, and paraffin, which behave like rocks being de-
formed at higher temperatures, may be used to produce
experimental structures at room temperature. A disadvan-
tage of laboratory experiments is that they cannot be run

FIGURE 1–6 Experimental structures made in a centrifuge from viscous materials of different densities and fluid properties. Compare the
shapes of these structures at this scale with those in Figures 15–18, 15–28, 16–2, 16–9, 16–21, 16E–1, and 17–14a. (From Tectonophysics, v. 19,
H. Ramberg and H. Sjöström, p. 105–132, Fig. 15, © 1973, with kind permission from Elsevier Science, Ltd., Kidlington, United Kingdom.)
over geologic time—thousands to millions of years. They
must be run on rocks and minerals at temperatures and
pressures far above those normally occurring in nature
so that deformation rates will occur rapidly enough that
the person conducting the experiment will live to see the
results! Artificial or natural materials deformed at rea-
sonable rates that simulate the behavior of rocks must be
scaled up to approximate natural processes.
Tectonics and regional structural geology involve
larger features. Studies of mountain ranges, parts of con-
tinents, trenches and island arcs, oceanic ridges, entire
continents and ocean basins, and their relationships to
stresses and tectonic plates are included in these subdisci-
plines. Plate tectonics deals specifically with plate genera-
tion, motion, and interactions. Separating tectonics from
regional structural geology is difficult. Regional structural
geology is more commonly concerned with continental
structures or well-imaged parts of the ocean floor and uses
data from detailed studies of small structures to recon-
struct the deformational history and tectonics of a region.
Moreover, geophysical data (Chapter 4) and information
derived from other disciplines of geology must be inte-
grated with structural data for use in regional structural
geology and tectonics. Use of geophysical data in struc-
tural geology is more common now because technology
has made available more data of higher quality, especially
seismic reflection, magnetic, and gravity data.
It is easy to see that the many subdivisions of structural
geology are related to other disciplines in geology as well
as to the other sciences. Direct applications are made from
physics to study the origin of geologic structures. Isoto-
pic data are frequently useful in working out the absolute
timing of deformation, and geochemical data may help
to determine mobility of fluids and elements during de-
formation. The chemical composition of highly deformed
rocks may indicate the original material (protolith) and the
environment before deformation.
As mentioned earlier, the concept of scale is of great
importance in structural geology. Structures—such as geo-
logic contacts, foliations, faults, and folds—are commonly
Introduction | 7
0 1
centimeter
observed in the field in both hand specimen and at outcrop
(or mesoscopic) scale. Microscopic structures require mag-
nification to be observed, and include many foliations and
linear structures. Mountainside to map-scale structures
are called macroscopic structures. Scales and geometric
perspectives of geologic cross sections must be maintained
between the map from which the section is constructed
and the section itself (Figure 1–7).
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the framework within which all tectonic
structures form. This paradigm is as fundamental to the
Earth sciences as atomic theory is to physics and chemis-
try and as evolution is to biology. Early formulation of the
theory is attributed to Harry Hess, who during the 1930s
conceived the tectogene concept of the subsiding crumpling
crust driven by mantle convection. Isacks et al. (1968) first
published a unified theory of plate tectonics. According to
the principle of plate tectonics, new oceanic crust formed
at the oceanic ridges ultimately is consumed by subduc-
tion in oceanic trenches (Figure 1–8). While this process
can recycle all ocean crust in ~200 m.y., continental crust
has a pivotal role in recording geologic events in the 4.5 Ga
history of Earth.
The present surface of the Earth is divisible into seven
major plates and several smaller plates (Figure 1–2). The
thickness of plates corresponds to that of the lithosphere,
which is on average about 100 km thick and includes all of
the crust and part of the upper mantle (Figure 1–8). The
lithosphere is conveyed above a weaker, more plastic layer
in the mantle known as the asthenosphere (Figure 1­–9).
­Geophysical evidence demonstrates that the asthenosphere
is a solid, but it is sufficiently weak so it flows over geologic
time. Gravitational processes and convection in the mantle
drive plate generation and consumption. There are three
basic configurations of plate boundaries: (1) divergent (ocean
ridges); (2) convergent (subduction zones); and (3) transform.
 8 | Introduction

FIGURE 1–7 Hypothetical geologic A

map (a) and cross section (b) illustrating Cp 46
macroscopic structures and relationships. 51
Note that constructing an accurate cross 37 39
34
section requires close attention to scale, Ol 41
41 48 45
strike, and dip of bedding (Appendix 1), 49 62
Oc 36
and position of geologic contacts on the
43 Oa
topographic surface. The symbols On,
Oa, Ol, and so on identify each rock unit 40
38
58
by its age (O—Ordovician, –C—Cambrian,
p –C—Precambrian), and the name of each 42
42 Ol 71
52
rock unit, e.g., On—Newala Formation. 46
See inside front cover for explanation of 68 Oc
dip-strike symbols. 47 63
73 69 Cp
On
43
67
76
57 Oa

74 74 67
64 59
62

Ol Oc Cs
66 63

57
77 58

55
61

Cp Cn
41 47
41
63
59 p Ci
57 59 42
Ch
66
48

63 32
62
38 36
0 200 400 600 800 1000 Cn
N meters contours
contours in meters
meters
Cs A'
(a)

A A'
1,100 1,100

1,000 Cs 1,000
On Cn
900 900
Cs Ch
meters

meters

800 Cn Ch 800
Cp Oc Oa p Ci
700 Oc 700
Ol Cp
Cs
600 Cs 600
Cn Cn
500 500
No vertical exaggeration
(b)

The kinematics of plate motion may be described
using an Eulerian theorem that represents the motion of
plates on a sphere, in which displacement on the surface
increases away from a rotational axis (Euler pole). Angular
displacement of a plate involves rotation about the Euler
pole, an imaginary line passing through the center of the
Earth, and rotation of a plate about this axis is expressed
by its angular velocity (ω) on the sphere (Figure 1–10a).
Although the velocity increases away from the pole of the
spreading axis, the angular velocity remains constant.
 Introduction | 9

(Cordilleran mountain chains—Andes, North American

LITHOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE
A S T H E N O S P H E R E
M E S O S P H E R E
FIGURE 1–8 Generation of lithospheric plates at spreading
centers (oceanic ridges) and destruction in subduction zones—a
simple statement of plate tectonics theory. Differences in rate
of motion or displacement between plates are taken up by
transforms connecting segments of ridges, trenches, and other
boundaries. Arrows indicate motion direction. Ocean crust is col-
ored purple. (From Isacks et al., Seismology and the new global
tectonics: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 78, p. 5855–5899,
© 1968 by the American Geophysical Union.)
Each plate has an angular velocity on the sphere (deter-
mined by the absolute motion and its position relative to
the pole) with respect to other plates. Differences in move-
ment rate between plates are balanced by transform faults
(Figure 1–10b). Plate boundaries where three plates meet
are called triple junctions (Figure 1–10c) and they connect
ridge, trench, transform segments, or various combina-
tions of the three boundaries.
Dewey and Bird (1970) outlined a model for the devel-
opment of mountain chains as a result of either subduction
Cordillera) or continent-continent or continent-arc col-
lision (collisional mountain chains—Alps, Appalachians,
Himalayas). Generation of mountain chains is com-
plex, and most collisional orogenic belts also had an ear-
lier history of subduction. Wilson (1966) suggested that
a proto-­Atlantic Ocean had closed at the end of the Pa-
leozoic, producing the Appalachian–Variscan mountain
chain of North America and Europe, making up the su-
percontinent of Pangea, and then had reopened to form
the present ­Atlantic. This cyclical closing and opening
of ocean basins has become known as the Wilson cycle
(supercontinent cycle).
Another plate tectonic corollary is that of accretionary
tectonics, whereby suspect and exotic terranes are moved
by plate motion to collision with each other or with conti-
nents. A suspect terrane is a rock mass whose original po-
sition is questionable with respect to adjacent terranes or
the continent to which it is presently attached. An exotic
terrane bears no resemblance to the mass to which it is
attached and may have originated on the opposite side of
a major ocean. Hamilton’s (1979) compilation of the geol-
ogy of the Indonesian region demonstrates that a complex
of volcanic arcs, continental fragments, oceanic crust, and
large continental blocks (such as Australia) are all in the
initial stages of being accreted to Asia as Australia moves
northward. The boundaries of suspect and exotic terranes
with surrounding terranes are always faults. Overlap se-
quences, deformational and metamorphic overprints, and

Volcanic hot spot

0–660 km Convection Upper

man
tle

1000
km Subducting slab
660–2890 km

2890–5150 km Lower Outer

mantle core

Inner core

FIGURE 1–9 Plumes (red columns) that ascend through the mantle may originate in low-velocity zones near the outer core boundary in
pools of material that could be partially melted or enriched in iron. They are strong and unbent by lower mantle convection—a sign that
they are an important mechanism for releasing heat from the core (and driving convection in the upper mantle). Subducting slabs (black)
plow downward into the mantle returning material to various depths. In addition, breakoff of descending slabs may produce rebound of
the lithosphere and uplift of mountain chains above subduction zones. (From E. Hand, 2015, Science, Volume 349, Issue 6252.)
 10 | Introduction

Axis of rotation

A'
Angular velocity C' D'
vector, ωAmAf A B' E'

B
C
59° N D
E
23° W

N. America
Pole of
(fixed)
rotation (b)

FIGURE 1–10 (a) Angular displacement of Africa with respect

to North America predicted from the laws of spherical geome-
try. (From Hobbs, Means, and Williams, An Outline of Structural
Geology, © 1976, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) (b) Transforms at plate
boundaries and within plates balance differences in displacement
81 m.y. or relative motion. A–A’, B–B’, C–C’ . . . represent corresponding
points on continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic. (From
Wilson, reprinted by permission from Nature, v. 207, p. 343–347,
© 1966, Macmillan Magazines, Ltd.) (c) Several kinds of triple
­junctions. (From McKenzie and Morgan, reprinted by permission
155 m.y. from Nature, v. 224, p. 125–133, © 1969, Macmillan Magazines,
Ltd.)

(a)

RRR A B TTF A B TTR A B TTR A B

FFF A B

C C C C C

B
RRF A A B TTF A B TTR A B
TTT A B TTT
C
C C C C

Trench (T) Ridge (R) Transform fault (F)

(c)

plutons that crosscut accretionary boundaries provide evi-
dence of “docking” and frequently the timing of terrane
accretion (Figure 1–11).
Moreover, of interest to structural geologists is the
deformation that occurs at and near plate boundaries.
In addition to faults and folds, accretionary complexes
(­
deformed trench-fill sediments), block-in-matrix tec-
tonic mélanges, and high-pressure mineral assemblages
(e.g., blueschists) occur here. Plate boundary deformation
can be very localized or extend for several kilometers into
the plates on either side of the boundary.
Plate kinematics from the Mesozoic to the present are
well documented and largely based on sea-floor magnetic
anomaly patterns, which are correlated to known geomag-
netic reversal events. Further back in the geological record,
paleomagnetism enables an estimate of the paleolatitude
at which many igneous and sedimentary rocks formed,
thereby providing critical data for paleogeographic recon-
structions in the Paleozoic and Precambrian. At a more
tangible human timescale, the motion of plates is being
measured using satellite-based Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology. GPS technology is in wide use for locating
everything from ships and airplanes to hikers and auto-
mobiles. In order to make measurements precise enough
to detect plate motion, GPS instruments must be capable
of making measurements with an accuracy of a few mm.

Overlap
sequence
(Terrane C)
Terrane A
Continental
crust A
0 1
Terrane
kilometers boundary
(suture)
Measuring plate motion requires sophisticated GPS re-
ceivers (Figure 1–12) that are carefully deployed at dedi-
cated monuments over periods of several years, with the
data transmitted by satellite to a central location. In addi-
tion, corrections must be made for seasonal variations in
temperature, hydrologic conditions, and, in northern lati-
tudes, glacial isostatic rebound. Once made and corrected,
these measurements are very useful to help understand the
present-day rates and kinematics of plate motion.
Consider the GPS data from Auckland, New Zealand,
illustrating the change in latitude, longitude, and elevation
of the station over a 20-year period (Figure 1–13). These
data demonstrate that Auckland had a northward move-
ment component of over 800 mm during that time. When
data from multiple stations are combined, a kinematic pic-
ture emerges of modern plate motion (Figure 1–14).
Equilibrium
The Earth is a dynamic system. Energy from radioac-
tive decay, the Earth’s gravity field, and residual primor-
dial heat drive plate motion and other processes within
the Earth. Heat converted to work moves plates, deforms
rocks in the lithosphere, and produces melts and meta-
morphism. Any excess energy developed locally—say, at
plate boundaries—must be dissipated to restore a state of
rest, or equilibrium, to the part of the lithosphere where
the excess develops. The balance may be restored by
Introduction | 11
FIGURE 1–11 Cross-sectional
view of features provide critical
information about when two
­terranes may have joined. Terrane
A consists of continental crust with
a sequence of flat-lying sedimen-
tary rocks deposited on it. Terrane
B consists of a different continental
crust with a sequence of sedimen-
tary rocks deposited on it that was
folded before being joined to the
other terrane. The green diabase
Terrane B
dike later intruded both terranes
before the overlap sequence of
sedimentary rocks was deposited
across both terranes. Knowing
the ages of these rocks permits a
structural geologist to decipher
the tectonic history of two blocks
of different continental crust with
markedly different origins that
Continental
are now joined along a terrane
crust B
boundary.
FIGURE 1–12 EarthScope Project GPS station near Delta, Utah.
This permanent battery-operated receiver station automatically
records GPS measurements and communicates with the receiver
facility. The GPS antenna is under the dome and the GPS receiver
is located to the left. (EarthScope photo.)
volcanic eruption, breaking the crust along a fault, plas-
tic flow forming folds, or by other processes whereby heat
is converted into ­mechanical energy. The second law of
­thermodynamics predicts that a certain amount of energy
is never available to do work and will be lost in any energy-­
consuming p ­ rocess, as long as the process is not 100 ­percent
efficient. This amount of energy, called entropy, a measure
 −300

Distance move
−400

Distance moved
−400
−500
−500
−600
−600
−700
−700
12
−800
| Introduction −800
Rate: 39.632±± 0.091
Rate:39.632 0.091 mm yr–1
mm yr -1

Rate: 39.632±± 0.091

Rate:39.632 0.091 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 −900
−900 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016
1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 (a) Time (years)
(a) Time (years)
Latitude Longitude
0 Longitude 20
20
−100 0

Distance moved (mm)

(mm)

0
−200
moved(mm)

−20
−300
−20
−40
Distancemoved

−400
−40
−500 −60
−60
−600
Distance

−80
−80
−700
−100
−800
−100
Rate: 39.632±± 0.091
Rate:39.632 0.091 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 Rate: 4.235 ±± 0.078
Rate: 4.235 0.078 mm yr–1
mm yr -1

−900 Rate: 4.235 ±± 0.078

Rate: 4.235 0.078 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 −120
−120 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016
(a) 1998 2001 2004
Time
2007 2010 2013 2016 (b) Time (years)
(b) Time (years)
(years)

20
Longitude
Elevation
FIGURE
70
1–13 GPS data from 1996
Elevation
to mid-2016 for Auckland,
70 New60Zealand. (a) and (b) illustrate the lateral movement of the
0
60 station;
50 (c) the vertical movement. Small blue dots represent the
(mm)

Distance moved (mm)

(mm)

50
−20 recorded
40 position, with the black lines denoting recording error
40 bars.30Green lines indicate significant breaks. The graphs show a
moved

−40
moved

30 strong
20 northward and slight eastward movement over the 20-year
−60
20 period.
10 There is some variability in short-term (week to week) mea-
Distance

10 surements, but the overall trends (red lines) are quite evident.
Distance

−80 0
0 Data from Jet Propulsion Laboratory GPS Time Series website
−10
−100
−10
(http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/post/series.html).
−20
−20 Rate: 4.235 ±± 0.078
Rate: 4.235 0.078 mm yr–1
mm yr -1
Rate:−0.202
Rate: −0.202±± 0.298
0.298 mm yr–1
mm yr -1
−120 Rate:−0.202
Rate: −0.202±± 0.298
0.298 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 −30
−30 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016
(b) 1998 2001 Time (years)
2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 (c) Time (years)
(c) Time (years)
Elevation
70
60
Distance moved (mm)

50

of disorder
40
or energy not available to do work, increases (or vice versa), or some other process. Similar readjustments
30
with20time as more energy is expended. take place in response to changes in pressure (or stress). Strik-
All processes in nature move toward a state of equilib-
10 ing a rock with a hammer produces an elastic rebound if it is
rium.0 If heat is added to a rock mass, the rock mass will re- not struck hard enough to exceed the elastic strength of the
adjust
−10
to once again establish a state of equilibrium at the rock (Chapter 7). If we strike the rock hard enough to break it,
−20
new−30
temperature. The readjustment may be−0.202
Rate:
Rate: in the
−0.202 form
±± 0.298
0.298 mm yrof
mm yr –1
-1
permanent deformation in the form of a fracture is produced,
plastic
(c)
deformation,
1998 recrystallization,
2001 2004 2007 chemical
2010 reaction
2013 with
2016 and any excess remaining energy is dissipated as a tiny but
Time (years)
fluids, change in deformation style from brittle to ductile measurable temperature increase around the fracture.

Serbia Romania
Mont.
M Russia

Bulgaria
Mace-
donia Georgia
Albania
Alb
lb
bania
Greece
eece Azerbaijan
Armenia
FIGURE 1–14 Map of the eastern
Az.
Mediterranean and Middle East plot-
ting GPS–derived velocity vectors. Turkey
Note that the tail of the arrow is the
station location, and the length and
orientation of the arrows represent the
rate and direction of motion. The ve- Cyprus
Iran
Syria
locity vectors are plotted relative to a
fixed Eurasia and thus are relative, not Lebanon
absolute, velocity vectors. The small Iraq
size of the arrows along the northern Israel
part of the area indicates that Eurasia Libya
is a coherent block, whereas Africa, Jordan Saudi
Arabia, Turkey, and the Hellenic region GPS velocity vectors Arabia
are moving relative to Eurasia. Note the 20 mm yr −1 0 500
relative western movement of Turkey. Egypt
(Modified from Reilinger et al., 2006.) kilometers

H = 10 m
0m 0m
Ice
ρ = 920 kg m‒3 D = 90 m
Water
ρ = 1,000 kg m‒3 ρ = 1,000 kg m‒3
110 m 110 m
Z X
Pressure = 1.078 × 106 Pa = 1.078 × 106 Pa Pressure = 1.034 × 106 Pa ≠ 1.078 × 106 Pa
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1–15 (a) Simple model of isostasy with iceberg floating in water; (b) removal of 5 m of the iceberg; and (c) restoration of isostatic
equilibrium.
Consider an iceberg floating in a large body of water.
We’ve all heard the phrase “it’s just the tip of the iceberg,”
because ice is less dense than the water; the iceberg has a
small part that extends above the waterline and a much
deeper part below the waterline (Figure 1–15a). The height
to depth ratio is controlled by the density contrast between
the ice and the water, because ice is 92 percent as dense as
water; 92 percent of the iceberg is below the waterline.
The pressure at the base of the water may be calculated
using the formula:
Pressure = ρgh
where ρ is the density of the material, g the acceleration due
to gravity, and h the height of the water column. For point
X the pressure equals (1,000 kg m−3) (9.8 m s−2) (110 m) or
1,078,000 kg m−1 s−2 or Pascals (Chapter 5). The pressure
at point Z is equal to that at X and as such the system is in
equilibrium, but what happens if 5 m of ice are removed
from the top of the iceberg (Figure 1–15b)? The pressure
at point Z is now less than that at point X (out of equilib-
rium); therefore the water will flow toward the region of
lower pressure, causing the iceberg to rise upward. Equi-
librium is restored when the pressure at points X and Z
are equal (Figure 1–15c): the iceberg is now 92 percent
below the waterline, and for the 5 m of ice removed it has
rebounded upward 4.5 m. What might control the rate at
which the iceberg is restored to equilibrium?
A large-scale attempt to restore equilibrium is still
occurring in northern Europe and North America after
melting of the last Pleistocene ice sheets. When the ice
sheets formed and loaded the continents with additional
mass, the more rigid lithosphere sank to a lower level in
the less rigid asthenosphere to attain a new equilibrium state.
As the ice melted, the lithosphere was again forced out of
equilibrium and accordingly began rebounding to restore
Introduction | 13
remove 5 m of ice
H = 9.5 m
0m
Ice
Ice ‒3
ρ = 920 kg m‒3 95 m D = 85.5 m ρ = 920 kg m
Water
Water ρ=
1,000 kg m‒3
110 m
Z X Z X
Pressure = 1.078 × 106 Pa = 1.078 × 106 Pa
(c)
a new equilibrium state. As you might expect, the greatest
rebound occurs where the ice was thickest. The condition
of balance, involving a state of equilibrium between blocks
that occurs within the continents and between continents
and the adjacent oceans, is called isostatic equilibrium
(Figure 1–16).
We also can learn about parts of the Earth from areas
that are out of isostatic equilibrium. It is possible to esti-
mate the viscosity of the mantle from the rate of isostatic
rebound of the continents where information on the uplift
rate can be obtained. A good example of this is in the de-
(1­–1) termination of uplift rate of raised beaches from 14C age
determinations (Chapter 3) of wood fragments found in
successive beach levels. The viscosity ( μ) of the mantle be-
neath the uplifted beaches may be estimated from
μ = (tr ρgλ) / 4π (1–2)
where tr is relaxation (rebound) time, ρ is density, g is
the acceleration of gravity, and λ is the wavelength of the
displacement of the Earth’s surface (derived in Turcotte
and Schubert, 2014). The behavior of the mantle may be
approximated as that of an ideal viscous material for our
purposes. Consequently, calculations of this kind enable
us to draw conclusions about the behavior of the mantle
in areas that have undergone recent isostatic rebound.
For example, we can calculate the viscosity of the mantle
beneath the central Canadian Shield by determining the
uplift rate of beach terraces along the shore of James Bay in
northeastern Ontario, and by using estimated dimensions
of the Keewatin ice sheet that covered this area during
the Pleistocene. The oldest beaches in that area are now
180 m above sea level and it is assumed (from gravity data)
that 20 m more uplift will occur from additional rebound.
We can estimate the rate of uplift from the time of re-
treat of the glacier from this region about 8,000 years ago.
 14 | Introduction

Continental Mountains Ocean

Moreover, sea level has already risen 125 m, and so 125 m
Plateau interior must be added to the amount of uplift. The best estimate
basin
basin
of the width of the Keewatin ice sheet was about 9,000 km,
which is the wavelength of the surface displacement in
2.7 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.8 3.0
equation 1–2. The density of the mantle is assumed to be
3,300 kg m−3. Relaxation time (tr ) must first be calculated
Fluid substratum 3.3 to take into account the decreasing rate of uplift with re-
(a) spect to the amount of uplift that has already occurred and
the amount still to occur calculated from
Continental t
Mountains −
interior tr
Plateau Ocean w = wm e , (1–3)
basin basin

2.7 2.7 where w is uplift still to occur (~20 m), wm is total uplift to
2.7 date (180 m from beach data plus 125 m rise in sea level =
2.7 2.7 2.7 305 m), and t is time since uplift began (8,000 y). Rewriting
equation 1–3 in logarithmic form, then solving for tr,
 t 
Fluid substratum 3.3 ln w = ln wm −   ,
 tr 
(b)
t
tr = (1–3a)
ln wm − ln w .
3.0 2.8 2.7 2.75 2.8 3.0
Substituting
Rigid mantle substratum 3.2
8, 000
tr = = 2, 936 y
Fluid substratum 3.3 ln 305 − ln 20
(c)
Calculating μ from equation 1–2,
Lithosphere
not loaded
μ = {[(2,936 y) (365 d y−1) (24 h d−1) (3,600 s h−1)] ×
3,300 kg m−3 × 9.8 m s−2 × (9 × 106 m)} / 4π =
Lithosphere 2.1 × 1021 kg m−1 s−1 or Pa s. (1–4)
loaded
(The units of viscosity, here, Pa s, are pascal seconds. One
pascal is 1 kg m−1 s−2.) The viscosity of water is approxi-
mately 1 × 10−3 Pa s; thus the Earth’s mantle is a very vis-
Lithosphere
unloaded and cous material, but over time it flows and the consequences
rebounding of this flow are profound. The calculation also demonstrates
that the lithosphere responds to loads placed on it in rela-
tively short periods of geologic time. The buoyancy of differ-
ent crustal elements is fundamental and involves all parts
(d) of the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
The phenomenon of isostasy was first discovered in
FIGURE 1–16 Isostatic equilibrium between crustal blocks surveys on the flanks of the Himalayas, where the great
of different densities and thicknesses, as well as between the
continents and oceans. (a) and (b) are the early models of Pratt
topographic relief led to an error in the calculations that
and Airy based separately on different density (in units of g cm−3) could not be compensated by usual corrections. Early iso-
and different sizes of blocks. We realize today that both density static models based on either volume or density failed to sat-
and size affect the isostatic equilibrium of the blocks (c), and are isfy the need for correction. Later, models incorporating
involved in isostatic compensation. (d) shows the effect of load- both volume and density changes (Figure 1–16), along with
ing and unloading of a mass on the lithosphere. Arrows indicate
directions of compensating flow in the asthenosphere during
flexural bending of the crust, best corrected the errors in
and after loading. the surveys and demonstrated the fundamental nature of
the principle of isostatic adjustment.
The emplacement of large thrust sheets (­Chapter 12)
with areas of hundreds of square kilometers and thicknesses
 Introduction | 15

South H i m a l a y a s T i b e t a n P l a t e a u North
26° N 27° N 28° N 29° N 30° N
South
MFT Tibetan Zangpo
10 MBT MCT detachment suture zone Gangdese batholith 10
MCT
SL Tethyan sediments SL
–10 –10
Metamorphosed
–20 Indian Plate –20
Tethyan
kilometers

kilometers
rocks
–30 T oceanic and –30
Indian crust MHT MC forearc rocks
Asian crust
–40 (Lhasa terrane) –40
–50 –50
–60 Indian mantle –60
Moho
–70 –70
–80 –80

T ib CHINA
eta
30°N
Hi
ma
n Pla
te a u FIGURE 1–17 Cross section from northern India through the Himalayas into the Tibetan Plateau. Note
lay that Indian crust is being subducted beneath the Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau, and Asia, creating the thick-
as
est crust and highest mountains in the world. The great elevation of the High Himalayas is considered
INDIA to be at least partly related to this overthickened crust. MFT—Main frontal thrust. MBT—Main boundary
20°N thrust. MCT—Main central thrust. MHT—Main Himalayan thrust. No vertical exaggeration. (Modified from sev-
eral published cross sections and geophysical data in Nelson et al., 1996, Science, v. 274, and Hauck et al.,
80°E 90°E 1998, Tectonics, v. 17.)

of 5 to 10 km would thicken the lithosphere in the immedi-
ate vicinity of the thrust sheet, and would require profound
adjustments in the asthenosphere beneath to accommodate
the increase in lithospheric thickness. The greatest thick-
ness of crust on Earth (~70 km) is beneath the Himalayas
and Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1–17). The isostatic buoyancy
of Indian crust being subducted beneath Asia has driven the
uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and the High ­Himalayas are
being gravitationally extruded from beneath the T ­ ibetan
Plateau. Similarly, crustal extension, like that affecting the
Basin and Range Province in the western United States
(Chapter 13), has unloaded and thinned the lithosphere,
thus decreasing the amount of low density material above
the asthenosphere. So, even though the mantle is a very vis-
cous material (Equation 1–4), it flows to balance loading
and unloading of crustal materials.
Geologic Cycles
Most geologic processes are driven by cyclic changes of
energy fluxes, commonly over millions of years. The rock
or geochemical cycle is probably the most familiar of these
geologic cycles (Figure 1–18). Each stage in the cycle, from
crystallization of magma to conversion of sedimentary
or igneous rocks into metamorphic rocks, is in some way
driven by thermal processes and, to a lesser degree, by
changes in pressure. Inputs of heat or mechanical energy at
particular places short-circuit the cycle. Chemical changes
accompany deformation in several stages of the rock cycle.
All stages attempt to restore equilibrium.
The Wilson or supercontinent cycle (defined earlier in
the plate tectonics section) involves plate motion, beginning
with the opening of an ocean basin and producing a trailing
plate margin like the present-day East Coast of the United
States (Figure 1–19). The trailing margin phase is terminated
by formation of a subduction zone along the margin that
begins to subduct oceanic crust, generate heat and pressure,
and form either a volcanic island arc offshore or a conti-
nental magmatic arc on the old continent. The Wilson cycle
ends with continent-continent collision, closing the ocean.
Stages in the cycle reflect response to changing physical
conditions in an attempt to restore a state of equilibrium to
all or part of the plate system. Mountain building is thus a
direct consequence of a partial or completed Wilson cycle.
The folds and faults we observe in modern mountain chains
or the eroded roots of ancient chains formed in response
to energy expenditure in plate collision zones. The excep-
tionally rapid uplift of the Himalayas indicates extreme iso-
static imbalance in the crust because of the great thickness
of continental crust there. Erosion is rapidly reducing the
elevations in this chain to levels that will be closer to equi-
librium, but rapid uplift has thus far outstripped the erosion
rate. All processes operating upon or within the Earth act
to achieve and maintain equilibrium. Energy is constantly
being dissipated to keep the Earth in a dynamic state. Work
is performed to melt rocks within the Earth to restore equi-
librium, and energy is used to drive several cyclic processes.
Structural geology is an exciting field and an important
geologic discipline with both fundamental and real-world
applicability in many other disciplines. In Chapter 2 we
continue our review and turn to a discussion of nontectonic
structures, including a consideration of primary struc-
tures, many of which are useful to the structural geologist
to determine the facing direction (top) of a sequence and
to help distinguish tectonic from nontectonic structures.
 16 | Introduction

FIGURE 1–18 The rock, or geo- MAGMA T

chemical, cycle—a thermally and
Cooli
mechanically driven equilibrium cycle ng
involving many intermediate states METAMORPHIC ROCKS
and shorter cycles. T—temperature. Gases
P—pressure. PLUTONS &
Water IGNEOUS

Conta
ROCKS

Reg
T, T

ct
io
P

nal
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Weathering METAMORPHISM

T P

Biosphere Erosion Burial

Transportation
Deposition

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

SEDIMENTS
Lithification

Suture (from earlier cycle) FIGURE 1–19 The Wilson cycle of the
opening and closing of an ocean basin.
Continent A Continent B The cycle may be complicated by forma-
tion and movement of suspect terranes,
Rifted Continent A
partial closing of small oceans, and lack of
New ocean
continent-continent collision to terminate
Continent A Crust A Continent B the cycle.
Oceanic crust Oceanic crust

Small ocean Mid-ocean ridge

Continent A Fragment Continent B

Volcanic arc Volcanic arc

Continent A Continent B
Subduct Subduct
ion z ion z
on one
e

Accreted volcanic arc block

Continent A Continent B

Continent A Continent B

Continental collision zone

(Wilson cycle complete)

Continent A Continent B

Chapter Highlights
• Structural geology focuses on understanding the
­geometry, kinematics, dynamics, and mechanics of
earth structures.
• Structural geologists study the processes that cause
­deformation and produce the history of geologic struc-
tures and regions.
• Structural geology has societal relevance, because it plays
a key role in discovering mineral resources (hydrocarbon
and ore deposits), understanding earthquakes, and recog-
nizing geologic hazards.
Questions
1. Why was plate tectonics theory not formulated in the
­nineteenth century, like the unifying theories of physics
and biology?
2. Why do earthquake focal depths generally get deeper with
distance inland from the Peru-Chile trench (Figure 1–1b)?
3. Plate tectonics is essentially a kinematic theory. What spe-
cific evidence demonstrates that lithospheric plates move
over time?
4. Use the GPS data from Auckland, New Zealand (Figure 1–13),
to determine the velocity vector (rate in mm yr−1 and direc-
tion in degrees, e.g., 14 mm yr−1 toward 145°).
5. The Wilson cycle predicts that old ocean basins eventually
begin to close by subduction along their margins, causing
passive continental margins to change into active mar-
gins. The Atlantic Ocean is an old ocean, and some have
­proposed that subduction and the closing of the Atlantic
have already begun. Test that hypothesis using modern
GPS time series data:
a. A GPS station on the Island of Bermuda in the Atlantic
Ocean is moving at a rate of 14.3 mm yr−1 toward 303°, and
a station at Greenbelt, Maryland, in eastern North Amer-
ica is moving at a rate of 15.0 mm yr−1 toward 282°. Calcu-
late the movement vector between these two stations.
b. Is the value calculated in (a) a relative movement vector
or absolute movement vector? Explain.
c. Based on this information, is the western Atlantic Ocean
closing? How can the velocity best be explained be-
tween the two stations?
Introduction | 17
• Structural geologists commonly use field data to anchor
their investigations, but also employ mechanical, exper-
imental, and numerical techniques to answer research
questions and test hypotheses.
• Earth structures form primarily in response to plate tec-
tonic processes, which provide a key framework for geo-
logical science.
• Geologic cycles occur as earth systems work to restore or
maintain equilibrium when mechanical or thermal condi-
tions change.
6. Based on the GPS velocity vectors for the eastern Mediter-
ranean region (Figure 1–14), estimate/locate the position of
plate boundaries and their kinematics (divergent, conver-
gent, or transform).
7. During the Cenozoic Era approximately 2.5 km of mate-
rial was eroded from the central Appalachian Mountains.
How much isostatic uplift should occur due to the re-
moval of 2.5 km of material? Assume a crustal density of
2,700 kg m−3 and a mantle density of 3,300 kg m−3.
8. Derive an equation that relates the depth of the root (D)
on a less dense layer, lying on top of a denser layer, to the
height (H) it extends above the denser layer (analogous
to the iceberg example in Figure 1–15). Use ρu and ρl to
represent the densities of the upper and lower layers,
respectively.
9. Using the mantle viscosity of 2.1 × 1021 Pa in equation 1–4,
calculate the amount of up or down motion of the litho-
sphere (100 km thick, ρ = 2,900 kg m−3) that would result
from loading of the crust (and lithosphere) with a thrust
sheet 300 km long, 100 km wide, and 10 km thick and
having a density of 2,700 kg m−3. Assume the thrust sheet
was emplaced during an instantaneously short period of
geologic time.
10. Why are the elevations of young mountain chains, like the
Alps and Himalayas, so high, but those of older mountains,
like the Appalachians, British Caledonides, and Urals rela-
tively low?
 18 | Introduction

Further Reading
Adams, F. D., 1954, Birth and development of the geological Hoffman, P., 2013, The tooth of time: The North American
sciences: New York, Dover Publications, 506 p. ­Cordillera from Tanya Atwater to Karin Sigloch: Geoscience
Provides an interesting summary of the evolution of geolog- Canada, v. 40, p. 71-93.
ical science from classical times through the beginnings of Provides insight into the development of plate tectonics
modern geology with Hutton, Lyell, Darwin, and others in the ­principles based on connecting the seafloor with land geology.
nineteenth century. Howell, D. G., 1985, Terranes: Scientific American, v. 253, no. 5,
Burchfiel, B. C., 2004, New technology, new geological chal- p. 116–125.
lenges: GSA Today, v. 14, no. 2, p. 4–9. Summarizes the distribution of microplates, or terranes, in and
around the Pacific basin, presenting the background of plate
Cloud, P. E., 1970, Adventures in Earth history: San Francisco,
tectonics and accretion concepts.
W. H. Freeman and Company, 992 p.
Kearey, P., Klepeis, K. A., and Vine, F. R., 2009, Global tectonics,
A compendium of classic papers on the foundations of ideas
3rd edition: Chichester, United Kingdom, Wiley–Blackwell,
on the origin of the Earth, the atmosphere and life, the geologic
482 p.
record, and geologic processes.
Prothero, D. R., and Dott, R. H., Jr., 2010, Evolution of the Earth,
Cox, A., and Hart, R. B., 1986, Plate tectonics: How it works:
8th edition: New York, McGraw-Hill, 576 p.
Oxford, United Kingdom, Blackwell Scientific Publica-
Provides a comprehensive overview of Earth history, with
tions, 392 p.
­additional background material.
Glen, W., 1982, The road to Jaramillo: Critical years of the revolu-
Reilinger, R., et al., 2006, GPS constraints on ­continental
tion in Earth science: Stanford, California, Stanford University
­deformation in the Africa-Arabia-Eurasia continental
Press, 459 p.
­collision zone and implications for the dynamics of plate
Outlines the history of the development of plate-tectonics
interactions: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 111, B05411,
theory, emphasizing use of paleomagnetic measurements.
doi:10.1029/2005JB004051.
Hamilton, W. B., 1979, Tectonics of the Indonesian region: U.S.
Stanley, S. M. and Luczaj, J. A., 2014, Earth system history, 4th
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1078, 345 p.
edition: New York, Freeman, 608 p.
A synthesis of the geology of the Indonesian region, contain-
Wilson, J. T., 1966, Did the Atlantic close and then reopen?:
ing numerous maps showing the elements of a dispersed
Nature, v. 211, p. 676–681.
group of terranes ranging from Precambrian basement to
This short paper sets the stage for the concept of the Wilson cycle.
recent v­ olcanic-arc materials in the initial stages of being
swept back into the Asian continent as Australia moves
northward.
 2

Fundamental Concepts and

Nontectonic Structures

In Chapter 2 we review fundamental geologic concepts and laws, and It has been said that stratigraphy is the
discuss nontectonic structures. You may have become acquainted with
basis of all geology . . .
the fundamental geologic laws in introductory geology courses, and also
­examined primary sedimentary structures in a stratigraphy-sedimentation
course. All of these concepts and features provide a foundation with which MARLAND P. BILLINGS, 1950,
to decipher and understand geologic structures. It is appropriate to review Geological ­Society of America Bulletin
them here to lay the groundwork for our subsequent discussion of geologic
structures and how they form.

Fundamental Concepts
The relationships to be discussed here provide us with powerful tools for
understanding structural geology. Without these concepts, we would be so
severely handicapped that no technologically advanced equipment, such as
sophisticated computers, advanced microscopes, seismological equipment,
or other analytical tools, could help solve structural problems.
A fundamental doctrine in geology is uniformitarianism. James
Hutton, an eighteenth-century Scottish farmer and scientist, was the first
to articulate uniformitarianism as a geologic tenet. Hutton’s writing style
was obscure, and his ideas did not become widely known until the early
nineteenth century when John Playfair rewrote them. The Doctrine of
­Uniformitarianism states that processes occurring today upon and within
the Earth have probably gone on similarly in the past and will continue in
the future. Stated more simply, the present is the key to the past. ­Hutton’s
conclusions were based on his observations along the coasts of Scotland
(Figure 2–1). He observed that sand bars and beaches were constantly
­created and destroyed by storms, and were slowly rebuilt. Hutton also rec-
ognized that the sand in sandstone is the same as that being moved about
on the beach. His observations mark the beginning of modern geology: for
the first time, Hutton recognized that a huge amount of time is both avail-
able and necessary to carry out geologic processes. Before Hutton and long
afterward, the prevailing notion was that unknown catastrophic events
were responsible for geologic processes and features. Uniformitarianism

19
 20 | Introduction
FIGURE 2–1 Observations in the rocks at Siccar Point along the East Coast of Scotland by James Hutton provided key i­nformation that
permitted him to formulate the doctrine of uniformitarianism. Devonian Old Red Sandstone beds are slightly tilted toward the North Sea
and unconformably overlie nearly vertical Ordovician rocks. (Photo by Dave Souza, accessed through Wikipedia.)
immediately led to conflict with religious dogma, result-
ing in debates between scientists and theologians during
the nineteenth century that were further intensified with the
rise of theories to explain organic evolution. Even so,
the validity of the Doctrine of Uniformitarianism has been
questioned (Gould, 1965; Shea, 1982; Rampino, 2017),
bringing out several flaws in the doctrine.
Ironically, catastrophism has again gained a place in
modern geology. Meteorite impacts (near instantaneous
events) are now recognized to have produced dramatic
changes throughout Earth history (e.g., end-of-Mesozoic
extinction; Alvarez et al., 1980). We also realize that, although
movement along a large fault may total many kilometers,
a large part of the motion may have occurred as meter-
scale displacements associated with near-instantaneous
slip during individual earthquakes, not by continuous slip
through time. Study of large active faults like the San Andreas
indicates that some segments move by continuous creep,
but other segments undergo instantaneous catastrophic
movement–producing earthquakes. Hutton was correct
when he recognized the immense amount of time involved
in geologic processes, and so uniformitarianism is the best
means of thinking about geologic processes through time.
These long-term effects may, however, represent the sum of
many instantaneous and even catastrophic events randomly
distributed over the continuum of geologic time.
The Law of Superposition is another cornerstone of geo-
logic thought. It states that within a layered sequence, com-
monly sedimentary or volcanic rocks, the oldest rocks occur
at the base of the sequence and successively younger rocks
occur toward the top, unless the sequence has been inverted
through tectonic activity. Nicolas Steno (Niels Stensen), a
Danish physician with interests in geology, first stated the
law of superposition during the seventeenth century. The
law is of great importance in structural ­geology, because it
is necessary to determine whether the stacking order in a
sequence is upright or has been tectonically ­inverted. The
sequence may have been tilted, completely overturned, or
repeated by folding or faulting (Figure 2–2a). Superposi-
tion is therefore an inviolate second principle in the study
of structural geology. A ­ nother fundamental geologic law
is the Law of Original Horizontality. It states that bed-
ding planes within sediments or sedimentary rocks form in
a horizontal to nearly horizontal orientation at the time of
deposition. This law is fundamental in structural geology,
because bedding is the common initial reference frame
(Figure 2–2b).
Another law that goes hand in hand with working
out the structural history of an area is the Law of
Crosscutting Relationships, applied as either the Law
of Structural Relationships or the Law of Igneous Cross-
cutting Relationships (Figure 2–2c). Both state virtually
the same thing: that an igneous body or a structure—that
is, a dike, batholith, fold, or fault—must be younger than the
rocks it cuts through or deforms. In other words, the rocks
that form the host for an igneous body or that contain a
structure must have been there before the igneous body
was intruded or the structure formed. These laws provide
a basis for placing structures in a relative time context.
Truncation of an earlier structure or igneous body by a
 Fundamental Concepts and Nontectonic Structures | 21

Youngest of fossil organisms may have been restricted to a particular

terrane. Examples are the fusulinid fauna of the late Paleo-
zoic Tethys ocean, and the contrasting Cambrian trilobite
Normal (upright) faunas of North America and Europe.
sequence
Structural geologists use the principle of multiple
working hypotheses. It enables us to formulate more than
Oldest one possible explanation of the same data, to evaluate
(a)
each, and to select the most likely hypothesis. Say, for ex-
Oldest
ample, you get in your car to run some errands, but the car
will not start. Several possibilities come to mind: (1) the
Inverted (overturned) battery may be dead; (2) the starter switch is broken; (3)
sequence
the starter itself is broken; and (4) your car is out of fuel.
Right away, you eliminate option (4), because you filled
Youngest
up the fuel tank the day before. The others are more dif-
(b) ficult to sort out. The solution is to collect additional data
Deformed
to be able to eliminate all but one of the other possibilities.
Horizontal to nearly Former erosion layering The same process applies to problems in structural geol-
horizontal bedding surface no longer ogy. Suppose you are working in a field area that lacks a
horizontal
critical exposure needed to correctly interpret the contact
between an igneous body and the overlying sedimentary
sequence (Figure 2–3a). You hypothesize that the contact
can be: (1) an intrusive contact; (2) a fault; or (3) an un-
conformity. Each hypothesis may initially be equally valid.
You begin by sorting through your previous observations
(c)
and ask: With regard to (1): have you observed metamor-
phism or other alteration of the sedimentary rocks near
Fault younger the contact? With regard to (2): have you observed crushed
than both pluton rocks or other evidence of faulting near the contact? With
Pluton and intruded regard to (3): have you observed clasts of the igneous rocks
must be country rocks
younger
incorporated into the base of the overlying sedimentary
than sequence? Exposures of thermally metamorphosed rocks
country along the contact eliminate the second and third possibili-
rocks
ties (Figure 2–3b), but before discovery of the critical data,
(d) all working hypotheses were equally valid.
FIGURE 2–2 Cross sections illustrating the laws of (a) superposition
with an upright sequence, (b) superposition in the same sequence
The contact could be
overturned, (c) original horizontality, and (d) crosscutting (1) an intrusive contact,
relationships. (2) a fault, or
(3) an unconformity
Sand
Contact stone
covered Lime
later structure, an unconformity (to be discussed later), or by soil stone
a younger pluton of known age provides a minimum age ?
for the earlier features. Bracketing structures and igneous Granite
(a)
bodies in time is an essential part of understanding the
geologic history of an area. Ah ha! Marble with
wollastonite and garnet
Initially, the Law of Faunal Succession may seem far
from useful to structural geologists. It states that fossil
organisms should systematically change, with more Sand
stone
­advanced (evolved) organisms toward the top of a sequence. Lime
stone
This provides the basis for determination of relative age Marb
le
of fossiliferous sequences and permits determination of Granite
whether a sequence is upright or tectonically overturned. (b)
It is therefore of major importance in unraveling the struc-
FIGURE 2–3 (a) Use of the principle of multiple working
tural history of an area where the rocks are fossiliferous. hypotheses to interpret the contact between a granite pluton and
Fossils have also played a key role in the identification of a host rock. (b) Without data collected at a critical exposure, the
exotic terranes (see Chapter 1), because particular groups contact could be an intrusive contact, an unconformity, or a fault.
 22 | Introduction
There is also value in the outrageous hypothesis (Davis,
1926; Wise, 1963) as an alternative working hypothe-
sis, because it provides a focus for critical pieces of data
toward a solution to a problem. An outrageous hypothesis
appears to be an impossible solution to the problem from
the moment it is formulated. Considering the data, it may
gain the position of a credible, alternative working hypoth-
esis, or it may be quickly abandoned as other more likely
working hypotheses are formulated.
In the early twentieth century, Raphael Pumpelly first
noted that small structures are a key to and mimic the styles
and orientations of larger structures of the same generation
in an area. Pumpelly’s rule holds if all structures referred
to were formed at the same time by the same stresses in
rocks of similar properties. They also must have been de-
formed similarly on all scales, so the structures would pro-
vide a basis for presuming that small and large structures
of the same generation in an area are related. Because we
are not always able to observe structures on all scales,
Pumpelly’s rule allows us to assume similarity from hand
specimen to map scale of structures formed at the same
time (Figure 1–7a). Pumpelly’s rule may also be consid-
ered a statement of the principle of self-similarity or scale
invariance. The scale invariance (fractal geometry) of many
­geological structures, such as fracture networks, folds, and
mineral deposits, is important, because it enables us to
visualize the configuration of large and small structures
without ever directly observing the entire structure.
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Primary sedimentary structures form along with the rock
mass of which they are a part, and have a nontectonic
origin. They include bedding and features such as mud
cracks, ripples, sole marks, vesicles, and others. For the
NW
e of
surfac
a l
Axi
Upright
limb
0 5 10
Facing direction of beds
kilometers
FIGURE 2–4 Geologic cross section of the Tay nappe in the Scottish Highlands. The resolution of overturned and upright structures was
accomplished by R. M. Shackleton using facing directions of sedimentary sequences determined from sedimentary structures. Heavy red
arrows indicate facing direction. (Reproduced by permission of the Geological Society, from Downward-facing structures of the Highland
Border, R. M. Shackleton, in Quarterly Journal of the Geology Society of London, v. 113, 1958.)
structural geologist, primary structures, where present,
are very useful for determining the facing (younging)
­direction (which way was up) in a sequence of rocks. Facing
directions enable us to ascertain if a sequence is upright
or overturned. Except for fossils, primary structures are
probably the best tools for working out the structural
geometry and history in deformed rocks. Shackleton
(1958) used primary sedimentary structures to determine
that a large part of the rocks in the southern Highlands of
Scotland are upside down and make up the inverted limb
of a large overturned fold (Figure 2–4).
In studies of deformed rocks, we need to know whether
the observed structures have a tectonic or ­nontectonic
origin (Figure 2–5). Many structures that formed in
primary depositional environments may mimic struc-
­
tures in rocks that formed in response to tectonic defor-
mation. Thus, it is important to make the distinction.
Moreover, many sedimentary structures that form at or
near the ­surface provide useful models to compare with
tectonic structures that form at elevated temperatures and
pressures. For example, structures formed by ductile flow
(Chapter 7) in water-saturated silt, glacial ice, and evapo-
rite (halite, gypsum, anhydrite) deposits at surface pres-
sure and temperature (P-T) conditions are almost identical
to those formed at much higher P-T conditions in rocks
deformed at depths of 20 km or more.
Bedding
The most common characteristic and most diagnostic fea-
ture of sedimentary rocks is bedding, and because it forms
mostly in a horizontal orientation, it is the first-order ref-
erence surface for most structural measurements. Bedding
planes form in primary sedimentary environments and
become mechanical zones of weakness as the sediment is
lithified—converted to rock (Figure 2–6). Bedding exists
for several reasons, most commonly because of composi-
tional or textural differences in sediment at the interfaces
anticline
Aberfoyle SE
Inverted limb of Tay nappe
Upright
Subhorizontal limb
overturned beds
ult
bou ighland
r y fa
nda
H
Fold axial surface
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 In the grottoes within the Caucasian icy mountains, which the bold
glance of mortal has never spied, where the frost creates an eternal
translucent vault and dulls the fall of the sun’s rays, where lightning
is dead, where thunder is fettered, there stands, cut into ice, a
mighty mansion. There are the storms, there are the cold, blizzards,
tempests; there Winter reigns, devouring years. This austere sister
of other days, though hoary, is swift and agile. Rival of Spring,
Autumn and Summer, she is clad in the purple woven of snow; stark-
frozen steam serves her as veil. Her throne has the form of a
diamond mountain. Great pillars, of ice constructed, cast a silvery
sheen, illumined by the sun; over the heavenly vault glides the solar
splendour, and then it seems a mass of ice is on fire.
The elements have no motion: the air dares not move, nor the fire
glow. There are no coloured fields; among the fields of ice gleam
only frozen flowery vapours; the waters in the heavens, melted by
the rays, hang, petrified, in wavy layers; there in the air you may
discern the words of prophecy, but all is stark, and nature dead. Only
tremor, chill and frost have life; hoar frosts move about, while
zephyrs grow dumb; snowstorms whirl about in flight, frosts reign in
the place of summer luxury. There the ice represents the ruins of
cities, one look at which congeals your blood. Pressed by the frosts,
the snows there form silvery mounds and fields of diamonds. From
there Winter spreads her dominion over us, devouring the grass in
the fields, the flowers in the vales, and sucking up the living sap of
trees, and on cold pinions bears frosts to us, driving day away,
prolonging gloomy nights, and compelling the sun to turn aside his
beaming eyes: with trembling, forests and rivers await her, and chills
weave her shrouds from the white billows.
Platón (in civil life Peter Geórgevich) Levshín.
(1737-1812.)
What Feofán Prokopóvich had been to the reign of Peter
the Great, Platón was to Catherine II. After having studied in
the Moscow Theological Academy, where he became a
teacher even before ending his course, he took the tonsure at
twenty-two; at twenty-five he was made rector of the
Seminary. In the same year he attracted Catherine’s attention
by an eloquent speech On the Usefulness of Piety, and he
was at once called to St. Petersburg to be her son’s spiritual
teacher (see p. 326). Platón rose rapidly, and in 1787 he was
made metropolitan of Moscow. His liberal and enlightened
views on theology were valued not only at home, but his Brief
Theology, originally published in 1755, has been translated
into most European languages, and three times into English.
A Russian source informs us that his book on theology was
made a text-book at Oxford and Cambridge. Several
Englishmen who had visited him, and Dr. Stanley, spoke in
the highest terms of this Russian divine.
The translation of his Brief Theology in English bears the
following titles: The Present State of the Greek Church in
Russia; or, A Summary of Christian Divinity, by Platón, Late
Metropolitan of Moscow, translated from the Slavonian ... by
Robert Pinkerton, Edinburgh, 1814, and New York, 1815; The
Orthodox Doctrine of the Apostolic Eastern Church; or, A
Compendium of Christian Theology, translated from the
Greek ... to which is appended a Treatise on Melchisedec,
London, Manchester [printed], 1857; Κατηχησις—The Great
Catechism of the Holy Catholic Apostolic and Orthodox
Church, translated from the Greek by J. T. S., London, 1867.
A Sermon preached by order of Her Imperial Majesty, on the
Tomb of Peter the Great, in the Cathedral Church of St.
Petersburg, London, 1770.
 WHAT ARE IDOLATERS?

The second commandment forbiddeth idolatry, and every unlawful

mode of worshipping God.
At one time, almost all nations were in such a state of error (and
even now there are many in the same situation), that they
worshipped the creatures as gods, such as the sun, the moon, fire,
also the lower animals, as bulls, cats, crocodiles; and some even
worshipped herbs, such as onion and garlic; and to all these they
offered sacrifices, and paid other divine honours, or they made
statues in the likeness of men and other animals, and bowed down
before them as if they were divinities. But from these shocking and
awful errors, the grace of Jesus Christ has delivered us (I Peter iv.
3).
Such persons also resemble those idolaters as labour for
Mammon and their belly; that is, whose thoughts are all taken up
about amassing riches, which they either do not make use of, or only
sacrifice to their fleshly lusts. With such people, Mammon and the
belly are the idols, to whom they devote all their services; and on this
account the Holy Scriptures call the love of riches, idolatry (Col. iii.
5); and those also idolaters who make their belly their God (Phil. iii.
19).
This commandment also forbids the use of all unlawful means in
the worship of God; that is, when anyone thinks of pleasing God by
that which is not acceptable to Him, and which is not commanded in
His Word. Such, for instance, were those Israelites who presented to
God costly sacrifices while they led ungodly lives. And therefore
God, through His prophet Isaiah, declared sacrifices presented from
such hands to be hateful in His eyes; that is, their oblations were
vain, their incense was an abomination and their fatted calves like
dogs in His sight (chap. i. II). Those persons consequently
transgress against this commandment:
1. Who offer hypocritical worship.—Who utter long prayers, which
of itself is pious, but suppose that they shall be heard for their much
speaking, though at the same time they feel no contrition of spirit. Of
a similar character, also, are those hypocrites who on every occasion
show themselves zealous for the name of God, zealous for the faith,
the glory and the interests of the Church, and who introduce all their
speeches with spiritual observations (which in themselves are
praiseworthy), but who with all this have nothing in view but the
indulgence of a spirit of ostentation, or promoting their own interest
in all that they do, and whose zeal consists only in words with which
their conduct does not in the least agree.
2. Hypocritical observances of the fasts.—Who fast, that is,
abstain from certain kind of food, and on that account hope for divine
acceptance, though at the same time they live in every kind of
iniquity. By them the real fast, which does not consist merely in
abstinence from food, but in restraining the corrupt passions, is evil
spoken of. Such, also, are those who adorn the churches, or cover
the pictures of the saints with gold and silver, yet at the same time
oppress the innocent, who are the Church of the living God, or leave
the poor without food. It is in vain, however, for them to declare that
they have done all that they should have done in order to be saved;
for, according to the words of Christ “these ought they to have done,
and not to leave the other undone” (Matt. xxiii. 23).
3. The superstitious.—Who invent certain miraculous kinds of
appearances, for the sake of filthy lucre, or from some sort of
extravagant ideas about the salvation of their souls, or who attach an
unknown kind of sanctity to some particular places, believing that
God will hear prayers sooner in one place than in another. In a word,
all those who transgress against this commandment, who, according
to the testimony of Christ, place their hope of salvation in externals,
and “omit the weightier matters of law, judgment, mercy and faith.”
Therefore, respecting such characters, divine truth declares “This
people draweth nigh unto me with their mouth, and honoureth me
with their lips; but their heart is far from me. But in vain they do
worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men”
(Matt. xv. 8, 9).
 Reverencing the pictures is not contrary to this commandment.
We do not act contrary to this commandment, when, according to
the ancient custom of Christians, we adorn our temples with the holy
pictures. For, in the first place, we do not attempt to draw upon the
canvas a representation of the unseen and incomprehensible God,
whom we never can represent; but we represent our Saviour in the
fashion of a man which He took upon Himself, or His favourites.
Secondly, the pictures are made and placed in our churches, not for
deification, but to commemorate the acts of God and of His chosen
servants, that we, in beholding them (as, for instance, in looking on
the picture of our crucified Saviour), may stir up our soul to piety and
to the imitation of them in many acts of their lives. Thirdly, the
obeisance which we make before the pictures we do not render to
the pictures themselves, that is, to the boards, colours, ornaments or
skill of the artist, but we render this to the person whom they
represent, and to the pictures only an affectionate salutation. Thus,
for example, I bow before the picture of my Saviour, but the devotion
of my spirit, my faith, supplication and hope, and the obeisance
which I pay, are all rendered to my Saviour alone, who is in heaven,
and everywhere present, and the picture is only a kind of sensible
incitement of my devotion. Moreover, it is necessary to be known
that the obeisance performed before the picture of our Saviour, and
that before the picture of any of the saints, though to appearances
the same, yet in reality are very different indeed. For the worship
which I perform before the picture of the Saviour consists in the
deepest humility of soul before Him as Lord and Creator of all; but
that which I perform before the pictures of the saints is a reverence
which I render to them out of a loving heart as His favourites, and as
of the same nature, and of the same Church, and members of the
same body with myself.

Of such as err in reverencing the pictures.

But notwithstanding all that has been said, this lawful and holy
reverencing of the pictures may be turned into the most abominable
sin of idolatry. This is the case when anyone hopes in, or attaches all
his respect to the holy pictures, and trusts in their material
substance; when, for instance, anyone finds greater sanctity in one
picture than in another, or places in them any hope of salvation.
They, too, are chargeable with this guilt who bring their own
particular picture into the church along with them, and only worship
before it, or who respect those pictures more which are adorned than
the unadorned, the old more than the new, or decline praying at all
when they have not a picture before them. All these, and such like,
are great transgressors, and prove a great disgrace to the real
profession of the Christian faith.
In order to avoid the above-named errors, it is necessary to
remember, 1st, That the worship of God can never be sincere,
unless it proceed from a contrite and unfeigned spirit. For all external
rites of worship are only marks testifying our internal piety and
sincerity towards God, without which they signify nothing. And
therefore the gospel requires that the worshippers of God should
worship Him in spirit (not externally alone), and in truth, or not in
hypocrisy. 2d, We must hold to the divine Word alone, and rest
assured that it only contains the true rules by which we ought to
please God. And therefore Christ said concerning the Holy
Scriptures that in them is contained eternal life.—From The Present
State of the Greek Church in Russia, translated by R. Pinkerton.

FROM THE ADDRESS UPON THE ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER

I.

Thus has the Lord granted to us the privilege of seeing our

Emperor crowned and exalted above men. But we, sons of Russia,
what is our part in this solemnity? Do not our thanksgivings resound
in gratitude to the King of kings for the grace He has bestowed on
our monarch and upon us? Yes, they resound with heartfelt fervour,
warmed with hopes of a future reign of national glory and
happiness!...
This crown, Sire, on your head, is a pledge to us of honour, fame
and renown, but imposes upon you duties and labours which can
only cease with your life; this sceptre in your right hand, a guarantee
to us of repose, demands of you incessant vigilance for our
protection; this emblem of empire in your left hand, a promise to us
of security, exacts of you little but anxiety and care; this purple, for us
a shield and defence from our enemies, challenges you to war and
contests; finally, this whole Imperial attire, to us a source of
consolation and confidence, is for you a burden wrought with danger
and toil—yes, a burden and a labour. For see, to your eyes there will
appear an empire the largest upon which the sun has ever shone;
from your wisdom it looks for the harmonious connection of its parts,
the regulation of the whole. You will see flocking to your feet widows,
orphans, the most destitute, the victims of the abuse of power, of
favour, of corruption and of crime....
But, alas! that near the angels of light the eye should discover the
fiendish spirits of darkness. Flattery, calumny and cunning, with all
their wretched brood, will surround your throne, and foolishly imagine
that their hypocrisy will beguile you. Bribery and partiality will raise
their glossy heads and labour to lower the scale of justice. Luxury,
adorned with every voluptuous charm, presents the intoxicating
draughts of perilous joys to lead astray from the path of virtue the
pure spirit, and engulf it in the slough of indolence and sensuality.
Besieged by this riotous band, you will undoubtedly turn to truth,
justice, wisdom and religion, and, united with you, they will raise their
voice to God that He may rise again in you, and scatter your
enemies.
Monarch of Russia! This struggle awaits you. For this contest gird
on your sword! Draw it with valour, young hero! Fight, conquer and
govern! The omnipotent arm of the Almighty will wonderfully protect
you. We say rightly “wonderfully”; for here not to fall, here to
conquer, here to maintain order and peace, truly! for this is more
than human strength required; and, though the decree of the Eternal
Being has appointed for you an exalted rank among men, you are
nevertheless a man like any of us.—Given in Grahame’s The
Progress of Science, Art and Literature in Russia.
 Iván Ivánovich Khémnitser. (1745-1784.)
Khémnitser was the son of a German physician who had
emigrated to Russia. At thirteen years of age he left his home
and entered military service, which he left in 1769 as a
lieutenant; he then served in the Department of Mines, and
died in Smyrna, where he was Russian consul. Khémnitser
translated La Fontaine’s and Gellert’s fables, but two-thirds of
all the fables he wrote are his own. He forms the transitional
stage between Sumarókov and Krylóv, and is distinguished
for extreme simplicity of language and a certain elegiac tone.
Sir John Bowring has translated his The House-Builder,
The Rich and the Poor Man, The Lion’s Council of State, and
The Waggons. Sutherland Edwards, in his The Russians at
Home, gives a version of The Metaphysician, which is also
reprinted in F. R. Grahame’s The Progress of Science, Art
and Literature in Russia.

THE LION’S COUNCIL OF STATE

A lion held a court for state affairs:

Why? That is not your business, sir, ’twas theirs!
He called the elephants for counsellors—still
The council-board was incomplete;
And the king deemed it fit
With asses all the vacancies to fill.
Heaven help the state—for lo! the bench of asses
The bench of elephants by far surpasses.
 He was a fool, the foresaid king, you’ll say:
Better have kept those places vacant surely,
Than fill them up so poorly.
O no! that’s not the royal way;
Things have been done for ages thus,—and we
Have a deep reverence for antiquity:
Naught worse, sir, than to be, or to appear
Wiser and better than our fathers were.
The list must be complete, even though you make it
Complete with asses; for the lion saw
Such had for ages been the law,—
He was no radical to break it!
“Besides,” he said, “my elephants’ good sense
Will soon my asses’ ignorance diminish,
For wisdom has a mighty influence.”
They made a pretty finish!
The asses’ folly soon obtained the sway:
The elephants became as dull as they!

—From Sir John Bowring’s Specimens of the Russian Poets, Part I.

THE METAPHYSICIAN

A father had heard that children were sent beyond the sea to
study, and that those who had been abroad are invariably preferred
to those who had never been there, and that such people are
respected as being possessed of wisdom. Seeing this, he decided to
send his son also beyond the sea, for he was rich and did not wish to
fall behind the others.
His son learned something, but, being stupid, returned more stupid
yet. He had fallen into the hands of scholastic prevaricators who
more than once have deprived people of their senses by giving
explanations of inexplicable things; they taught him no whit, and sent
him home a fool for ever. Formerly he used to utter simply stupid
things, but now he gave them a scientific turn. Formerly fools only
could not understand him, but now even wise men could not grasp
him: his home, the city, the whole world, was tired of his chattering.
Once, raving in a metaphysical meditation over an old proposition
to find the first cause of all things,—while he was soaring in the
clouds in thought,—he walked off the road and fell into a ditch. His
father, who happened to be with him, hastened to bring a rope, in
order to save the precious wisdom of his house. In the meantime his
wise offspring sat in the ditch and meditated: “What can be the
cause of my fall? The cause of my stumbling,” the wiseacre
concluded, “is an earthquake. And the precipitous tendency towards
the ditch may have been produced by an aërial pressure, and a
coactive interrelation of the seven planets and the earth and ditch.”...
His father arrived with the rope: “Here,” he said, “is a rope for you!
Take hold of it, and I will pull you out. Hold on to it and do not let it
slip!” “No, don’t pull yet: tell me first what kind of a thing is a rope?”
His father was not a learned man, but he had his wits about him,
so, leaving his foolish question alone, he said: “A rope is a thing with
which to pull people out of ditches into which they have fallen.” “Why
have they not invented a machine for that? A rope is too simple a
thing.” “’T would take time for that,” his father replied, “whereas your
salvation is now at hand.” “Time? What kind of a thing is time?”
“Time is a thing that I am not going to waste with a fool. Stay there,”
his father said, “until I shall return!”
How would it be if all the other verbose talkers were collected and
put in the ditch to serve him as companions? Well, it would take a
much larger ditch for that.
 Yákov Borísovich Knyazhnín. (1742-1791.)
Knyazhnín was born in Pskov, where he received his early
education; in St. Petersburg he acquired German, French and
Italian, and began to write verses. He served in civil and
military government offices. In 1769 he wrote his first tragedy,
Dido, which attracted Catherine’s attention to him. He then
married Sumarókov’s daughter and devoted himself more
especially to literature. Knyazhnín wrote a number of
tragedies and comedies: the subject of all of these is taken
from Italian and French, thus his Vadím of Nóvgorod is based
on Metastasio’s Clemenza di Tito, and the original of Odd
People is Destouches’s L’homme singulier. The Vadím of
Nóvgorod had a peculiar history. Knyazhnín had great
admiration for Catherine and her autocratic rule. In his Vadím
he tried to depict the struggle between republican Nóvgorod
and the monarchic Rúrik, in which the latter comes out
victorious, to the advantage of unruly Nóvgorod. He had
written it in 1789, but did not stage it on account of the
disturbed condition of Europe under the incipient French
Revolution. Two years after his death, in 1793, Princess
Dáshkov, the President of the Academy, inadvertently ordered
it to be published. The book appeared most inopportunely, at
the very time the Revolution had broken forth. The tendency
of the tragedy was overlooked, and only the republican
utterances of Vadím were taken notice of. The book was
ordered to be burnt by the executioner, but as only a few
copies could be found in the storeroom of the Academy, the
rest having been sold in the meanwhile, they were privately
destroyed.

VADÍM OF NÓVGOROD

ACT I., SCENE 2. VADÍM, PRENÉST AND VÍGOR

 Vadím. Could Rúrik so transform your spirit that you only weep
where your duty is to strike?
Prenést. We burn to follow you, to be glorified for ever, to crush
the haughty throne, to resuscitate our land; but though the zeal
already burns within our hearts, it sees as yet no means of its
fulfilment. Disdaining harsh and laborious days, if needs we must
die, we are ready; but that our death be not in vain and could save
our beloved land from evil, and that, intent to break the fetters, we
tighten them not more in servitude,—we must expect the aid of the
immortals, for the gods can give us a favourable opportunity.
Vadím. So we must depend alone upon the gods and ingloriously
remain the slaves we are? The gods have given us the opportunity
to wrest back freedom, and hearts to dare, and hands to strike! Their
aid is within us: what else do you wish? Go, creep, await in vain their
thunder, but I alone, boiling with anger, will move to die for you, for I
can brook no master! O fate! For three years absent from my
country, enticed by victory for its glory I left liberty and happiness
within these walls against us erected, and have been hurling pride
into the dust. I bear the fruit of my exploits a gift to my nation: but
what do I see? Lords who have lost their liberty bent in loathsome
slavery before the king, and kissing their yoke under the sceptre. Tell
me, how could you, seeing your country’s fall, for a moment prolong
your life in shame? And if you could not preserve your liberty,—how
could you bear the light and want to live?
Vígor. As before, we burn with love for our fatherland!
Vadím. Prove it not with words, but with your blood! From your
speech reject that sacred word. Or can slaves have a fatherland?
Vígor. Your spirit justly is with grief embittered, but in vain you,
bedimmed by anger, accuse us, who are innocent, of such an evil
crime. No sooner did you before the army bid our land good-bye,
than many lords, seeing a means for evildoing, they, the mighty, let
into the city, for the country’s doom, arrogance, envy, hatred, riot.
The home of peace was transformed into a hell; the holy truth
henceforth passed away; liberty, flurried, tottered to its fall; civil strife
with brazen brow erected a house of death upon the bodies of its
citizens. The people seeing itself a prey of hungry ravens fought with
madness for the election of a tyrant. The whole Vólkhov boiled with
reeking blood. Pitiful Nóvgorod, you saw no salvation! The venerable
Gostomýsl, with grey hair adorned, had lost all his sons under these
our walls, and, weeping not for them but the calamity of the citizens,
was alone given to us a consolation by the immortals. He invited
Rúrik to our aid, and with his sword returned happiness to us. Just
then, worn out from years and woes, Gostomýsl ended his days,
beaming with joy for having brought back peace to his country; but
departing to the gods and honouring Rúrik’s heroism, he enjoined
the nation to leave to him the power which had put a stop to its
groans and sorrows. Our people, touched by so great deserts,
placed the saviour over itself as ruler.
Vadím. Ruler! Rúrik! What nation has he saved? Having come to
our aid, what has he done for us? He has paid a debt! However his
benefactions may have seemed to you to deserve repayment, were
you compelled to pay with your liberty, and make your enslavement
a gift to merit? O low souls that fall down before fate and are
inveigled by the stream of chance,—oh, if you had known how to
respect yourselves! Blessed would Rúrik be, if he had been able,
though clad in porphyry, to become equal to our citizens. Renowned
by his high title among all kings, he would have been sufficiently
rewarded by this distinction. Tell me: did Gostomýsl, aware of his
heroic deeds, enjoin fetters to you, to end your woes, or was his will
the freedom of the citizens? Or did he turn you over to him, like
those beasts whom anyone who lists may bridle?

ODD PEOPLE

ACT II., SCENE 2. MRS. INDOLENT, ÚLINKA, WEATHERVANE

Weathervane. Ma charmante Úlinka! Oh, how beautiful you are!

Tous ces gens, how stupid, how dishonest, and they will not see in
your eyes what I see.
Úlinka. And what do you see?
 Weathervane. Friponne! As if you did not know yourself that it is
not possible to hate you, that you are fairer than heaven! (Úlinka
courtesies.) You courtesy! How elegant! What a consolation to have
such a daughter! (To Mrs. Indolent.) Is it not so, Maman?
Mrs. Indolent. I must confess that her education is what her birth
demands, and as she has all liberty in her movements, as behooves
a daughter born of me, she is, sir, removed from all coarseness; and
keeping herself aloof from everything, as our dignity demands, she
knows neither how to sew nor weave, leaving such occupations to
common people; she dances like a peacock, sings like a nightingale,
and, knowing French like a Frenchwoman, she would like to forget
her Russian; she retires at three o’clock, rises at twelve, and passes
two hours at her toilet.
Weathervane. Bravo, madam! That’s the way it ought to be before
the world and men,—ah, how do you call it? pour les gens du haut
ton. You must pardon me a little, madam, if I too, duly cautious of my
honour, regard our language to be nothing but a jargon, in which it is
not possible properly to express your thoughts, and where you have
to wear yourself out mercilessly in the attempt of finding your ideas.
Only out of compulsion do I speak that language to my lackey,
coachman and with all common people, where there is no need to
exert yourself in thinking. But with our distinguished people it would
be to appear a fool, not to speak French to them. Pray tell me, how
could I fall in love? Je brûle, je languis! How could I express that in
Russian to charming Úlinka: I faint, I burn,—fi donc! I must assume
that you speak French, and so does your époux....
Mrs. Indolent (perplexed). Of course, of course! Comment vous
portez-vous?
Weathervane. Bravo, madam!
Mrs. Indolent. I am now a little out of practice, but formerly I never
prattled in Russian.
Weathervane. You will hardly believe how poor I am in Russian! In
Russian my intelligence is so narrow, so small! But in French: o, que
le diable m’emporte! My intelligence at once walks in by the grande
porte. I’ll tell you what once happened to me. I was once sitting with
a young lady who did not know two words of French, and that
caused ma tête horriblement to ache, so that I had to pass a whole
day at home in undress.
Mrs. Indolent. I should not think the harm could be so great. The
pain, no doubt, was caused through nagimation.
Weathervane. Imagination you meant to say?
Mrs. Indolent. That’s it. You see, though I am a little out of practice,
I am still able to adorn our coarse tongue, which I despise, with
French morsels. My époux has always seemed such an odd fellow to
me because, though he knows French like a Frenchman, he does
not care to amuse himself with that charming language.
Weathervane. That, madam, I cannot understand. A nobleman....
Mrs. Indolent. Oh! His race is as distinguished as the ace of
trumps, and nobody can compare with him in antiquity of origin: he
can recount his ancestors a thousand years back.
Weathervane. And so there is not the least obstacle, ma
charmante Úlinka, for regarding you as my own! (Úlinka makes a
courtesy.) Everything is equal in us: the graces, and pleasures, and
intelligence, je m’en flatte, and even our families. (Úlinka courtesies.)
How delicate your courtesying at the mention of family! Courtesying
takes the place of redundant language, de discours frivoles,
superfluous babbling. She knows how to say everything in a
charming manner, and with modesty to express an immodest wish,
who knows how to courtesy like Úlinka. (Noticing Mrs. Indolent’s
husband.) Please tell me who is that bear that is walking towards
us?
Mrs. Indolent. My husband.
Weathervane. You are joking! Is it not rather his ancestor who a
thousand years ago began his race?
Mrs. Indolent. The exterior, you know, does not tell much. In this
world, sir, it is not rare for hidden nobility to deceive the eye: though
the diamond does not shine in the dark, yet it is a diamond. He is, I
assure you, a nobleman of ancient race, and, forgive me, a bit of a
philosopher.
Weathervane. Is it not a shame to rank yourself with asses? Is it
an occupation for a nobleman to philosophise?
Mrs. Indolent (to Úlinka). Now, Úlinka, you cannot stay here; we
have to talk with father about you. (Úlinka courtesies. Exit.)

SCENE 3. INDOLENT, MRS. INDOLENT, WEATHERVANE

Mrs. Indolent (aside). O Heaven! Help me to end all successfully. I

tremble, I am afraid my husband will give me away, for he cannot
speak a word of French, and it is but recently that he was made a
nobleman. How unfortunate I am! How am I to bear it all? (To her
husband.) You see here that distinguished cavalier who is doing us
the extreme honour.
Weathervane (bending, greets him foppishly). I wish to be a son-
in-law....
Indolent (seating himself). He who wants to sit down, let him sit
down. I have no use for your manners, according to which one has
to be urged to sit down. Well, distinguished cavalier ... (Weathervane
bows again foppishly) please quit your monograms which you are
making with your feet. By bowing in flourishes, between us be it said,
you will find little favour with me. With all these goatlike leaps a
person appears to me to be full of wind and without a soul. Sir, make
a mental note of it, if you wish to be my son-in-law.
Weathervane. If I wish? O ciel! Those are tous mes vœux! Agnes
Sorel was not so loved by the French king, as your daughter by me.
Je jurerai toujours, I may say without making any court to her, she is
a divinité!
Indolent (to his wife in amazement). From where, dear wife, has
God sent you such a cavalier?
Weathervane. Beaucoup d’honneur, monsieur! So I have found
favour in your eyes? I knew I would. You will not find another one like
me, monsieur!
 Indolent. Mosyo, give me a chance to regain my senses! I beg
you....
Weathervane. But you put me to shame: you flatter me by saying
that you are stunned by me.
Indolent. Proceed, tormentor!
Weathervane. ’Tis true I have merite; without boasting, j’ose vous
dire that; but I do not know whether it will cause any delire,—only the
world says that it would take a pretty good man to beat me for talent;
qu’un homme tel que moi....
Indolent. Don’t believe it, the world often rants.
Weathervane. Comment?
Indolent. Tell me, are you a Russian or a Frenchman?
Weathervane. Hélas! I am not a Frenchman!
Indolent. What makes you groan so?
Weathervane (sorrowfully). I am a Russian, and that is a burden
on my heart.
Indolent. And so you regard it an insult to be a Russian? A fine
distinguished nobleman!
Weathervane. I am very, very glad, on ne peut plus, that I have
pleased you, monsieur; que vous avez the same thoughts as I. How
can we best prove our nobility? By not knowing Russian, despising
all that is ours,—those are the veritable signs of our descent.
Indolent. Though I cannot understand everything you say, since I
do not know any foreign words, yet by the marks....
Weathervane. Vous vous moquez, monsieur. You do know French.
Indolent (angrily). No, no, no!
Weathervane. At your age, monsieur, it is not proper for you to
deceive me. You speak French like a Frenchman, or like myself.
Indolent (impatiently). Wife, assure him of it, and put a stop to this
nonsense.
 Weathervane (angrily). Je ne le croirai point! How stubborn you
are!
Indolent (excitedly). The devil....
Mrs. Indolent (rapidly). My darling, please do not get angry.
Indolent (excitedly). Both of you go to! I have not seen the like of
him in all my life.
Mrs. Indolent. You are a philosopher, and does Seneca, sir, teach
you that?
Indolent (coolly). I am ready to constrain myself, if only he will talk
Russian with me.
Weathervane. What! you are of a very noble origin, and you are
piqued?
Indolent (beside himself). Who told you so? I am of burgher origin,
but of a good family.
Weathervane. You, monsieur, have been a nobleman these
thousand years.
Indolent. Believe me, I am a new-baked dumpling; but I am more
juicy than those that have grown tough.
Mrs. Indolent. Stop that....
Indolent. That we may understand each other, I shall tell you
plainly: my father, all remember that, was an honest smith.
Weathervane. Qu’entends-je! (He walks away, singing a French
song.)
Indolent. Good-bye!
Mrs. Indolent (fainting away). I am undone! Oh, I am sick!
Indolent. What nonsense! To feel sick because I cannot speak
French, and because my father is a smith! You ought not to have
treated me that way, by lying about me. No, my Úlinka shall not
marry him.
Princess Ekaterína Románovna Dáshkov. (1743-
1810.)
Princess Dáshkov was educated in the house of her uncle,
Vice-Chancellor Vorontsóv. She knew a number of foreign
languages and took an interest in politics, rummaging through
the documents in her uncle’s archives. She travelled much
abroad, where she cultivated the acquaintance of Diderot and
Voltaire; during a visit in England, when her son was
graduating from the Edinburgh University, she met also
Robertson and Adam Smith. Upon her return to Russia,
Catherine II., partly from a sincere respect for her talents, and
partly to reward her for her efforts in obtaining the throne for
the Empress, made her the President of the Russian
Academy which Princess Dáshkov had herself founded. Her
labours for the Academy were both thorough and far-
reaching. She encouraged young writers, sent men abroad to
be educated, published the first dictionary of the Russian
language, caused others to translate from foreign tongues,
and herself translated, especially from English; she
established several periodicals and did much for the
advancement of science. In 1795, Princess Dáshkov incurred
the Empress’s disfavour for permitting Knyazhnín’s drama,
Vadím of Nóvgorod, to be published in the Russian Theatre
(see p. 308). Paul, who ascended the throne the next year,
removed her from her post, but at the accession of Alexander
I., the Academy unanimously voted to reinstate her as its
President, but she declined the offer.
Her Memoirs were originally written in French, but they first
saw the light in English, under the title: Memoirs of Princess
Dashkaw, Written by Herself, edited by Mrs. W. Bradford,
London, 1840, 2 vols.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A RUSSIAN ACADEMY

 One day, whilst I was walking with the Empress in the gardens of
Tsárskoe Seló, our conversation turned on the beauty and richness
of the Russian language, which led me to express a sort of surprise
that her Majesty, who could well appreciate its value, and was
herself an author, had never thought of establishing a Russian
Academy.
I observed that nothing was wanting but rules, and a good
dictionary, to render our language wholly independent of those
foreign terms and phrases, so very inferior to our own in expression
and energy, which had been so absurdly introduced into it.
“I really know not,” replied her Majesty, “how it happens that such
an idea has not been already carried into effect; the usefulness of an
establishment for the improvement of our own language has often
occupied my thoughts, and I have even given directions about it.”
“That is very surprising, madam,” said I, “for surely nothing can
well be easier than the execution of such a project. There is a great
variety of models to be found, and you have only to make choice of
the best.”
“Do you, Princess, I beg,” returned her Majesty, “give me a sketch
of one.”
“It would be better, madam,” replied I, “were you to order one of
your secretaries to present you with a plan of the French Academy,
the Academy at Berlin, and a few others, with remarks on such
particulars as might be better adapted to the genius and habits of
your own people.”
“I entreat of you, I must beg to repeat it,” said the Empress, “that
you will take upon yourself this trouble, for then I can confidently look
forward, through your zeal and activity, to the accomplishment of an
object which, with shame I confess it, has been too long delayed.”
“The trouble, madam,” I said, “will be very trifling, and I will obey
you as expeditiously as possible; but I have not the books I wish to
refer to at hand, and I must be allowed the liberty of again assuring
your Majesty that any of the secretaries in the ante-chamber would
execute the commission better than myself.”