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Software Development
Patterns and Antipatterns
Software Development
Patterns and Antipatterns
Capers Jones
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-02912-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-01722-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-19312-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003193128
Typeset in Garamond
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents
Appreciation and Acknowledgment
Preface
Biography
PART 1 WORST-CASE PATTERNS OF SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT
1 Challenges of Software Project Management
Improving Software Project Management Tools and
Training
Initial Education for New Project Managers
Continuing Education for Software Project
Managers
Guest Lectures from Visiting Experts (Remotely via
Zoom or Other Tools)
Acquisition and Use of Software Parametric
Estimation Tools
Acquisition and Use of Progress and Milestone
Tracking Tools
The Use of Formal Project Offices (PMOs) for
Applications >1,000 Function Points
Use and Measurement of Effective Quality Control
Methods
Elimination of Bad Metrics and Adoption of
Effective Software Metrics
Primary Software Metrics for High Precision
Supplemental Software Metrics for High Precision
Commissioning Annual Software Benchmark
Studies
Formal Best Practice Analysis of Software Tools,
Methods, and Quality
Summary and Conclusions on Software Project
Management
Suggested Readings on Software Project Management
Suggested Web Sites
2 Wastage: Lost Time and Money Due to Poor
Software Quality
Introduction
Analyzing the Work Patterns of Software Engineers and
Programmers
Reuse of Certified Materials for Software Projects
Achieving Excellence in Software Quality Control
Excellent Quality Control
Average Quality Control
Poor Quality Control
Summary and Conclusions
3 Root Causes of Poor Software Quality
Introduction
Software Quality Education Curricula
References and Readings in Software Quality Control
4 Defenses Against Breach of Contract Litigation
Introduction
Problem 1: Estimating Errors and Estimate Rejection
Problem 2: Missing Defensible Objective Benchmarks
Problem 3: Rapidly Changing Requirements
Problem 4: Poor Quality Control
Problem 5: Poor Software Milestone Tracking
Problem 6: Flawed Outsource Agreements that Omit
Key Topics
Summary and Observations Based on Breach of
Contract Litigation
Suggested Readings
Web Sites
Suggested Web Sites
5 The Mess of Software Metrics
Introduction
Defining Software Productivity
Defining Software Quality
Patterns of Successful Software Measurements and
Metrics
Successful Software Measurement and Metric Patterns
Function Points for Normalizing Productivity Data
Function Points for Normalizing Software Quality
Defect Potentials Based on all Defect Types
Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE) Based on All
Defect Types
Defect Removal Efficiency Including Inspections
and Static Analysis
Defect Removal Efficiency Based on 90 Days after
Release
Activity-Based Benchmarks for Development
Activity-Based Benchmarks for Maintenance
Cost of Quality (COQ) for Quality Economics
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) for Software
Economic Understanding
Needs for Future Metrics
Summary and Conclusions
Appendix A: Problems with Cost per Defect Metrics
Why Cost per Defect Penalizes Quality
Case A: Poor Quality
Case B: Good Quality
Case C: Zero Defects
Using Function Point Metrics for Defect Removal
Economics
The Value of Quality for Large Applications of
10,000 Function Points
Appendix B: Side-by-Side Comparisons of 79
Languages using LOC and Function Points
References and Readings
Books and monographs by Capers Jones
Monographs by Capers Jones 2012–2020 available
from Namcook Analytics LLC
Books by Other Authors
Software Benchmark Providers (listed in alphabetic
order)
6 Variations in Software Costs and Quality by
Application Size
Introduction
Summary and Conclusions
References and Readings
7 Advancing Software from a Craft to a Profession
Introduction
What Are the Indicators of a Profession?
Why Software Engineering in Not Yet a Profession
Topic 1: Reduce the Many Software Failures
Topic 2: Reduce Cost and Schedule Overruns
Topic 3: Improve Software Quality after
Deployment
Topic 4: Improve Today’s Low Software
Development Productivity and Long Schedules
Topic 5: Improve Poor Software Security and
Reduce Cyber-Attacks
Topic 6: Stop Using Inaccurate and Invalid Metrics
That Distort Reality
Topic 7: Adopt Accurate Metrics and Effective
Measurement Practices
Topic 8: Improve Inaccurate and Optimistic
Estimates before Starting Projects
Topic 9: Eliminate Inaccurate Status Tracking
Topic 10: Reduce High Maintenance Costs after
Deployment
Topic 11: Reduce or Eliminate Litigation from
Unhappy Clients
Topic 12: Improve Undergraduate and Graduate
Software Education
Topic 13: Improve Post-Graduate and On-the-Job
Software Education
Topic 14: Introduce Software Licensing and Board
Certification
Topic 15: Move from Custom and Manual
Development to Standard Reusable Components
Topic 16: Develop Effective Methods for Working
at Home Due To Corona Virus
Summary and Conclusions on Software
Professionalism
References and Readings on Software and Selected
Texts on Medical Practice
PART 2 BEST-CASE PATTERNS OF SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT
8 Corporate Software Risk Reduction in a Fortune
500 Company
Introduction
A National Talent Search
Fact Finding and Software Assessments
Software Applications in Use
The Initial Report to the Chairman
Corporate Software Risk Factors Found by the Initial
Assessment
The Corporate Risk Reduction Strategy: Fix Quality
First
Four-Year Software Risk Reduction Targets
Creating a Software Engineering Laboratory
Education
Applied Technology
Advanced Technology
Measurements
Communications
Administration
Results of the Corporate Risk Reduction Program
Cost Justifying a Corporate Risk Reduction Program
Cost Recovery on the Development Side
Cost Recovery on the Maintenance Side
Asset Value of a Library of Reusable Artifacts
Adding Value through Shorter Development
Schedules
Adding Value through Higher Revenues
Adding Value from Disaster Avoidance
Adding Value from Reduced Litigation Risk
Adding Value from Improved Staff and
Management Morale
Adding Value from Recruiting and Keeping Top-
Ranked Personnel
Adding Value from Customer Loyalty
Overall Value from Effective Process Improvements
Summary and Conclusions
Appendix A: Master List of 210 Corporate Software
Risks
References and Readings
9 Achieving Software Excellence
Introduction
Software Sizing, Estimating, and Project Tracking
Differences
Software Quality Differences for Best, Average, and
Poor Projects
Excellent Quality Control
Average Quality Control
Poor Quality Control
Reuse of Certified Materials for Software Projects
Reusable Software Artifacts Circa 2019
Software Methodologies
Quantifying Software Excellence
The Metaphor of Technical Debt
Stages in Achieving Software Excellence
Stage 1: Quantify Your Current Software Results
Stage 2: Begin to Adopt State of the Art Quality
Tools and Methods
Formal Sizing, Estimating, and Tracking
Defect Prevention
Pre-test Defect Removal
Test Defect Removal
Stage 3: Continuous Improvements Forever
Going Beyond Stage 3 into Formal Reuse Programs
Summary and Conclusions
References and Readings
10 Early Sizing and Estimating of Software Projects
Introduction
1950 to 1959
1960 to 1969
1970 to 1979
1980 to 1989
1990 to 1999
2000 to 2010
The State of the Art of Sizing and Estimating from
2010 to 2020
Hazards of Older Metrics
Metrics Used with Function Point Analysis
Assignment Scope
Cost per Function Point
Defect Potentials
Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE)
Function Points per Month
Production Rate
Requirements Creep
Work Hours per Function Point
Application Sizing Using Pattern Matching
Early Risk Analysis
Lifetime Sizing with Software Risk Master™
Economic Modeling with Software Risk Master
The Future of Sizing and Estimating Software with
Function Points
Summary and Conclusions
References and Readings
Additional Literature
11 Optimizing Software Defect Removal Efficiency
(DRE)
Introduction
Summary and Conclusions
Introduction
Project Management Tools
Software Engineering Tools
Software Maintenance Engineering Tools
Software Quality Assurance Tools
Software Testing and Static Analysis Tools
Software Documentation Tools
Commercial Tools
Performance of Lagging, Average, and Leading Projects
Average Software Projects
Leading Software Projects
Lagging Software Projects
A Taxonomy of Software Tool Classes
Project Management Tools
Software Engineering Tools
Software Maintenance Engineering Tools
Software Quality Assurance Tools
Software Testing and Static Analysis Tools
Software Documentation Tools
References and Readings
12 Tool Usage on Best-Case, Average, and Worst-
Case Projects
Project Management Tools on Lagging and Leading
Projects
Software Engineering Tools on Lagging and Leading
Projects
Software Maintenance Engineering Tools on Lagging
and Leading Projects
Software Quality Assurance Tools on Lagging and
Leading Projects
Software Testing Tools on Lagging and Leading
Projects
Software Documentation Tools on Lagging and Leading
Projects
Overall Tool Differences between Laggards and Leaders
Summary and Conclusions
References and Readings
13 Geriatric Care for Aging Software
Introduction
What Is Software Maintenance?
Geriatric Problems of Aging Software
Metrics Problems with Small Maintenance Projects
Metrics Problems with ERP Maintenance
Best and Worst Practices in Software Maintenance
Methodologies That Are Maintenance-Strong and
Maintenance-Weak
Customer Support: A Major Maintenance
Weakness
Software Entropy and Total Cost of Ownership
Summary and Conclusions
References and Books by Capers Jones That Discuss
Software Maintenance
Books by Additional Authors
Readings on Software Maintenance
14 Function Points as a Universal Metric
Introduction
The Strengths of Function Point Metrics
The Weaknesses of Function Point Metrics
A New Method for High-Speed Function Point Analysis
A Short Summary of Pattern Matching
Increasing Executive Awareness of Function Points for
Economic Studies
Topic 1: Sizing Application Growth during Development
and After Release
Topic 2: Predicting Application Size in Multiple Metrics
Topic 3: Sizing All Known Types of Software Application
Topic 4: Function Points for Early Analysis of Software
Risks
Topic 5: Function Points for Activity-Based Sizing and
Cost Estimating
Topic 6: Function Points and Methodology Analysis
Topic 7: Function Points for Evaluating the Capability
Maturity Model (CMMI®)
Topic 8: Function Points for Software Quality Analysis
Topic 9: Function Points and Software Maintenance,
Enhancements, and Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
Topic 10: Function Points and Forensic Analysis of
Canceled Projects
Topic 11: Portfolio Analysis with Function Point Metrics
Topic 12: Industry Studies Using Function Point Metrics
Topic 13: Global Studies Using Function Point Analysis
Topic 14: Function Points versus Lines of Code (LOC)
for Software Economic Analysis
Topic 15: Function Points and Software Usage and
Consumption
Patterns of Tools Noted on Successful Software
Projects
Patterns of Tools Noted on Unsuccessful Projects
Topic 16: Function Points and Software Outsource
Contracts
Suggested Format for Monthly Status Reports for
Software Projects
Topic 17: Function Points and Venture Funding of
Software Startups
Topic 18: Function Points for Analysis of Software
Occupation Groups
Topic 19: Data Used by Fortune 500 C-Level Executives
Topic 20: Combining Function Points with Other Metrics
Function Points and Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE)
Function Points and Natural Metrics such as “Document
Pages”
Function Points and Goal Question Metrics (GQM)
Function Points and Earned Value Analysis (EVA)
Function Points, Story Points, and Velocity on Agile
Projects
Function Points and Return on Investment (ROI)
Case 1: Software Improves Operational
Performance
Case 2: Software Generates Direct and Indirect
Revenues Streams
Summary and Conclusions
References and Readings
Additional Literature
Index
Appreciation and
Acknowledgments
This is my 22nd book. As always thanks to my wife Eileen for
supporting my book writing over many years.
This book is dedicated to Watts Humphrey who was a pioneer in
software quality control and effective development patterns. Watts
worked at IBM and then helped create the software assessment
program and the capability maturity model (CMMI) for the Software
Engineering Institute (SEI). Watts was an industry leader in moving
organizations from harmful patterns to effective patterns.
Thanks also to the faculty of the University of Florida and to my
colleagues at IBM.
Preface
This book is divided into two sections. The first section discusses
harmful patterns and practices that tend to cause schedule delays,
cost overruns, and poor quality. The observations and data about
these harmful patterns came from consulting studies and
benchmarks carried out for clients of Namcook Analytics LLC who
wanted to improve their software development practices and
patterns.
The second section of the book shows optimal patterns that have
proven to be successful for large systems. The successful patterns
originated in companies and organizations that build large mission-
critical software systems such as IBM, AT&T, ITT, Nippon Electric,
NASA, and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).
Software has been a troubling topic since it first started. There are
seven chronic problems that have plagued software from the
beginning:
As can be seen from Table 1.1, large software projects are distressingly troublesome
and have frequent total failures, also a high risk of litigation. Poor project management
is a key contributing factor.
Some leading companies have recognized the difficulty of successful software
project management and taken active steps to improve the situation. Some of these
companies include IBM, AT&T, ITT, Motorola, GTE, and Siemens. Google, Apple, and
Microsoft have also attempted to improve software management although Microsoft
has perhaps been too rigid in some management topics such as employee appraisals.
The companies that are most proactive in software project management tend to
build complex engineered products such as computers, medical devices, aircraft
controls, and switching systems that depend upon software to operate. The companies
also tend to be mature companies founded over 75 years ago and having effective
software measurement programs that are more than 40 years old. Most were early
adapters of function point metrics and also early adapters of parametric software
estimation tools.
The software benchmarks studies carried out by Namcook Analytics LLC often show
a significant number of serious software project management problems and issues.
Table 1.2 summarizes 41 problems noted in a benchmark study for a Fortune 500
technology corporation.
Table 1.2 Corporate Software Risk Factors Found by a Corporate
Benchmark Study
1 Project management: no formal training for new managers
2 Project management: no annual benchmark studies
Project management: no annual training in state of the art
3
methods
4 Project management: no training in software cost estimating
5 Project management: no training in software quality estimating
6 Project management: no training in software risk analysis
7 Project management: no training in cyber-attack deterrence
8 Project management: no training in function point metrics
9 Project management: no training in schedule planning
Project management: lack of accurate productivity
10
measurements
11 Project management: lack of accurate quality metrics
Project management: incomplete milestone and progress
12
tracking
13 Project management: historical data “leaks” by over 50%
Project management: managers continue to use inaccurate
14
manual estimates
Project management: no widespread use of accurate parametric
15
estimation
16 Quality control: no use of requirements models or QFD
17 Quality control: no use of automated proofs for critical features
18 Quality control: no use of cyber-attack inspections
19 Quality control: no use of formal design inspections
20 Quality control: no use of formal code inspections
21 Quality control: no use of static analysis tools
Quality control: no use of mathematical test case design (cause-
22
effect graphs)
23 Quality control: no use of test coverage tools
Quality control: defect potentials about 4.75 bugs per function
24
point
25 Quality control: defect removal efficiency (DRE) below 90.00%
Maintenance: no use of complexity analysis or cyclomatic
26
complexity
27 Maintenance: no use of renovation tools or work benches
28 Maintenance: no use of code restructuring tools
29 Maintenance: inconsistent use of defect tracking tools
30 Maintenance: no use of inspections on enhancements
31 No reuse program: requirements
32 No reuse program: design
33 No formal reuse program: source code
34 No reuse program: test materials
35 No reuse program: documentation
36 No reuse program: project plans
37 No formal corporate reuse library
38 No corporate contracts with third party reuse companies
Office space: small open offices; high noise levels, many
39
interruptions
Insufficient meeting/breakout space for team meetings; no
40
large meetings
41 Inadequate corporate responses to 2020 COVID virus
Eight of the 10 topics are technical and deal with actual project issues such as
cyber-attacks and risks. Two of the 10 topics deal with human resources and
appraisals, which are of course a critical part of any manager’s job.
Microsoft has received criticism for their appraisal system, which uses mathematical
curves and requires that only a certain percentage of employees can be appraised as
“excellent.” The problem with this is that technology companies such as Microsoft tend
to have more excellent employees than ordinary companies do, so this curve tended to
cause voluntary attrition among capable employees who ended up on the wrong side
of the “excellent” barrier.
Other commercial software parametric estimation tools have similar features. The
U.S. Air Force used to perform annual trials of commercial parametric estimation tools.
All of the major parametric tools were within about 10% of one another, and all were
significantly more accurate than manual estimates for large projects above 1,000
function points in size. Manual estimates were often optimistic on cost and schedules
by more than 50% above 1,000 function points. Parametric estimation tools are almost
never optimistic and usually come within 10% of actual results.
Of course another industry problem is that most companies do not have accurate
results. Among the author’s clients, the average accuracy of software project historical
data is only 37%. The most common “leaks” from project historical data include
business analysts, project managers, software quality assurance, technical writers,
project office personnel, configuration control, and integration specialists. Measuring
only developers and test personnel such as “design, code, and unit test” or DCUT is
common but fundamentally inaccurate and inadequate for economic or quality
analysis.
One new problem for software estimation was the arrival of the corona virus in
March of 2020. This virus led to closure of many software office locations and a switch
to working from home using computers for status meetings and progress discussions.
The virus will no doubt have a major negative impact on software productivity rates
and probably a negative impact on software quality. However, as of late 2020, there
were very little quantitative data available because many large projects started in 2020
were not finished so their productivity and quality can’t be measured until 2021 or
later.
Acquisition and Use of Progress and Milestone Tracking
Tools
In addition to parametric estimation tools, there are also many commercial project
management tools. The phrase “project management tools” has been applied to a
large family of tools whose primary purpose is sophisticated scheduling for projects
with hundreds or even thousands of overlapping and partially interdependent tasks
and large teams in the hundreds. These tools are able to drop down to very detailed
task levels and can even handle the schedules of individual workers. Microsoft Project
and Artemis Views are two samples of project management tools. The new automated
project office (APO) tool of Computer Aid is a modern project management tool only
recently put on the market. There are also open-source project management and
tracking tools such as JIRA.
However, the family of project management tools are for general purpose in nature
and do not include specialized software sizing and estimating capabilities as do the
software cost estimating tools. Neither do these general project management tools
deal with quality issues such as DRE. Project management tools are useful, but
software requires additional capabilities to be under full management control.
Project management tools are an automated form of several management aids
developed by the Navy for controlling large and complex weapons systems: the
“program evaluation and review technique” (PERT), critical path analysis, resource
leveling, and the classic Gantt charts. Project management tools used for defense
projects also support earned-value analysis (EVA) although this is seldom used in the
civilian sectors.
Project management tools have no built-in expertise regarding software, as do
software cost estimating tools. For example, if you wish to explore the quality and cost
impact of an object-oriented programming language such as Objective C, a standard
project management tool is not the right choice.
By contrast, many software cost estimating tools have built-in tables of
programming languages and will automatically adjust the estimate based on which
language is selected for the application. Project management tools and software cost
estimating tools provide different but complementary functions. Most software cost
estimating tools interface directly with common project management tools such as
Microsoft Project.
Project
Management Software Cost Estimating Tools
Tools
Work-
breakdown Sizing logic for function points, code, etc.
structures
Activity-based
Quality estimates
cost analysis
Earned-value
Integral risk estimates
calculations
Effort by staff
Staffing predictions (testers, programmers, etc.)
members
Cost
Cost estimating
accumulation
Both kinds of tools are useful for large and complex software projects and are
generally used concurrently by project office personnel. An average software project
using both parametric estimation tools and project management tools would be a
significant project of over 1,000 function points in size. Small projects below 100
function points are often estimated informally and use only normal corporate cost
accounting tools rather than sophisticated project management tools.
1. Identifying important standards for the project such as ISO or OMG standards.
2. Identifying important corporate standards such as the IBM standards for software
quality.
3. Identifying and monitoring government mandates such as FAA, FDA, or Sarbanes-
Oxley.
4. Early sizing of project deliverables using one or more parametric estimation tools.
5. Early prediction of schedules, costs, and staffing using one or more parametric
estimation tools.
6. Early prediction of requirements creep.
7. Early prediction of defect potentials and DRE.
8. Establishing project cost and milestone tracking guidelines for all personnel.
9. Continuous monitoring of progress, accumulated costs, and schedule adherence.
10. Continuous monitoring of planned vs. actual DRE.
Project offices are a useful and valuable software structure. They usually contain
from 3 to more than 10 people based on the size of the project being controlled.
Among the kinds of personnel employed in software project, offices are estimating
specialists, metric specialists such as certified function point counters, quality control
specialists, and standards specialists.
Project offices usually have several parametric estimation tools available and also
both general and specialized project tracking tools. Shown in Table 1.7 are samples of
some of the kinds of tools and information that a project office might utilize in a
technology company for a major software application
Table 1.7 Tools for Software Projects
1 Architecture QEMU
2 Automated test HP QuickTest Professional
ISBSG, Namcook SRM, Davids, Q/P
3 Benchmarks
Management
4 Coding Eclipse, Slickedit
Tasks Tools Utilized
5 Configuration Perforce
Software Risk Master (SRM), SLIM, SEER,
6 Cost estimate
COCOMO
Automated project office (APO), Microsoft
7 Cost tracking
Project
8 Cyclomatic BattleMap
9 Debugging GHS probe
10 Defect tracking Bugzilla
11 Design Projects Unlimited, Visio
12 Earned value DelTek Cobra
13 ERP Microsoft Dynamics
14 Function points 1 Software Risk Master (SRM)
15 Function points 2 Function point workbench
16 Function points 3 CAST automated function points
17 Graphics design Visio
18 Inspections SlickEdit
19 Integration Apache Camel
20 ISO tools ISOXpress
21 Maintenance Mpulse
22 Manual test DevTest
23 Milestone track KIDASA Softare Milestone Professional
24 Progress track Jira, Automated Project Office (APO)
25 Project mgt. Automated project office (APO)
26 Quality estimate Software Risk Master (SRM)
27 Requirements Rational Doors
28 Risk analysis Software Risk Master (SRM)
Source code size
29 Software Risk Master (SRM)
1
Source code size
30 Unified code counter (UCC)
2
31 SQA NASA Goddard ARM tool
32 Static analysis OptimMyth Kiuwin, Coverity, Klocwork
33 Support Zendesk
34 Test coverage Software Verify suite
35 Test library DevTest
36 Value analysis Excel and Value Stream Tracking
ISO and Other Standards Used for Project
IEEE 610.12-
Software engineering terminology
1990
IEEE 730-1999 Software assurance
IEEE 12207 Software process tree
ISO/IEC 9001 Software quality
ISO/IEC 9003 Software quality
ISO/IEC 12207 Software engineering
ISO/IEC 25010 Software quality
ISO/IEC 29119 Software testing
ISO/IEC 27034 Software security
ISO/IEC 20926 Function point counting
OMG Corba Common Object Request Broker Architecture
OMG Models Meta models for software
OMG funct.
Automated function points (legacy applications)
pts.
UNICODE Globalization and internationalization
Certification
used for
project = 1
Certification
not used for
project = 0
Note: Some
team members
have multiple
certifications.
Certification –
0
Apple
Certification –
Computer Aid 0
Inc.
Certification –
Computer 0
Associates
Professional Certifications Used on Project
Certification –
0
FAA
Certification –
0
FDA
Certification –
Hewlett 0
Packard
Certification –
1
IBM
Certification –
1
Microsoft
Certification –
0
Oracle
Certification –
1
PMI
Certification –
0
QAI
Certification –
0
Red Hat
Certification –
0
RSBC
Certification –
0
SAP
Certification –
Sarbanes- 0
Oxley
Certification –
0
SEI
Certification –
0
Sun
Certification –
0
Symantec
Certification –
0
TickIT
Certification of
computing 0
professionals
Certified 1
configuration
Professional Certifications Used on Project
management
specialist
Certified
function point 1
analyst
Certified
project 1
managers
Certified
requirements 0
engineers
Certified
1
scrum master
Certified
secure
software 0
lifecycle
professional
Certified
security 0
engineer
Certified SEI
1
appraiser
Certified
software 0
architect
Certified
software
1
business
analyst
Certified
software
0
development
professional
Certified
software 0
engineers
Certified 1
software
Professional Certifications Used on Project
quality
assurance
Certified test
0
managers
Certified
1
testers
Certified
1
webmaster
Certified
software 1
auditor
Total 13
As can be seen, software project offices add knowledge and rigor to topics where
ordinary project managers may not be fully trained or highly experienced.