Power and Refrigeration Systems—With Phase Chang

There are two important areas of application of thermodynamics: power

generation and cooling, as both power generation and cooling are
generated by systems that operate on the thermomechanical cycle. Thus,
thermodynamic cycles can be classified into two important types:
1- Power Cycles
2- Refrigeration Cycles
Thermodynamic cycles are classified as gas cycles and vapor cycles
depending on the phase in which the working fluid is present.
Thermodynamic cycles can also be classified as closed or open cycles. In
closed cycles, the working fluid (steam, for example, in steam power
stations) returns to its original state at the end of the cycle, and its cycle is
repeated again. In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at the end of
each cycle instead of repeating its cycle.

There is a common simplification that is used in analyzing power cycles,

which is neglecting the change in the potential and kinetic energy of the
working fluid, as we find that the change in speed and height of the fluid
passing through the devices that operate the drive shaft, such as turbines,
compressors, and pumps, is very low.
 Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle consists of four processes:

❑ Adding heat at a constant temperature (1-2)

❑ Isentropic expansion (2-3)
❑ Heat removal at a constant temperature (3-4)
❑ Isentropic compression (4-1)
Carnot cycle is considered the most efficient cycle that can be
implemented, and its efficiency is expressed as follows:
𝑇𝐿
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 =1−
𝑇𝐻

The maximum temperature in the cycle is the highest temperature that

the materials manufactured, including the components of the thermal
machine, such as pistons and turbine blades, can withstand, while the
minimum temperature is determined by the temperature of the cooling
medium used for the cycle, such as rivers, seas, and atmospheric air. The
actual value of the Carnot cycle is a standard that can be compared with
real cycles.
INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEMS
❑THE RANKINE CYCLE
❑THE REHEAT CYCLE
❑ THE REGENERATIVE CYCLE
❑ COGENERATION CYCLE
❑ THE VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
 RANKINE CYCLE
Consider the idealized four-steady-state-process cycle shown in which state 1
is saturated liquid and state 3 is either saturated vapor or superheated vapor.
This system is termed the Rankine cycle and is the model for the simple
steam power plant.
The four processes of Rankine cycle are:

1–2: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump

2–3: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler
3–4: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the
4–1: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser
❑ Condensation process through the condenser at a constant pressure (4 - 1),
so that the state of the fluid coming out from the condenser at point (1) is
saturated liquid.
❑ Water is pumped at point (1) using a pump directed to the boiler (1 - 2).

❑ The water at point (2) heading towards the boiler is not at the saturation
temperature corresponding to the pressure of the boiler, so an amount of
heat must be added to change the state of the water to saturated water
(2 - a).
❑Heat is continued to be added through the boiler so that the saturated water
turns into saturated vapor (3 - a) at a constant pressure.
❑The saturated steam is passed to the turbine while its pressure and
temperature are reduced so that the turbine produces work (3 – a).

The following is assumed:-

1- Steady state flow
2- Neglecting both potential
and kinetic energy, PE = KE = 0
Important note:
Raising the exhaust pressure from
the boiler and into the turbine
increases the efficiency of the
Rankine cycle.
Solution
 Reheat CYCLE
To increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle, the steam pressure is raised
during the heat addition phase, but raising the pressure increases the amount
of moisture in the steam leaving the turbine at its low pressure. Through the
reheat cycle, this problem is overcome (avoiding the amount of moisture
rising above the low steam pressure leaving the turbine). As the steam
expands through the turbine to an intermediate pressure, P4, to be reheated
in the boiler, it expands again through the turbine, and its pressure drops to
P6. Therefore, the goal of this cycle is to increase efficiency, by reheating the
steam inside the boiler, as shown in the figure.
The slight increase in efficiency through this cycle is because the temperature
leaving the boiler in the two stages does not change much, but the greatest
benefit through this cycle is the elimination of the amount of moisture from
the steam leaving the turbine.
𝑤𝑇 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 + ℎ5 − ℎ6
𝑤𝑁𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑇 + 𝑤𝑃
𝑤𝑝 = 𝑣1 ∗ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑤𝑁𝑒𝑡
𝜂=
𝑞𝐻 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 + ℎ5 − ℎ4 𝑞𝐻
Solution
Regenerative CYCLE with Open Feed Heaters
Feed Water Heaters (FWH) are heat exchangers that work to increase the
temperature of the feed water before it enters the boiler as it flows
through the steam power generation cycle, which improves the efficiency
of the cycle as shown in the figure:
We also notice that part of the steam entering the turbine is extracted (steam
extracted) to be heated again through an open FWH, and the rest expands in
the turbine to then pass to the condenser to be condensed and supplied to the
first pump, which in turn raises the pressure of the condensed steam to be
equivalent to the pressure of the steam extracted from the turbine extends it to
FWH so that the condensed steam is mixed with the steam extracted from the
turbine. This mixing process converts the steam leaving the FWH into a
saturated liquid. There is a second pump that raises the pressure of the
saturated liquid and supplies it to the boiler. From the cycle diagram we note
that:
FWH

Heat Equation:
 Where y is the proportion of steam extracted from the turbine and
supplied to the FWH

To calculate the specific turbine work:

To calculate the specific work required by the first pump:

The specific work required by the second pump is greater than the specific
work of the first pump and is estimated as follows:

The Net Work:

The amount of heat gained by steam from the boiler per kilogram:

Cycle efficiency:
Solution
FWH
 Cogeneration CYCLE
Cogeneration is the process of using spent or extracted steam from turbines
and combustion for the purpose of heating in industrial processes, such as
paper drying, oil distillation in a refinery or for heating buildings. All thermal
power plants emit thermal emissions in the form of waste heat that can be
utilized in various industrial processes.
 Refrigeration CYCLE
The refrigeration cycle with a compression refrigeration system
consists of four main parts, which are, respectively:
1. Evaporator
2. Compressor
3. Condenser
4. Expansion Valve
 Refrigeration Cycle mechanism of work
❑ The ideal refrigeration cycle assumes that the refrigerant leaves the
evaporator with saturated dry vapor and enters the compressor at the
saturation temperature corresponding to the evaporator pressure.

❑ The compressor pulls the refrigerant vapor, which is dry saturated vapor,
from the evaporator and pressure from the evaporator to pressure the
condenser. In this case, an external function is added to the refrigerant
vapor by keeping the entropy constant.
❑ The refrigerant vapor comes out of the compressor and is superheated
vapor at a high temperature. It enters the condenser and loses the heat
of roasting and turns into saturated vapor with constant pressure. Then it
loses latent heat to transform into a saturated liquid with constant
pressure as well. The pipes connecting from the compressor to the
condenser are called the exhaust line, and the pipes connecting from
evaporator to compressor by suction line.

❑ The refrigerant comes out of the condenser as a saturated liquid

and enters the expansion device (expansion valve), which works
to reduce the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant
(choking action) by holding the enthalpy constant. The refrigerant
exits the expansion device in the form of a mixture of liquid and
vapor (in the form of a mist) moist vapor.
❑ This spray (wet steam) enters the evaporator and absorbs an amount of
heat from the evaporator (latent heat of vaporization) and turns into
dry, saturated steam when the pressure and temperature are constant
and exits to the suction line, heading to the compressor through the
suction line.
 Assignment # 2
Due Date 28/05/2024
1. Consider a solar-energy-powered ideal Rankine cycle that uses water as the working
fluid. Saturated vapor leaves the solar collector at 175qC, and the condenser pressure is
10 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.
2. A smaller power plant produces steam at 3 MPa, 600 °C in the boiler. It keeps the
condenser at 45°C by transfer of 10 MW out as heat transfer. The first turbine section
expands to 500 kPa and then flow is reheated followed by the expansion in the low
pressure turbine. Find the reheat temperature so the turbine output is saturated vapor.
For this reheat find the total turbine power output and the boiler heat transfer.
3. An open feedwater heater in a regenerative steam power cycle receives 20 kg/s of
water at 100 °C, 2 MPa. The extraction steam from the turbine enters the heater at 2
MPa, 275 °C, and all the feedwater leaves as saturated liquid. What is the required mass
flow rate of the extraction steam?
4. A steam power plant has 4 MPa, 500 °C into the turbine and to have the condenser
itself deliver the process heat it is run at 101 kPa. How much net power as work is
produced for a process heat of 10 MW.

5. A heat pump for heat upgrade uses ammonia with a low temperature of 25oC and a
high pressure of 5000 kPa. If it receives 1 MW of shaft work what is the rate of heat
transfer at the high temperature?