QUESTION 1

1.1) B

1.2) C

1.3) A

1.4) B

1.5) E

1.6) C

1.7) B

1.8) A

1.9) C

1.10) C

QUESTION 2
2.1)

C3
• Simple leaf anatomy
• Sheath cells do not contain
chloroplasts, mostly found in
mesophyll cells.
• Sheath cells are less specialized.
• Utilize a single step process for
forming the 3-carbon compound.
C4
• Specialized leaf anatomy, Kranz
Anatomy
• Sheath cells contain chloroplasts
and mesophyll cells contain
chloroplasts.
• Sheath cells are larger, and they
facilitate the carbon cycle.
• Uses a 2-step process before
releasing 02 for the Calvin cycle

2.2) Kranz Anatomy:

C4 plants have a stable fixation product which is a four-carbon acid. Light of greater
intensities is required for CO2 fixation in Kranz leaves. This is due to the metabolic
cooperation involving mesophyll and bundle sheath cells in their C4 photosynthetic
pathway.
Rubisco enzyme is only found in specialized bundle sheath cells in mature leaves of plants
using the complicated C4 pathway. The carboxylation phase of the C4 process starts in
mesophyll cells and creates C4 acids, which quickly diffuse to nearby bundle sheath cells.
Bundle sheath cells undergo decarboxylation.

In bundle sheath cells, decarboxylation of C4 acids produces CO2, which is then refixed
by rubisco. These processes concentrate CO2 in bundle sheath cells near rubisco. Sheath
cell wall changes are believed to prevent CO2 from escaping. C4 plants separate their first
CO2 uptake in the mesophyll from the Calvin-Benson cycle in the bundle sheath. This
improves photosynthetic efficiency and decreases wasted photorespiration.

In conclusion, Kranz anatomy, which separates the initial stages of carbon fixation from
the Calvin cycle and encourages more efficient photosynthesis by lowering
photorespiration and increasing CO2 concentration around Rubisco. These qualities gives
C4 plants higher rates of carbon assimilation and better water use efficiency than C3
plants.

QUESTION 3

3.1) The anatomical adaptations of hydromorphic and halophytic leaves are specific to
their respective environments.
Large air spaces, fewer cuticles, more developed aerenchyma, and less vascular systems
are all characteristics of hydromorphic leaves. Each of these elements contributes to gas
exchange and oxygen transfer. They also contain fewer or smaller vascular bundles,
therefore reducing water loss and ensuring that structural integrity is kept constant.

Halophytic leaves are designed for saline or salty surroundings, with specialized salt
glands, sunken stomata, thick cuticles, specialized storage structures, and enhanced
vascularization. These adaptations aid in the maintenance of water balance, gas
exchange, and general physiological function in the face of harsh environmental
circumstances. In summary, hydromorphic and halophytic leaves have various
morphological adaptations that allow plants to thrive in wet or salty environments by
regulating water balance, gas exchange, and general physiological performance.

3.2) Results oof experiment:

The pollution and contamination of harmful substances impacts leaf structure, resulting in
significant decreases in growth of biomass and acute and chronic tissue damage. Airborne
pollutants, such as hydrogen fluoride (HF), enter the leaf mainly via the stomata. Within the
mesophyll, the gas dissolves on the moist cell walls, forming toxic ions or acids. Some
pollutants may even decrease or eliminate cell membrane semi-permeability around the
stomata. This harm can cause the cell sap to seep from mesophyll cells into the
intercellular spaces, thus leading to a greasy appearance on the surface of the injured leaf.
Any shift or deformity of chloroplasts diminishes total photosynthesis, perhaps which then
leads to the collapse of both bottom and higher epidermal cells. Enrichment of CO2 has
been proven to cause modifications in the density of stomatal cells as well as major
structural modifications, especially regarding leaf shape. Some tests have additionally
revealed substantial rises in leaf growth under elevated CO2 circumstances. In some
plants, an increase in the thickness of the lamina results in the development of a new
palisade layer. The stomatal frequency decreases as CO2 levels increase. An increase in
atmospheric CO2 levels, along with reasonable temperatures along with sufficient rainfall,
has the ability to promote radial stem development and result in larger growth rings. The
influence of co2 enhancement on wood structure in Pinus may lead to some unexpected
changes. The length of tracheary elements which consist of xylem vessels and tracheids to
transport water and solutes in a plant undergo undetermined changes.

QUESTION 4

4.1) Mesophyll of Pinus:

• It consists largely of Parenchyma cells.

• Mesophyll cells are chloroplast rich, as they are responsible for chloroplast.
• It contains resin ducts.
• Vacuoles are present to store starch, there are large amounts of starch found in
mesophyll cells.
 • Parenchyma cells are undifferentiated into palisade and mesophyll cells and
consist only of chloroplast and starch.

4.2) Experiment of Buisson and Lee:

Carica papaya, which relies on photosynthesis for growth and energy, has smaller leaves
due to low irradiance. This can be caused by reduced light availability, altered resource
distribution, structural adaptations, limited access to nourishment and water, and stress
responses. Thinner leaves may be an adaptation to enhance surface area and maximize
light capture. Thinner leaves can be an adaptive response to low light, allowing for more
efficient resource allocation to chloroplasts and reducing self-shading in the canopy.
Insufficient light can reduce nutrient and water uptake, leading to decreased leaf
development. In conclusion, they discovered that Carica papaya leaves grown under low
irradiance had higher chlorophyll per unit area, thinner leaves, lower specific weight, fewer
stomata, and more air gaps in the mesophyll compared to high light intensity leaves.