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Photonics / Communications
WARIER
This unique, practical handbook is the only one of its kind to provide
the conceptual framework and troubleshooting tactics related to the
manufacturing, selection, and installation of optical fiber plants for designing
The ABCs
and deploying modern photonic networks. It discusses optical transceivers,
The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication

test and measurement equipment, and network architecture of SDH, OTN,
IP/MPLS, FTTx networks, and passive optical network (PON). This resource
includes the latest technological advancements and industry applications
of Fiber Optic
while covering the entire fiber ecosystem from installation to troubleshooting.
This book presents the use of standard tools like laser source and power
meter (LPM) to overcome common issues related to optical patching and fiber
Communication
plants and also discusses the use of specialized tools including the optical time
domain reflectometer (OTDR) for issues with fiber plants and locating fiber
breaks. Readers gain an understanding of the architecture of core TDM, IP, and
optical access networks including PON. Specific methodologies are explored
for assessing OTN, DWDM, IP/MPLS, optical access networks– PON/GPON or
FTTx networks. Key parameters that influence the choice of fiber based on
the network and application type are discussed. This book also provides an
overview of the current and future developments in optical fibers, interfaces, SUDHIR WARIER
transceivers, and backbone networks.
“The contents of the book truly reflect the ABCs of optical fiber technology.
The book, an immense help to beginners and experts, provides an insight
to the latest technology in its entirety while educating in the most simplistic
manner what the next decade would unfold in terms of technology and
its horizons.”
– Vinod Hingorani, Regional Director, South Asia, Telecom Italia Sparkle
Sudhir Warier is a Principal Mentor at Cognitio. He is a Chartered Engineer from

IETE and received his M.S. in philosophy from Alagappa University, his master
of financial management (MFM) from Pondicherry University, and his B.E. in
electronics and telecommunications engineering from Karnatak University.
Include bar code
ISBN 13: 978-1-63081-414-4

ISBN: 1-63081-414-8
ARTECH HOUSE
BOSTON I LONDON
www.artechhouse.com
Black PMS 7488

Photonics / Communications
WARIER
This unique, practical handbook is the only one of its kind to provide
the conceptual framework and troubleshooting tactics related to the
manufacturing, selection, and installation of optical fiber plants for designing
The ABCs
and deploying modern photonic networks. It discusses optical transceivers,
The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication

test and measurement equipment, and network architecture of SDH, OTN,
IP/MPLS, FTTx networks, and passive optical network (PON). This resource
includes the latest technological advancements and industry applications
of Fiber Optic
while covering the entire fiber ecosystem from installation to troubleshooting.
This book presents the use of standard tools like laser source and power
meter (LPM) to overcome common issues related to optical patching and fiber
Communication
plants and also discusses the use of specialized tools including the optical time
domain reflectometer (OTDR) for issues with fiber plants and locating fiber
breaks. Readers gain an understanding of the architecture of core TDM, IP, and
optical access networks including PON. Specific methodologies are explored
for assessing OTN, DWDM, IP/MPLS, optical access networks– PON/GPON or
FTTx networks. Key parameters that influence the choice of fiber based on
the network and application type are discussed. This book also provides an
overview of the current and future developments in optical fibers, interfaces, SUDHIR WARIER
transceivers, and backbone networks.
“The contents of the book truly reflect the ABCs of optical fiber technology.
The book, an immense help to beginners and experts, provides an insight
to the latest technology in its entirety while educating in the most simplistic
manner what the next decade would unfold in terms of technology and
its horizons.”
– Vinod Hingorani, Regional Director, South Asia, Telecom Italia Sparkle
Sudhir Warier is a Principal Mentor at Cognitio. He is a Chartered Engineer from

IETE and received his M.S. in philosophy from Alagappa University, his master
of financial management (MFM) from Pondicherry University, and his B.E. in
electronics and telecommunications engineering from Karnatak University.
Include bar code
ISBN 13: 978-1-63081-414-4

ISBN: 1-63081-414-8
ARTECH HOUSE
BOSTON I LONDON
www.artechhouse.com
Black PMS 7488

The ABCs of
Fiber Optic Communication
For a complete listing of titles in the
Artech House Applied Photonics Series,
turn to the back of this book.
The ABCs of
Fiber Optic Communication
Sudhir Warier
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover design by John Gomes
ISBN 13: 978-1-63081-414-4
© 2017 ARTECH HOUSE

685 Canton Street
Norwood, MA 02062
All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book
may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been
appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of
a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service
mark.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my family
Contents
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxi
Part 1
The Conceptual Framework 1
1 Fundamentals of Optical Communication 3
1.1 Chapter Objectives 3
1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 4
1.3 Light—Key Concepts 5
1.4 Fundamentals of Light Transmission 7
1.5 Estimating Channel Capacity of a Communication Link 10

1.5.1 Noiseless Channel 10
1.5.2 Noisy Channel 11
1.6 Scales 12
1.6.1 Logarithmic Scales 13
1.7 Optical Power Measurements 15
vii
viii The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication
1.7.1 Absolute Power Measurements 16

1.7.2 Logarithm Rules 17
1.8 Modes of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber 17

1.8.1 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture 18
1.8.2 Modal Propagation 19
1.9 Dispersion 20
1.10 Effects of Fiber Nonlinearities 22
1.11 Summary 23
1.12 Referred Standards 24
1.13 Review 25
1.13.1 Review Questions 25
1.13.2 Exercises 26
1.13.3 Research Activities 27
1.14 Selected Bibliography 27

1.14.1 Books 27
1.14.2 URLs 28
References 28
2 Essentials of Fiber Optic Communication 29
2.2 Introduction 30
2.3 Optical Fiber Design Specifications 31
2.4 Optical Fiber Classification 37
2.5 Standard Optical Fiber Designs 40
2.6 Safety Standards 42
2.7 Optical Fiber Composition 43
2.8 Fiber Geometry 44
2.9 Fiber Selection Criteria 45

Contents ix
2.10 Common Fiber Plant Deployment 47
2.11 Summary 49
2.12 Review 50
2.12.2 Exercises 52

2.14.1 Books 53
2.14.2 URLs 54
References 54
3 Optical Fiber Splicing and Interfaces 55
3.2 Introduction 56
3.3 Splices and Connectors 56
3.4 Optical Transmitters 65

3.4.1 Optical Sources 66
3.4.2 Modular Optical Interfaces 69
3.4.3 Key Parameters (Transmitter) 72
3.5 Optical Receivers 76
3.6 Optical Modulation Techniques 77
3.7 Link Loss Budgeting 78

3.7.1 Transmitter Launch Power 79
3.7.2 Receiver Sensitivity and Dynamic Range 79
3.7.3 Power Budget and Margin Computations 80
3.7.4 Span Analysis 82
3.8 Summary 85
3.9 Review 86
3.9.2 Exercises 88
x The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication

3.11.1 Books 89
3.11.2 URLs 89
References 90
4 Fiber Plant Manufacturing, Installation, Maintenance,

and Diagnostic Techniques 91
4.2 Introduction 92
4.3 Manufacturing of Optical Fibers 93
4.4 Fiber Laying Techniques 94
4.5 Cable Preparation, Splicing, and Termination 97

4.5.1 Cable Preparation 98
4.5.2 Splicing 98
4.5.3 Fiber Termination 99
4.6 Safety Guidelines 100

4.6.1 Causes of Injury 101
4.6.2 Maximum Permissible Exposure 101
4.6.3 Accessible Emission Limits 104
4.6.4 Fiber Handling Techniques 104
4.7 Network Diagnostic Techniques 106

4.7.1 Fiber Route Locator 106
4.7.2 Visual Connector Inspection 107
4.7.3 Optical Power Measurements 107
4.7.4 Power Measurements 108
4.7.5 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer—Working 108
4.7.6 Fiber and Connector Cleaning 109
4.8 Summary 110
4.9 Review 111

4.9.2 Exercises 112

Contents xi
4.11 Recommended Reading 113

4.11.1 Books 113
4.11.2 URLs 114
References 114
Part 2
Optical Network Architectures 115
5 Photonic Transport Networks 117
5.2 Introduction 118
5.3 Transport Network—An Overview 118
5.4 Transport Network—Needs, Benefits, and Function 120
5.5 Synchronous Optical Networks—Evolution 121
5.6 Transport Network—Architecture 123
5.7 Transport Network—Components 126

5.7.1 Network Equipment 127
5.7.2 Media 135
5.7.3 Network Topologies 137
5.8 Summary 137
5.9 Review 138

5.9.2 Exercises 140

5.11.1 Books 141
5.11.2 URLs 141
References 141
6 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing 143

xii The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication
6.3 What Is Wavelength Division Multiplexing? 146
6.4 Standardization 147
6.5 WDM Fundamentals 148
6.6 Bandwidth Explosion 155
6.7 Optical Transmission Challenges 158

6.7.1 Linear Characteristics 158
6.7.2 Nonlinearities 160
6.8 WDM Network Components 162

6.8.1 Optical Transmitters 162
6.8.2 Optical Receivers 162
6.8.3 Couplers 163
6.8.4 Optical Amplifiers 163
6.8.5 Regenerators 164
6.8.6 Passive Routers 165
6.8.7 Wavelength Selective Switch 165
6.8.8 Wavelength Converters 165
6.8.9 Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexers 166
6.9 DWDM Links 167
6.10 Summary 169
6.11 Review 170

6.11.2 Exercises 171

6.13.1 Books 172
6.13.2 URLs 172
6.13.3 Journals 173
References 173
7 Next Generation Optical Networks 175

Contents xiii
7.3 Optical Transport Networks 177

7.3.1 OTN Hierarchy 178
7.3.2 OTN Architecture 178
7.3.3 OTN Interfaces 180
7.3.4 Key Features of an OTN 181
7.4 IP over DWDM Architecture 183

7.4.1 Enhanced Router Interfaces 184
7.4.2 Advanced ROADM Technology 185
7.4.3 Transparent Optical Transport with Traffic Protection 185
7.5 IP/MPLS Optical Core Networks 186
7.6 Next-Generation Packet Optical Transport Network 187

7.6.1 Generalized Multiprotocol Label Switching 187
7.6.2 Packet Optical Evolution or the Packet Optical
Transport Service 189
7.6.3 Space Division Multiplexing 189
7.7 Summary 190
7.8 Review 191

7.8.2 Exercises 193

7.10.1 Books 194
7.10.2 URLs 194
7.10.3 Journals 194
References 195
8 Optical Access Networks 197
8.3 Broadband Access Networks (Cable) 199

8.3.1 DOCSIS 200
xiv The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication
8.4 Converged Cable Access Platform 201
8.5 Optical Fiber Access Networks 202

8.5.1 Passive Optical Network—Architecture and
Functioning 205
8.5.2 WDM Technologies 207
8.5.3 Next Generation PONs 208
8.6 Summary 208
8.7 Review 209

8.7.2 Exercises 210

8.9.1 Books 212
8.9.2 URLs 213
8.9.3 Journals 213
References 213
Part 3
Operation, Maintainance, and Troubleshooting
of Optical Networks 215
9 Troubleshooting Fiber Plants 217
9.3 Visual Inspection Techniques 219

9.3.1 Tracing 219
9.3.2 Visual Fault Location 219
9.3.3 Using Fiberscopes 220
9.4 Optical Power Measurements 221

9.4.1 Absolute Versus Relative Power Measurements 221
9.4.2 Procedure for Measuring Optical Power 222
9.5 Loss Measurements 222

Contents xv
9.6 Cleaning Connectors 223

9.6.1 Important Considerations 224
9.6.2 Standard Precautions 225
9.6.3 Cleaning Procedure 225
9.7 Splicing Techniques 227
9.8 Using an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer 228

9.8.1 Working 228
9.8.2 Operational Parameters 229
9.8.3 OTDR Testing Prerequisites 231
9.8.4 Precautions 232
9.8.5 Testing Procedure 232
9.8.6 Analyzing OTDR Traces 232
9.8.7 Distance Measurement 232
9.8.8 Estimating the Attenuation Coefficient 233
9.9 Summary 234
9.10 Review 236


9.12.1 Books 238
9.12.2 URLs 239
9.12.3 Journals 239
References 239
10 Optical Network Testing and Troubleshooting

Procedures 241
10.3 Testing and Troubleshooting Long Haul Networks 242

10.3.1 General Guidelines 243
10.3.2 Preinstallation Checks 243
xvi The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication
10.3.3 Postinstallation Tests 243

10.3.4 Test Description 243
10.4 Troubleshooting Optical Termination Points/

Short Haul Segments/Networks 248
10.4.1 Continuity Testing 249
10.4.2 Power Measurement 250
10.4.3 Connector Inspection 250
10.4.4 End-to-End (E2E) Loss (Single/Double Ended) 250
10.5 Troubleshooting Cabling and Connecterization Issues 251

10.5.1 Optical Cabling—General Issues 252
10.5.2 Damaged Optical Cables 252
10.5.3 Stretched Cables 252
10.5.4 Connecterization Issues 253
10.5.5 Optical Cabling—General Guidelines 253
10.5.6 Testing Optical Patch Cords 254
10.5.7 Troubleshooting Optical Patchcord Issues 254
10.6 Troubleshooting FTTh Networks 255

10.6.1 Troubleshooting FTTx Networks Based on PON
Architecture 255
10.7 Troubleshooting DWDM Networks 256
10.8 Standardization Bodies 257
10.9 Summary 259
10.10 Review 259


10.12.1 Books 264
10.12.2 URLs 264
10.12.3 Journals 264
References 265
Contents xvii
Appendix 267
Acronyms 269
About the Author 281
Index 283
Preface
This book is the result of my desire to share, with fellow engineers and tech-
nicians, my experience in maintaining and troubleshooting optical fiber net-
works. I have had unique and varied exposure, for more than 22 years, in the
fields of computer hardware, data networking, and telecommunications, span-
ning the entire value chain from network planning, installation and commis-
sioning, operations and maintenance, troubleshooting, optimization, learning
and development, to talent and competency management.
The economic development and the liberalization of the telecom sector
facilitated the entry of new players in the market with the resultant investments
creating a huge employment basket. This is especially true with the world’s larg-
est telecom markets—China and India. However, there is a major knowledge
gap, vis-à-vis the formal education imparted in engineering colleges and the
needs of the industry. These rapid technological developments in the fields of
semiconductor engineering, fiber-optic technology, as well as computer net-
works, broadband, and telecommunication engineering has widened the gap
between the needs of the industry and the academic offerings.
Thus, most of the telecom technicians/engineers learned the tricks of the
trade on the job itself. As a result, many of these technicians/engineers as well as
managers knew “how” to tackle a problem, but not necessarily “why.” Most of
the books available in the market provide a mathematical treatise on the subject
thus alienating it from the masses. The lack of suitable reference books also hin-
dered the inclusion the practical aspects of installing, maintaining, and trouble-
shooting optical fiber networks from the syllabi of most technology schools.
xix
xx The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication
The architecture of the network, the interfaces, transmitters, and receivers have
undergone a sea of change over the past few years. Even as I write this book,
new innovative technologies and products are fast replacing existing ones. In
addition, there is no single book that provides the conceptual framework as
well as the latest technology offerings in optical fibers, network architecture,
interfaces, lasers, and receivers networks.
This book attempts to provide a systematic progression from the core
concepts to the practical aspects covering the entire gamut of activities associ-
ated with the setup, maintenance, and troubleshooting of modern photonic
networks. This book is unique in its presentation. The theoretical concepts of
light transmission through a fiber, types of fiber, key parameters of a fiber, opti-
cal interfaces, testing tools and techniques, practical guide for maintaining and
troubleshooting fiber networks and systems, along with the architecture and
components of synchronous digital hierarchy, optical transport networks, Inter-
net protocol (IP)/multiprotocol lable switching (MPLS) core and dense wave-
length division multiplexing are presented in this concise and well-illustrated
text. The book also presents the optical access networks including fiber to the x
(FTTx), passive optical networks and its various flavors.
This book would be useful to all individuals associated with data net-
working, cable television, and telecom industries, irrespective of their function-
al role—planning, engineering, network management and operations, instal-
lation, and commissioning, as well as operations and maintenance. This book
will be especially relevant, as a practical handbook, to the massive technical
workforce tasked with installation and maintenance of our vast optical net-
works and as a reference text for graduates, postgraduates, and diploma students
of allied engineering disciplines.
Happy reading!
Acknowledgments
Authoring a book, especially technical one, involves a lot of reading, a thorough

understanding of the fundamental concepts, introspection, data structuring,
visualization, and, last but not least, the writing itself! After the hard work is
done, the realization dawns that the end result is the cumulative effort of all the
researchers, fellow authors, industry, family, and the social ecosystem. I wish to
thank all direct and indirect contributors to this work.
A special mention for my family—my mother and especially my wife and
little sons—for having given me the space to complete this work and being
patient as the estimated few days of work stretched to days, weeks, and months.
I also wish to thank Ms. Aileen Storry and her team for bringing out this
book in a relatively short span of time, nudging me along the way to stick to
deadlines, and getting the book reviewed at the speed of light! I also wish to
thank the reviewer(s) for their spot-on reviews that have brought tremendous
additional value and coherence to this book.
xxi
Part 1
The Conceptual Framework

1
Fundamentals of Optical Communication
1.1 Chapter Objectives

Telecommunication refers to the transmission of voice signals over a distance
to facilitate communication. In olden days our ancestors relied on ingenious
methods for communication, including the usage of smoke signals, drums,
or beacons. In modern times this process involves transmitting rays of light
through a fiber optic cable. In the current technology-driven era, telecommuni-
cation has become all pervasive and permeates into the realms of data networks,
radio, and television as well. Telecommunication involves interconnection of a
vast array of networks connecting a myriad of devices and providing multiple
services including voice, data, and video—triple play applications. This has led
to the development of a multitude of applications from the simple electronic
mails to video chats to video-on-demand services (VOD) and more complex
medical imaging applications.
This chapter introduces the basic concepts related to the propagation of
light through a medium. It provides the conceptual basis for understanding
complex issues surrounding the design, deployment, and troubleshooting of
modern day next generation optical networks that are presented in the later
chapters of this book. This book focuses on the practical application of the key
concepts presented, and hence the mathematical content has been kept to a
bare minimum. There are myriad books available in the market that focus ex-
clusively on the mathematics of designing optical networks. This chapter would
equip the reader, irrespective of their background, with the necessary skills to
understand the more sophisticated concepts related to designing, deploying,
and troubleshooting optical networks.
3
4 The ABCs of Fiber Optic Communication
Key Topics
• Understanding the electromagnetic spectrum;

• Describing the basic principles related to transmission of light;
• Estimating channel capacity of a communication link scales;
• Describing optical power measurements;
• Understanding the concept of modal propagation within an optical
fiber;
• Understanding the concept of dispersion and other nonlinearities and
describe their effects on an optical link.
1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation refers to the energy radiated by matter sub-
jected to electromagnetic processes. The radiation involves a stream of particles,
which do not have any mass, referred to as photons. The photons travel at the
speed of light in a wave-like pattern. The waves are transverse with the electrical
and magnetic perpendicular to each other in the direction of propagation.
The term electromagnetic refers to the presence of interrelated/interde-
pendent alternating magnetic and electrical fields. An electromagnetic process
is one that involves transfer or change in energy levels (e.g., excitation of atoms
using an external energy source). Electromagnetic radiation can travel in space
(vacuum) without any medium, like air or water. This radiation spans a range of
frequencies collectively referred to as the EM spectrum. The spectrum includes
visible light, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and gamma
rays.
The measurement reference and the corresponding units for EM radia-
tion include:
1. Energy—electron volts or Joules;

2. Wavelength—meters and it subunits;
3. Frequency—cycle per second or Hertz (Hz).
The measurement unit chosen depends upon the application context. The
amount of energy is directly proportional to the frequency, which is inversely
proportional to the wavelength. Wavelength refers to the distance between two
similar points on successive waves. As highlighted in the previous section, elec-
tromagnetic spectrum includes [1]:
Fundamentals of Optical Communication 5
1. Gamma rays;
2. X-rays;
3. Ultraviolet rays;
4. Visible spectrum;
5. Infrared rays;
6. Microwaves;
7. Radio waves.
Light, generally referred to as visible light, is the radiation that can be

deciphered by the human eyes and is responsible for sight. There are numerous
theories that describe the characteristics/behavior of light. These include:
1. Corpuscular theory: Light as composed of tiny particles that travel in a

straight line;
2. Wave theory: Light as a waveform;
3. Quantum theory: Light as a stream of photons;
4. Electromagnetic theory: Light exhibiting electromagnetic properties.
The corpuscular theory, also referred to as particle theory, proposed by

Newton is based on the premise that light emits a number of tiny particles
referred to as corpuscles that travel in a straight line. In contrast, wave theory
assumes that earth is surrounded by a medium referred to ether, and light trav-
els in the form of waves through this ether. Quantum theory states that light
contains of tiny particles, referred to as photons, that exhibit properties similar
to a wave. This concept is similar to “matter” that is assumed to be composed
of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The electromagnetic theory propagated
by Maxwell states that light propagated as electric and magnetic waves that are
transverse in nature. This transverse nature of light can help in explaining the
phenomenon of polarization.
1.3 Light—Key Concepts

Light is an electromagnetic radiation that forms the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The term light is synonymous with visible light, has a wavelength of
around 400 to 700 nm, and falls between the infrared and the ultraviolet rays
within the electromagnetic spectrum (described in the previous section). This
corresponds to a frequency range of 430 to 770 THz [1]. The key properties of
light include:
1. Intensity;
2. Direction of propagation;
3. Frequency/wavelength;
4. Speed;
5. Polarization.
Light contains a stream of photons that exhibits the properties of particles

as well as waves. This property is referred to as wave-particle duality. The speed
of light, in vacuum, is defined to be 299,792,458 meters per second (mps)
or 186,282.397 miles per second or 2, 99,792.458 kilometres per second or
1,079,252,848.8 kilometres per hour (kph). In contrast, the speed of sound
is 343.2 meters per second (in dry air) [2]. This is the reason that lightning
is seen prior to hearing the sound of thunder. Optics refers to the study of the
interaction of light with matter. There are two alternative sets of mechanism to
measure the intensity of light:
1. Radiometry: Measurement of light power at specific wavelengths;

2. Photometry: Based on standardized model related to perception of
light by humans, it provides a measure to quantify illumination based
on specific requirements.
The concepts of optical power are covered in detail later in this chapter.
Wavelength refers to the distance over which the shape of a wave repeats.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
As observed in the Figure 1.1, wavelength is a measure of the distance
between the repetitions of a wave (peaks or troughs). The measurement units
Figure 1.1 Wavelength of a waveform.

are meters and its sub units—millimetres, micrometres, and nanometres, de-
pendent upon the frequency of the waves under consideration.
The wavelength of a waveform (traveling at a constant speed) is provided
by the following equation:
λ = v/f
Where λ refers to the wavelength and v is referred to as the phase speed of the
waveform under consideration having a frequency of f.
The speed of light in vacuum is denoted by c and is taken to be 3 * 108
meters/sec.
Example 1.1
Calculate the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave of 112 MHz.
In case of electromagnetic radiation (light) traveling through space the
phase speed
V = 3 * 108 meters/sec.
f = 112 MHz
Therefore wavelength can be calculated as:
λ = 3 * 108 /1.12 * 108 = 2.68 meters
1.4 Fundamentals of Light Transmission

The effect on a ray of light that passes through different media is described by
Snell’s Law. As per the law:
sinΘ1/sinΘ2 = v1/v2 = λ1/λ2 = n2/n1
Where Θ is the angle measured from the normal of the boundaries of the two
medium, V is the velocity of light in mps within the respective medium, and n
refers to the refractive indices of the respective medium. sinΘ1 and sinΘ2 refers
to the angles of incidence and refraction respectively [3].
The refractive index (RI) of a material describes the manner in which light
propagates through a medium other than free space. Since the RI is a ratio of
two variables, there are no dimensions attached to it. RI can be defined by the
following formula:
(RI) = n = c/v
Where n = RI of a medium, c = speed of light in vacuum, and v represents the

phase velocity of light in a specific medium.
This section explores the fundamental principles governing the transmis-

sion of light through a medium. The understanding of the possible effects of
a ray of light incident on a medium is a precursor to understanding the trans-
mission of light. A ray of light incident on a medium can undergo any of the
following effects (Figure 1.2):
1. Reflection: change in the direction of the ray of light at the junction or

boundary of two different media;
2. Refraction: the bending of a ray of light as it passes from one transpar-
ent medium (medium of varying refractive indices) to another;
3. Absorption: the complete attenuation of the incoming ray of light
(converted to heat);
4. Scattering: the diffusion of the incoming ray of light into multiple
directions.
This behavior of the ray of light incident on a medium is dependent on

several factors including:
1. The RI of the medium is a measure for how much the speed of light
is reduced as it passes through the medium. For example, if a medium
has an RI of 2, then a ray of light passing through it would travel at
1/2 = 0.5 times the speed in air or vacuum.
Figure 1.2 Propagation of light through different media.

2. The angle of incidence (Øi) is the angle at which the ray of light
strikes the medium with reference to the normal (line perpendicular
to the surface of the medium).
3. Transmission of light over a distance necessitates the use of a wave
guide or a channel over which the rays of light can propagate. A fiber
optic cable, also referred to as optical fiber, is the most commonly used
medium for light transmission. The details of the different types of
optical fibers are included in Chapter 2.
4. Optical fibers are made of glass, plastic (generally used for multimode
fibres). or both and contain an inner conductor, referred to as core,
surrounded by an outer conductor referred to as cladding. The RI of
the core is greater than that of the cladding.
5. The transmission of a ray of light through an optical fiber or fiber optic
cable (FOC) is due to the principle of total internal reflection (TIR).
This is based on Snell’s law, which determines the effect on light inci-
dent on a medium. The law states that the angle at which light is re-
flected is dependent on the RI of the two media under consideration.
In the case of an optical fiber, these are the core and the cladding. The
lower RI of the cladding (with respect to the core) causes the light to
be angled back into the core.
The propagation of light through an optical fiber is graphically illustrated

in Figure 1.3. As highlighted in the figure, the incident ray of light cannot travel
through the cladding and is confined to the core through which it propagates
due to the successive internal reflections.
Another important parameter that aids in the transmission of light
through an FOC is the critical angle Øc. The following list highlights the rela-
tionship between the angle of incidence and the critical angle:
1. If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, the ray of light
incident on the core of a fiber will get refracted through the cladding.
2. If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray of light
incident on the core of a fiber will travel along the boundary of the
core and cladding. The ray would be weakly guided and likely to be
refracted from the fiber at some point in time.
3. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, then the
ray of light incident on the core of a fiber will undergo total internal
reflection and propagate through the fiber.
Figure 1.3 Transmission of light through an optical fiber.
The principle of TIR can also have other applications including:
1. Medicinal (endoscopes);
2. Fiber diagnostic techniques (fiberscope);
3. Sensors;
4. Optical instruments;
5. Fingerprinting devices.
1.5 Estimating Channel Capacity of a Communication Link

There are two distinct approaches to estimating the theoretic capacity of a
communication link. The first one is important from a theoretical perspective,
while the second mirrors the ground realities.
1.5.1 Noiseless Channel

Assuming a noiseless channel, the channel capacity of a communication link
can be estimated using the Nyquist theorem:
C = 2B log2 Ln
Where:
C = Channel capacity in bps
B = Bandwidth (Hertz)
log2 = Logarithmic scale to the base 2
L = Number of signal levels
n = Number of bits per symbol
1.5.2 Noisy Channel

Assuming a noisy channel, the channel capacity of a communication link can
be estimated using Shannon’s theorem:
C = 2 B log2 (1 + SNR)
Where:
C = Channel capacity in bps
B = Bandwidth (Hertz)
log2 = Logarithmic scale to the base 2
SNR = Signal-to-noise ratio
The data rate of a communication channel is dependent on three factors:
1. Available bandwidth;
2. Signal levels;
3. Quality of the communication channel (noise levels).
Note 1
The number of signal levels employed has a direct co-relation with an increase
in the probability of occurrence of errors (due to the decrease in spacing be-
tween the signals).
Example 1.2
Compute the maximum bit rate of a communication channel with a bandwidth
of 2500 Hz transmitting a signal with three levels. Assume that the channel is
noiseless.
The maximum bit rate (MBR) of a noiseless channel can be computed by
using the Nyquist theorem.
C = 2B log 2 Ln
B = 2500 Hz
L=3
MBR = C = 2 * 2500 * log 2 3
= 2 * 2500 *1.584
= 7920 bps
Note 2
Use online logarithmic scales for calculations (e.g., http://logbase2.blogspot.
in).
Example 1.3
A signal of 372 Kbps needs to be transmitted over a communication channel
with a bandwidth of 30 kHz. How many signal levels would be required to
transmit the signal, assuming that the channel is noiseless?
Since the channel is assumed to be noiseless, Nyquist theorem would be
applicable. Accordingly:
C = 2B log 2 Ln
C = 372 kbps = 372,000 bps
B = 30 kHz = 30000 Hz
372,000 = 2 * 30000 * log 2 L
log 2L = 372,000 60,000 = 6.2
L = 26.2 = 73.51
The resultant level is not a power of 2. In order to ensure conformance,

the following options can be considered:
1. Reduce the bit rate (e.g., 360 kbps, which will result in a signal level
that is a power of 2).
2. Increase the number of levels. The next highest power of 2 would cor-
respond to 128 levels. This would increase the bit rate to:
MBR = 2 * 30000 * 7 = 420 kbps
1.6 Scales
Scale is a technique used for arranging, measuring, or quantifying events or
objects or figures in a specific sequence. Linear scales are used commonly to
represent data, due to its inherently simplistic usage. However, such scales are
useful only when the data to be represented is within a small range. The scales
represent the information in uniform intervals that may result in improper con-
clusions, especially when working with large data sets. Exponential changes in
a data set cannot be represented by linear scales.
Example 1.4
A $5 increase in the price of a commodity whose original price was $10 rep-
resents a 50 percent increase (from $10 to $15), while an increase of $5 in the
price of a commodity whose original price was $20 represents a 25 percent
increase only (from $20 to $25).
This change may not be apparent in a chart using a linear scale, since
the prices are depicted as equidistant points on the scale. Linear scales can be
broadly classified as:
1. Category scale: The category scale is also referred to as nominal or qual-

itative scale and is used for sequencing numbers or words without any
quantitative significance.
2. Interval scale: Interval scale or quantitative scale is used for sequencing
numbers in a specific order (e.g., representing distance and tempera-
tures).
3. Sequence scale: This scale is also referred to as ordinal scale. It consists
of uniformly spaced rank entities that have no quantitative signifi-
cance (e.g., Richter scale, pH scale).
1.6.1 Logarithmic Scales

Logarithm refers to the number of instances a number has to be multiplied with
itself to obtain another number.
Example 1.5
How many multiples of 2 will be equal to 16?
2 * 2 * 2 * 2 = 16
This implies that multiplying 2 four times will result in the number 16.
In other words:
24 = 16
Where 2 represents the base and 4 represents the exponent.

This equation can be represented on a logarithmic scale as:
log2 (16) = 4
Where 2 represents the base and 4 the logarithmic exponent.

Note 3
Exponent calculations can be performed on a physical or electronic calculator
using the keys éxp’ of ‘xy.
Common logarithm refers to a base of 10’. Natural logarithm uses a base
of é’ also referred to as the Euler’s number. É’ refers to the number of times a
number has to be multiplied in order to obtain a specified number. This is rep-
resented by “ln” on a scientific calculator.
E or Euler’s number = 2.71828
Example 1.6
ln (6) = 1.792
Or
2.718281.792 = 6
Or
loge (6) = 1.792
Or
2.71828 with an exponent of 1.792 equals 6.
Logarithm computation is similar to a multiplication operation. A loga-
rithm of a negative number corresponds to a “divide” operation. An example is
provided in Table 1.1:
Example 1.7 highlights the advantages of a logarithmic scale in compari-
son with a linear scale.
Table 1.1
Logarithmic Table Example
Number No. of 10’s Log (Base 10) Result
1000 1 * 10 * 10 * 10 log10(1000) 3
100 1* 10 * 10 log10(100) 2
10 1 * 10 log10(10) 1
1 0 * 10 log10(1) 0
0.1 –1 * 10 log10(0.1) –1
Or
1 /10
0.01 1/(10 * 10) log10(0.01) –2
0.001 1/(10 * 10 * 10) log10(0.001) –3
Example 1.7
In a controlled temperature environment bacteria, within a lab culture, multi-
ply at a constant rate of 20 percent per hour. As the temperature is increased,
there is an exponential growth of bacteria with 50 percent increase in every 20
minutes. The number of cells, at room temperature, can reach over a million
in just over eight hours. A linear chart representing this growth is as illustrated
in Figure 1.4.
It may be noted that the data for the first six hours cannot be interpreted
due to the inherent nature of the linear scales.
The same data is plotted using a logarithmic scale as illustrated in
Figure 1.5. It may be observed in a better manner.
1.7 Optical Power Measurements

The following are the measurement units for optical power (measured in linear
units):
1. Milliwatts;
2. Microwatts;
3. Nanowatts.
Absolute power measurements are generally difficult, hence changes in

power or power referenced to another unit (or signal), referred to as relative
Figure 1.4 Example of linear chart.

Figure 1.5 Example of logarithmic chart.
power is generally used. The relative difference between the strength of the two
signals is expressed as decibels (dB) (e.g., optical power losses in a fiber).
For power measurements in linear units (mW, μW, nW), dB is calculated
as follows:
Power (dB) = 10 log (P1/P2)
Where P1 refers to the measured power and P2 is the reference power.
1.7.1 Absolute Power Measurements

Absolute power measurements are generally referenced to mW and is expressed
as:
Power (dBm) = 10 log (P/1mW)
dB is expressed as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of power of

two signals.
Note 4
1. Unit of loss measurement = dB;

2. Unit for power measurement = dBm.
1.7.2 Logarithm Rules

A basic knowledge of the common logarithmic calculations is desirable in order
to decipher design documents as well as perform basic theoretical computations
like optical link budget design. A list of the common functions are presented
here:
1. log10(X * Y) = log10(X) + log10(Y)

2. log10(X/Y) = log10(X) – log10(Y)
3. log10(1/A) = –log10(A)
4. log10(0.01) = –log10(100) = –2
5. log10(0.1) = –log10(10) = –1
6. log10(1) = 0
7. log10(2) = 0.3
8. log10(4) = 0.6
9. log10(10) = 1
10. log10(20) = 1.3
11. log10(100) = 2
12. log10(1000) = 3
13. log10(10000) = 4
Example 1.8
log10 (2 *10) = log10 (2 ) + log10 (10)

= 0.3 + 1 = 1.3
Decibels relative to a mW = dBm = 10 log10 (P/1mW)

Table 1.2 provides a co-relation between power expressed in mW and
dBm.
1.8 Modes of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber

It may be noted that the properties of light can be explained using wave as
well as particle theory. The earlier discussion related to the propagation of light
through an optical fiber assumed a ray of light guided through an optical fiber
by a series of reflections. The discussion may not be complete since a beam
of light has a finite radius (beam radius) and divergence (beam divergence)
Table 1.2
Power (mW) Versus dBm
Power
(mW) Ratio dBm
1 1/1 = 1 0
2 2/1 = 2 3
5 5/1 = 5 7
10 10/1 = 10 10
0.1 100/1 = 100 20
1W 1000/1 = 1000 30
5W 5000/1 = 5000 37
as explained by the wave theory. It may be confusing to readers that different

properties of characteristics of light are explained with the alternate use of the
wave or ray theories.
1.8.1 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

Acceptance angle, denoted by Θa , refers to the maximum angle (from normal)
at which a ray of light can be injected onto an optical fiber or a waveguide. The
numerical aperture (NA) defines the range of angles over which light can be
transmitted over an optical fiber. A ray of light that is incident on a fiber at an
angle greater than Θa will have its angle of incidence Θi lesser than the critical
angle Θc and will get transmitted through the core-cladding interface. Accep-
tance cone (cone of acceptance) refers to the cone (three dimensional) in which
optical power can be coupled onto a fiber and propagated down its length us-
ing the principle of total internal reflection. The cone (Figure 1.2) is formed by
rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber axis. The concepts described in
this section can be cemented by the following simple examples.
Example 1.9
The refractive indices of the core and the cladding, of an optical fiber, are 1.28
and 1.24, respectively. Compute the critical angle for transmission of light
through optical fiber.
For light to be transmitted through an optical fiber, the following condi-
tion must be satisfied:
Θi > Θc
Θc = sin–1(n2/n1)
n1= 1.28, n2 = 1.24
Θc = sin–1(1.28/1.24)
Θc = 75.63o
Example 1.10
With reference to Example 1.9 compute the acceptance angle Θa.
With reference to Example 1.9:
Θc = 75.63o
This implies that:

αc = 90° – Θc
= 90° – 75.63 = `14.37
o
Sin Θa = n1 sin αc (assuming refractive index of Air na = 1)

Θa = sin-1(n1 sin αc)
Θa = sin-1(1.28 sin 14.37°)
Acceptance angle = Θa = 18.52o
Example 1.11
With reference to the Example 1.9 compute the numerical aperture.
Numerical aperture = NA = SinΘa
sinΘa can also be computed as (n12– n22)1/2
= (1.282−1.242)1/2
0.317
Note 5
Optical fibers used on a long haul network typically have a NA of 0.1 to 0.3.
The NA defines the amount of power coupled onto a fiber.
1.8.2 Modal Propagation

The ray of light traveling through the core of an optical fiber exhibits variations
in its intensity as it travels down the fiber. These variations are referred to as
modes. Modes can be thought of as rays of light. The number of modes (con-
stituents) depends upon the dimensions of the core and the variation in the re-
fractive indices of core and cladding. The modes are numbered in the ascending
order. As the name implies, a single-mode fiber (SMF), because of its small core
diameter, allows only a single ray of light to travel along its length. In contrast,
a multimode fiber has a large core diameter, which permits multiple modes to
travel down its length. Optical fibers can be classified based on their modes of
propagation and refractive index profiles as follows:
1. Single-mode step index: Propagation of a single lower order mode of

light through a narrow cylinder over the axis of the optical fiber.
2. Multimode step index: The RI of the core is greater than the cladding.
The larger core diameter of the core results in multiple mode trans-
mission (can have more than thousand modes based on the fiber di-
ameter) with the higher modes leaking onto the cladding as well as
conversion of optical energy to heat due to absorption. The higher
levels of attenuation limit the transmission distance to a few meters to
a kilometer.
3. Multimode graded index: The RI decreases gradually from the center of
the core toward the cladding. This results in reduction in dispersion
through differential mode delay1.
The core diameter of a SMF is typically in the range of 8–12 μm, while
that of a MMF-GI is in the range of 50–100 μm and that of MMF-SI in the
range of 50–200 μm. The cladding size is usually standardized at 125 μm.
1.9 Dispersion
Dispersion refers to the spreading of light pulses as it travels down the length
of an optical fiber. Dispersion is one of the primary factors that limits the data
transmission rates on an optical network. Dispersion can occur due to a variety
of reasons. One of them is due to the difference in RI for different wavelengths
leading to changes in velocity and angle of refraction, since the RI is a function
of the wavelength passing through a medium. The ratio of the speed of light in
a medium to the speed of light in vacuum is referred to as the refractive index.
Dispersion causes broadening of pulses and is dependent upon the wavelength
of the signal under consideration.
As the bit rate of an optical link increases, the width of each bit decreases
and renders the bit stream susceptible to effects of dispersion. This will cause
bits to overlap onto adjacent time slots leading to transmission errors. The re-
ceived data stream with overlapping pulses cannot be decoded by the receivers
leading to transmission losses due to intersymbol interference. Dispersion is
expressed in seconds. For optical transmission over a fiber, the units can be ex-
pressed in ps. The normalized dispersion (dispersion per unit length of a fiber)
can be expressed2 as ps/ (nm*km). Dispersion can be primarily classified into
two types:
1. Intermodal (modal) dispersion: Modal dispersion is caused by the inci-

dent ray (ray incident on a core of the fiber) splitting into its different
modes (MMF only), each of which takes different path (shorter or
longer modal path lengths) through the fiber. The number of paths or
1. Differences in group velocity among propagating modes due to variations (imperfections) in

the RI profile of the fiber.
2. Applicable only for chromatic dispersion and not for the other forms of dispersion.
modes can range from 1 to 1,000,000 depending upon the type of fi-
ber and supported wavelengths. This causes the modes to arrive at the
other end of the fiber at differing times causing light to “spread” (in
the time domain). This spreading of light is referred to as modal dis-
persion. The core diameter of the multimode fiber is large and hence
susceptible to modal dispersion. The effects of modal dispersion can
be negated by using a SMF or reduced by using a fiber with smaller
core diameter or the use of a GI fiber.
2. Intramodal dispersion or chromatic dispersion is caused by the mate-
rials used in the manufacture of optical fibers. The two types of intra-
modal dispersion are:
a. Material dispersion: As governed by the equation n=c/v, the dif-
ferent wavelengths (within a SMF) travel through an optical fiber
at differing velocities, due to inherent variations in the material
properties (hence the name) of an optical fiber.
b. Waveguide dispersion: The wavelength of a ray of light incident on a
SMF is not significantly greater than its core diameter. This causes
some portion (modes) of the ray to travel along the cladding. The
RI of the core is greater than the cladding, resulting in the portion
of light traveling along the cladding to be faster than the portion
traveling along the core.3 This results in waveguide dispersion. The
area (diameter) over which the light travels through the fiber is
referred to as mode field diameter (MFD). MFD is wavelength de-
pendent, hence higher wavelengths will have higher MFD.
These concepts are summarized in Table 1.3.
Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion (CD) is a combination of material and waveguide disper-
sion and primarily occurs due the fact that rays of light are propagated at differ-
Table 1.3
Types of Dispersion
Dispersion Type Cause
Intermodal Modal Propagation
Intramodal —
Material Variation in RI
Waveguide Fiber type
3. The mode travels at a speed determined by the proportion of that mode in the core and clad-
ding. This phenomenon accounts for the difference in speeds.
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CHAPTER XXV
A PLOT
“D id you suspect me before Gus Kiggins told you to?”

“Now, look here, Dan Richards, you’re making a fool of
yourself! Don’t you suppose I ever have an idea of my own?”
“I do.”
“You don’t act as if you did. Look here, Dan, what’s the trouble
between you and Gus, anyway? Are you jealous of him?”
“Not to my knowledge,” replied Dan with a smile.
“He thinks you are.”
“You can put his mind at ease on that score.”
“Then what is it? Are you afraid of him?”
“Now you’ve found it.”
“You are? He thinks you are, but I never would have believed it of
you.”
“I am.”
“He is a powerful brute.”
“I agree with you.”
“And he’s the best boxer in the school.”
“That’s what I’ve heard,” said Dan quietly.
“Well, I don’t know that I blame you,” laughed Walter. “He isn’t
exactly the kind of a chap I’d like to run up against on a dark street
when I was all alone.”
“I’m more afraid of him in the daytime when he’s with others.”
“What do you mean by that?” demanded Walter sharply.
“You know what I mean.”
“No, I don’t.”
“Look here, Walter,” said Dan earnestly. “I don’t mean to preach to
you. I know I’m only a countryman and you’ve had lots of chances
that I haven’t. But if I had as clear and quick a mind as you have and
then had such chances to develop it as you have here in this school,
do you know what I’d do?”
“Yes. You’d buckle down to work.”
“I certainly should.”
“You don’t know everything, Dan,” said Walter, his pleasure at his
roommate’s words arousing his good nature, as unstinted praise
never failed to do. “I hate the stuff we’re getting here. Latin and
algebra and physics! Bah! They make me sick. What good are they
anyway? We’ll never use them again after we get out of this old
trap.”
“Walter, did you ever see a fireman shoveling coal under the boiler
of a locomotive?”
“Occasionally,” laughed Walter.
“What do you suppose he does it for?”
“Oh, for about sixty or seventy dollars a month.”
“Well, even if that is so, why does the company pay him that to do
that work?”
“To heat up the boiler and get up steam.”
“Precisely. He doesn’t shovel that coal to get more coal or
because he expects to use that coal again, does he?”
“What are you driving at anyway?”
“I may be all wrong, but my idea is something like this—just as a
fireman shovels the coal, not to get more coal but to get steam, so I
think the work here is not to get things we’ll use again, but to get or
do things that will give us——”
“Steam?” broke in Walter with a laugh.
“Yes, sir! That’s it exactly. I’ve a funny idea that when a fellow
shirks or dodges his work he’s really the fellow to suffer. He doesn’t
cheat the teacher half so much as he cheats himself. He’s just
subtracting that much power from himself, that’s all.”
“Dan, you’re a funny chap.”
“I know it, but I don’t believe I’m half so ‘funny’ as the fellow is who
throws away such chances as he has here in the Tait School.”
“I shouldn’t be surprised if you were right. I wish I were like you,
Dan. It’s easy for some fellows. But then you’ve got everything to get
and I’ve got everything without any getting. My pater has more
money than he knows what to do with; he’s got a big business and
I’ll have a share in that by and by——”
“If you’re strong enough and able to hold it,” broke in Dan.
“I’m not afraid of that. I’ll give you a job some day, maybe, but I
know it would please the old folks at home if I should take hold; I’m
half inclined to try it.”
Perhaps the fact that Walter was only “half” inclined was the
explanation of the fact that his good resolution lasted only a few
weeks. For a time he did try, but his will was weak and he was so far
behind in his studies that the work was doubly hard. In the end he
relapsed into his old ways and spent more and more time with Gus
Kiggins, while the renewed good-fellowship between the two
roommates, which to Dan’s delight had been in evidence, was soon
broken. Walter became more irritable and his feeling for Dan
apparently was one of increasing dislike.
But the days of the winter term passed rapidly and when spring
arrived the prospects of the nine and the position it would secure in
the new league became the absorbing matter of interest. Dan did his
utmost to avoid meeting Gus Kiggins and was rejoiced as the days
passed to find that apparently the effort was mutual. The two boys
seldom met except on the diamond and there was no dispute as to
Dan’s right to occupy the pitcher’s box. The players, the coach, and
indeed the entire school, all were agreed, and great things were
expected from Dan’s work.
Meanwhile Gus Kiggins doggedly continued to practise pitching
and his work was of such a character that he was looked upon as
the substitute pitcher in addition to his work on first base, where he
was acknowledged to be supreme.
Little Carlton Hall had learned a few lessons not taught in the
classroom and somehow had weathered the storms, although he still
was not without his attentions from Gus Kiggins and others. His deep
affection for Dan had increased steadily, and it was Dan who had
strengthened the younger boy’s spirit of self-reliance and
determination so that at last he had decided to remain in school,
though his life there was not one of unalloyed pleasure.
The first game of the league was now at hand. The nine of the
Military Academy and their supporters were to come the following
day, and excitement ran high in the Tait School. Dan, in spite of his
quiet manner, was perhaps more excited than any of his fellows,
realizing as he did how much success or failure would mean to him.
The afternoon before the game Ned was surprised when Carlton
Hall came to his room. “What’s wrong, young man?” Ned demanded
as he became aware of the excitement of his visitor.
At the boy’s reply Ned was as much aroused as his caller, and
seizing Carlton by the shoulders he demanded: “How do you know?
Say that again! Be careful now!”
“It’s just as I told you,” said Carlton.
“Say it again,” demanded Ned sharply.
“I was feeling lonesome,” began Carlton obediently, “and I wanted
to be alone. I went over to those bushes back of the library and just
stretched myself on the ground there behind them. While I was lying
there Gus Kiggins and Walter Borden came along and sat down on
that bench the other side of the lilac bushes.”
“How did you know who it was?”
“I peeked. I was just going to try to crawl away without being seen
when I heard Gus say, ‘We’ll fix the pious fraud.’”
“Go on. What did Walter say?”
“He said, ‘I hate to do it, Gus.’”
“Did Gus say what he wanted Walter to do?”
“You’re right he did.”
“What was it?”
“He wanted Walter to put some stuff in the water Dan drank or in
something he ate before the game to-morrow.”
“What did he want him to put in it?”
“Ipecac. Gus said, ‘That’ll make him sick enough to quit the box
and it won’t hurt him a bit, either.’”
“What did Walter say then?”
“He said he didn’t want to do it. He said he didn’t like Dan any
better than Gus did, but he didn’t want to go into any such low-down
trick as that.”
“I should think he wouldn’t want to,” said Ned savagely. “But he
agreed in the end that he’d do it?”
“Yes. I think Gus knew something that Walter was afraid he’d tell if
he didn’t agree.”
“The sneak! Did you hear either of them say when the trick was to
be played?”
“Some time just before the game.”
“How long did you lie there?”
“All the time they were talking. I wanted to get away, but I didn’t
dare move. If Gus Kiggins had found me he would have killed me,”
said Carlton, shuddering as he spoke.
“What did you do then?”
“I waited till they went away and then I put for your room as fast as
my legs could carry me.”
“Did you hear anything more?”
“That was all they talked about. Gus said if Walter would get Dan
out of the pitcher’s box, then he would see to it that he—I mean
Walter—was elected captain of the nine for next year.”
“They’re a noble pair!” exclaimed Ned in disgust. “You’re sure you
haven’t lisped a word of this to anyone?”
“Not a soul.”
“Then don’t. Don’t let a whisper of it get out.”
“I won’t,” promised Carlton. “But you’ll see that nothing happens to
Dan, won’t you?” he added eagerly.
“Rest your infantile soul on that!” said Ned angrily. “Now, you’d
better go. I shouldn’t want Gus to find you here. If he should ever
hear that you have told me what you have, what do you suppose
would happen to you?”
“Gus would——” The lad stopped with a shudder.
“Of course he would,” said Ned sternly. “You mustn’t let a word of
this get out—not a word! Do you understand?”
“Yes,” replied Carlton; “but I don’t want anything to happen to Dan
——”
“Didn’t I tell you there wouldn’t?” broke in Ned.
“Yes; but I’m afraid. My! if Dan couldn’t pitch to-morrow and the
Military Academy should beat us——”
“Go home and lock yourself in your room, for fear you’ll let out
something about this! I’ll look after it. Don’t you be afraid! If you’ve
told me the truth——”
“I’ve told you just what I heard Gus say,” broke in the little fellow.
“That’s all right, Carlton,” said Ned soothingly, as he saw the fear
expressed on the face of his small visitor. “I’m glad you came straight
to me. I’ll look after it. Now, run along like a good little boy.”
“I’m going,” said Carlton, turning toward the door. Then facing
Ned, he said tremblingly, “If Gus should find out that I’d told you——”
“He won’t!”
“But if he should?”
“Don’t be scared. We’ll attend to Gus at the proper time.”
“Maybe it won’t be till after he has killed me.”
“Don’t you give up the ghost till you have to,” said Ned to his
frightened visitor. “Good night, Carlton. Don’t forget to root your
prettiest to-morrow when Dan strikes out the heavy hitters of the
Military Academy. We may need every voice;” and Ned immediately
sought Dan, whom he found alone in his room. “How are you, Dan?”
he inquired as he seated himself in an easy chair and looked keenly
at his friend. “Feeling fit for the game to-morrow?”
“My pedal extremities are a trifle chilly,” said Dan good-naturedly.
“I’ll risk them. That isn’t what I’m afraid of.”
“What has frightened you? The nine of the Military Academy?”
“No.”
“What then?”
“I’m afraid for you, Dan.”
“Afraid of me? Well, I don’t know that I blame you. I’m almost
afraid myself——”
“I didn’t say I was afraid of you, Dan. I said I was afraid for you.”
“What do you mean?”
“I’ve just heard of the dirtiest trick ever conceived by mortal man.”
“What is it?” inquired Dan quietly, as he looked steadily into Ned’s
face.
“It’s a trick to put you out of the game.”
“What is it?”
“It’s a scheme to feed you on ipecac just before the game begins.”
“If I don’t swallow it I sha’n’t have any trouble, shall I?”
“No. But——”
“Who is to do the trick?”
“You can guess who is behind it. It’s the lowest, meanest thing I
ever heard of! If I really believed it all, I’d——”
“Don’t you believe it?” broke in Dan.
“I don’t know just what to think. I confess I’m afraid.”
“You haven’t told me just what it is that scares you.”
Thus bidden, Ned, without mentioning any names, related what
Carlton had reported to him. “What do you think, Dan?” he asked,
when he had completed his story.
“I don’t believe there’s a fellow in the school who would be guilty of
such a low trick!” said Dan positively. “I guess it’s a false alarm.
We’re all nervous over the game.”
“Maybe that’s so,” said Ned, his countenance brightening a little.
“Still, it’s better to be on the safe side,” he added cautiously.
“What can be done?”
“You can be on your guard anyway.”
“I might not eat or drink anything,” suggested Dan with a smile.
“Then I’d be safe anyway.”
“And be in no condition for the game. No; I’ll tell you what we’ll do,
Dan.”
“What?”
“To-morrow we’ll stick together after luncheon till the game is
called.”
“That won’t be much of a hardship,” said Dan lightly.
“No; but if both of us are on the lookout it won’t be likely that
anything can be done.”
“All right. I’m agreed, though I haven’t a bit of fear.”
“I’m glad you haven’t; I wish I were all clear in my mind too. But I’m
not. We’ll keep both eyes open, Dan. Hello!” he added; “here comes
Walter and Smith and Gus Kiggins.”
The three boys entered the room and at once the subject of the
game on the following day became the topic of conversation. To
Dan’s surprise, both Walter and Gus appeared to be unusually
friendly. Apparently all the feeling of jealousy which the latter openly
had manifested toward Dan was gone and Walter glowingly
predicted at least twelve strike-outs for his roommate.
“Of course we want to win this game,” Walter said glibly. “If we can
get those fellows scared, we’ll have an advantage in the other five
league games we’ll have to play. Still, ‘one swallow doesn’t make a
summer,’ and we’ll not cry if this game goes against us.”
“We aren’t going to lose this game if every fellow backs up Dan,”
said Ned quietly.
“That’s just what we’re going to do,” declared Smith.
“That’s the idea,” said Gus. “If every fellow doesn’t do his level
best, then we’ll know the reason why. I guess Samson has given it to
the nine straight. He says he’s just a little afraid some one of us may
put himself out of condition by eating or drinking something that
won’t agree with him. I never saw Samson so nervous as he is over
this game. Next year he’ll get his training table. He says the doctor
has at last agreed. I think it will be a fine thing myself.”
Dan glanced quietly at Ned while Gus was speaking and saw an
expression on his face that caused the young pitcher to rise and say,
“Well, it’s time for me to go to bed. You fellows can go right on with
your talk, but a good long sleep does more for me than all your
patent methods put together.”
“There goes the warning bell anyway,” said Smith, as the chapel-
bell rang out. “We’ll all try Dan’s cure for nerves.” And the visitors at
once departed from the room.
If Dan, in his heart, believed any reliance was to be placed on
what Ned had said to him concerning the plot, he did not betray his
fear in any way.
There was an air of only partly subdued excitement in the school
the following morning, but if Dan was watchful not even Ned was
aware of his friend’s caution. The game was to be called at three
o’clock. At luncheon-time Ned stopped at Dan’s room and the two
boys went together to the dining-hall.
“You see,” said Ned lightly, “I’m sticking to you like a brother. I
don’t intend to let you get out of my sight one second between now
and the game. I hope you’ll appreciate my oversight.”
“Glad to have you, though you’ll have your trouble for your pains,”
replied Dan.
“I hope so,” was all that Ned said in response.
The excitement of the morning was more manifest as the boys
entered the dining-room. There were many glances of curiosity at the
long table where the boys from the Military Academy were seated as
the guests of the Tait School.
“A fine-looking team,” said Gus Kiggins, as he seated himself
beside Walter, whose place at the table was next to Dan’s. Opposite
them sat Ned and Smith and Hodge.
“They’ll make us know we’ve been playing a game before we’re
done,” said Hodge in response to the statement of Gus.
“You’re right they will,” joined in Smith. “Dan, we’re all looking to
you to uphold the honor of the school,” he added, as he looked
across the table at the school pitcher.
“Oh, say something nice to Dan,” growled Walter. “He’s got
troubles enough of his own without rubbing it in. What’s the matter,
Dan?” he added; “you look pale. Anything wrong?”
“Not a thing,” replied Dan with a smile. “I never went into a game
feeling better in my life. If I don’t do all that you want me to I sha’n’t
be able to charge it up to the way I feel.”
“That’s the way to talk!” growled Gus without looking up. “Say,
fellows,” he added, “I’ve ordered some apollinaris lemonade for the
nine. Samson won’t let us drink any water during the game, you
know.”
“You’re all right, Gus!” exclaimed Hodge. “I hope you’ll make an
extra home run to-day.”
The glasses were placed beside the plates, and as Ned looked
keenly at Dan he shook his head slightly.
“I’ll tell you what, fellows,” said Smith, “I’m never superstitious
except before a ball game. Let’s all change glasses for luck.”
“That’s the idea!” joined in Ned with a sudden eagerness. “We’ll all
exchange. Here, Smith, you give yours to Hodge, I’ll give you mine,
and I’ll take Hodge’s.”
“That’s all nonsense,” exclaimed Gus abruptly.
“‘A little nonsense now and then is relished by the best of men,’”
spoke up Ned. “Try it, fellows. Can’t do any harm anyway.”
Dan laughingly had exchanged his glass for Walter’s, though the
latter was not aware of the exchange, as at that moment he was
looking back at the table where the opposing nine was seated.
“Have it your own way,” said Ned, who had seen the exchange,
which had been unnoticed by the others.
In a brief time the boys arose and passed out of the hall.
“Be down at the dressing-room at two sharp,” he called as the
boys separated after they had left the building.
CHAPTER XXVI
WALTER’S ILLNESS
D an and Ned proceeded directly to the dressing-room, the former

somewhat downcast and the latter more lively even than he was
wont to be. “How do you feel?” he laughingly inquired of his friend as
the two boys entered the room.
“I have felt better,” replied Dan quietly.
“What’s the trouble? Are your pedal extremities chilly?”
“I have not noticed anything of that kind.”
“Afraid?”
“Not of the Military Academy nine, if that’s what you mean.”
“What then?”
“Where is Walter?” Dan abruptly asked.
“I haven’t seen him since we left the dining-hall,” replied Ned,
glancing keenly at his friend as he spoke. “He’ll be here all right. You
don’t need to worry about Walter, Dan.”
“Honestly, Ned, do you think there was anything in that change of
glasses? I’ll own up that I’ve——”
“Anything in the lemonade?” broke in Ned hastily.
“You know what I mean.”
“Yes, I guess I do,” acknowledged Ned. “Of all the vile tricks I ever
heard of, that is the worst; that is, if there really was anything in what
Gus was doing. It doesn’t seem possible that he or Walter could
stoop to——”
“I’m waiting for Walter,” interrupted Dan. “I’ll know when he comes.
If he had a hand in that——”
“What if he did? That’s just one more reason for showing the
fellows to-day that you can’t be put out of the game that way.”
“It isn’t that.”
“Then, what is it?”
“I can’t make myself believe that Walter Borden would stoop to
such a low-down trick. Why, only last summer he was one of the best
fellows I ever saw. He was generous; he’d give away his last cent
——”
“If it didn’t cost him anything to do it.”
“All the boys liked him. He was just a little bit cocksure that he
could give us all points on the game, but he was straight and true as
steel—at least I thought he was.”
“Maybe it’s all right yet. That was a slick thing you did.”
“What did I do?”
“When you changed your glass for his.”
“I’m sorry now that I did that.”
“I don’t see why you should be. If he’s sick, it’s his own fault. If he
can’t play on the nine to-day I’ll put Sam Ventnor at short. He’s
almost as good as Walter anyway. If Walter could play short just half
as well as he thinks he can he’d get the fielding average of the
league.”
“I wish he’d come,” said Dan.
“Don’t worry. If he doesn’t come it will be because he has been
studying harder than he ever has in his life before.”
“I don’t know what you mean.”
“Why, all I mean is that if he is taking a dose of his own medicine
he will be the better off for it. If he isn’t taking it, then you’ve nothing
to worry about as far as I can see.”
The dressing-room was well filled now, and it became difficult to
carry on conversation. The excited boys were all striving to appear
indifferent, but their attempts were not altogether successful. Neither
Gus nor Walter had come and their absence was beginning to be
noticed.
“What has become of Gus and Walter?” inquired Hodge as he
drew on his shoes. “I never knew either of them to be late at a
game.”
“They’ll show up,” said Smith.
“Or down,” suggested Ned.
“What’s the difference?” asked Smith lightly. “It’s all one to me.”
“There’s a big difference.”
“I don’t see it.”
“Well, suppose you should go into a hotel and ask the clerk for the
price of rooms——”
“I’ve done that many a time. I was in the Gorton last Easter
vacation——”
“What did he tell you?”
“Who—the clerk? He said they had rooms from two dollars up.”
“Well, now suppose he had said, after he’d looked you over, that in
your case the price of rooms would be two down. Would that make
any difference, Smith?”
“Yes,” laughed Smith. “I think it would. But I don’t see——”
“Here comes Gus Kiggins!” broke in one of the nine. “Walter is his
shadow, and he can’t be very far away. Hello, Gus!” he added. “What
made you late? Where’s Walter?”
“He’s sick,” replied Gus gruffly as he began to don his suit.
“Sick!” exclaimed Hodge, as he and the other members of the nine
crowded about Gus. “What’s the matter with him?”
“Ask somebody who knows!” retorted Gus, as he looked angrily at
Dan. “I can’t tell you.”
“Won’t he be able to play?” asked Ned.
“That’s more than I know. There wasn’t anybody to stand by him,
so I stayed with him in his room till just now. He has been vomiting
and he’s lying on his bed now. His face is as white as chalk.” Gus
glared at Dan while he was speaking, until the others also turned
and looked questioningly at the young pitcher.
“Did Dan make him sick?”
“Ask him. He can tell you better than I can,” growled Gus.
“Dan, did you do anything to him?” Ned asked quizzically as he
turned to his friend.
“What could I do?” replied Dan, his face betraying his trouble.
“Did you send for a doctor?” asked Hodge of Gus.
“No. Walter wouldn’t let me.”
“Why not?” inquired Ned.
“He said he’d be all right in a little while.”
“Probably something he ate,” suggested Hodge.
“Or drank,” said Ned in a low voice.
“What do you mean by that?” demanded Gus, turning sharply to
Ned.
“If you don’t know, I can’t explain. Come on, Dan,” he added,
turning to the pitcher. “Come on; we’ll run up to the room and take a
look at the poor chap.
“We’ll be back by the time the rest of you are on the field. If we
aren’t, Samson will bat flies for you.”
Abruptly departing from the dressing-room, Dan and Ned ran to
the dormitory and in a brief time entered Walter’s room. They found
him standing beside the table and his pale face and general
appearance at once betrayed his suffering.
“What’s the trouble, Walter?” inquired Ned. “Are you sick?”
“Awfully,” groaned Walter.
“Had the doctor?” continued Ned.
“I don’t want any doctor.”
“If you’re sick you ought to have one.”
“I’ll be all right in a little while. I’ll get into the game too, before it’s
ended!” he added savagely. “You can’t put me out in any such way
as this!” The angry boy was looking directly at Dan as he spoke.
“You act as if you thought Dan was to blame,” said Ned.
“Well, what if I do?” demanded Walter testily. “He knows whether
or not he had anything to do with it.”
“Yes, I guess we all know that without asking Dan,” said Ned
quietly. “We’ll have to start the game, Walter, without you. If you feel
better a little later——”
“Who’s going to play short?” broke in Walter.
“I’ll put Sam Ventnor in for a while.”
“It’s just a part of a trick to shut me out,” declared Walter fiercely.
“Let me tell you what will be good for you,” interrupted Ned in a
low voice.
“Why don’t you say it?” asked Walter sharply as Ned waited.
“Have you ever thought of trying ipecac?”
“Have I what?” Walter was staring at Ned, and to the two boys it
almost seemed that his pallor deepened.
“Have you thought of trying ipecac?” repeated Ned soberly. “It’s
said to be good for some things as well as for others.”
“I don’t know what you mean.”
“Think it over and perhaps you’ll find out. If you don’t, ask Gus
Kiggins. He may be able to help you find out. If you feel better,
Walter, come down to the field.”
“Walter,” inquired Dan, who had been silent throughout the
conversation, “don’t you want me to stay here with you?”
“And not pitch?” demanded Ned, aghast, as he turned to his
friend.
“I guess Walter will be all right by the time I’m needed.”
“No! I don’t want you here!” almost shouted Walter. “I wish you
never had been here! You’ve made trouble ever since you entered. I
was a fool——”
“Don’t say ‘was,’ say ‘am,’” broke in Ned sharply. “That’s a fine
way to talk! You know what is the matter with you just as well as I do.
And Gus Kiggins came down to the dressing-room talking in his
charming way about somebody that had made you sick. Well, I
guess somebody did give you a dose! It would have done you more
good if he had doubled it. And you thought it was for Dan! Sometime,
maybe, you’ll know enough to know that the cat which a monkey
uses to pull his chestnuts out of the fire gets his paws burned. It
would serve you right if I told the whole school about the dirty trick
you and Gus planned to play on Dan. Now that you have a dose of
your own medicine, you sit up here and whine and cry like a spanked
baby.”
“Come on, Ned, it’s time for the game,” broke in Dan as he
grasped his friend by the arm. “Walter,” he added, “you heard what
Ned said, that if you feel up to the mark a little later, you are to come
on down and he’ll put you into the game. Come on, Ned!”
Almost reluctantly Ned turned and without another word departed
from the room. At the door Dan glanced back at Walter who,
speechless, was staring at his departing visitors. Aware that Ned
was almost beside himself with rage, Dan led the way hastily down
the stairs. As the boys turned toward the athletic field, Dan said:
“Now, Ned, you are in no condition to say anything. Don’t say a word
about this to the boys.”
“Why not?” demanded Ned fiercely. “It’s the worst thing I ever
heard of!”
“Don’t say a word about it.”
“I shall! I’ll let the whole school know——”
“Not if I am to pitch,” said Dan quietly.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE LEAGUE GAME
F or a moment Ned stared blankly at his companion, and then said:

“Dan, you certainly beat anything I ever saw or heard of. I don’t
know which is the bigger fool, you or——”
“Is it a bargain?” broke in Dan with a smile.
“Of course it is, if you say so. There isn’t anything else to be said.”
“All right then. Now forget all about it, Ned. We’ll just go in to put
the Military Academy nine where it belongs. You’re sure of the
signals?”
“I can put you easy on that score.”
“I know it. Just look at the crowd,” Dan added as the two boys
obtained their first view of the assembly. “I never played before a
crowd like that!”
“You don’t mind?” asked Ned a little anxiously.
“I can tell you more about that a little later,” replied Dan quietly.
“Go right in and begin to warm up. We haven’t much time to
spare.”
Both boys at once went upon the field—Ned to make certain that
his players were ready, while Dan ran to one side of the diamond,
where he began to pitch easily to Smith, who, for the time, was
receiving the ball.
As Dan occasionally glanced at the spectators, he saw that almost
numberless carriages and automobiles were in line on both sides. In
front of them were men and boys close to the ropes. The seats in the
grand stand were a solid mass of color. Indeed, seldom had the
athletic field of the Tait School presented such a gay appearance as
that which now greeted his eyes. If Dan was fearful, his manner did
not betray his feeling; and when, after a brief delay, the umpires took
their places and the Tait School nine, in accordance with the
arrangement that the home team was to have the last inning,
advanced to their positions in the field, no one apparently was more
unconcerned than he. Sam Ventnor was short-stop in Walter’s place.
Gus Kiggins loomed large at first base, Ned was behind the bat,
Hodge at third base, and Smith was in left field. The ball was being
swiftly thrown from one baseman to another, but the eyes of the
visitors were all centered upon Dan as he slowly advanced to the
pitcher’s box. The umpire signaled for the ball to be thrown him and
as soon as he received it he slipped it into his pocket, tossed a new
ball to Dan, and called sharply, “Play ball!”
The first game of the series in the new league was begun.
“Ball!” called the umpire as Dan sent the first ball swiftly to the
outstretched hands of Ned.
“Two balls!” was the announcement which followed the young
pitcher’s second attempt.
“Three balls!” was the third call of the umpire, and a scattered
cheer arose from the followers of the Military Academy nine.
“Steady, Dan,” called Hodge from third base.
The pitcher slowly turned and glanced at the field. He saw that his
companions were all somewhat nervous and there was a smile,
whose meaning was plain, on the face of Gus Kiggins. If Dan shared
in the prevailing feeling he did not manifest it by his actions.
Deliberately he studied the batter, then drew back his arm and swiftly
sent in the ball. Whether the speed of the little sphere or its puzzling
curve misled the player or not Dan did not know, but it struck the
batter full in the shoulder.
A shout arose from the spectators as the player, rubbing the
wounded spot, started toward first base. “Up in the air!” “Got him
going!” “Wild as a hawk!” were among the gleeful calls from the
friends of the Military Academy. An expression of anxiety appeared
on the faces of the supporters and even on those of the members of
the nine of the Tait School. Dan, however, did not change his quiet
manner. If he was disturbed by the unfortunate beginning, he did not
show it. Apparently ignoring the dancing runner, he slowly faced the
next batter and then suddenly and with terrific speed sent the ball to
Gus Kiggins at first.
The baseman, perhaps caught unaware, dropped the ball when
the runner was at least two feet off the base. A shout like the sharp
report of a pistol at the misplay arose from the academy contingent,
and the nervousness of the school nine and its friends increased.
Ned advanced from his place behind the bat and holding his mask
in his hand held a brief whispered conversation with Dan. The action
of the catcher was greeted by another derisive shout which did not
tend to soothe the feelings of the excited boys. Indeed, for a moment
it almost seemed as if the entire body of spectators was in an uproar.
Dan settled back into his box and apparently ignoring the shouts
and excitement sent in a swift straight ball at which the batter struck
in an attempt to bunt. The ball rolled slowly to Dan, who pounced
upon it in a flash, whirled about, and threw swiftly to the second-
baseman. The ball was caught and then thrown to first, where Gus
Kiggins caught it just before the runner touched the bag.
“Double play!” “That’s the way to do it!” “We’ve got them started
now!” “Two out and the third man as good as gone!” It was now time
for the supporters of the Tait School to give vent to their feelings, and
the many shouts and calls finally united in a prolonged school cheer.
Dan meanwhile was keenly watching the player who now
advanced to the plate. A sturdy, solid, muscular fellow he appeared
to be, and the call for a “home run,” which was raised by several
among the friends of the academy nine, at once revealed to the
young pitcher that he was facing one of the heaviest hitters of the
opposing nine. He hesitated a moment, waited for Ned to repeat his
signal for a swift low incurve, and then pitched the ball.
“Strike!” shouted the umpire.
“Strike two!” he called again when a swiftly pitched ball seemed
suddenly to swerve from its course as it came near the plate and
almost threaten the face of the batter.

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© 2017 ARTECH HOUSE

1 Fundamentals of Optical Communication 3

1.1 Chapter Objectives 3

1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 4

1.3 Light—Key Concepts 5

1.4 Fundamentals of Light Transmission 7

1.5 Estimating Channel Capacity of a Communication Link 10

1.7 Optical Power Measurements 15

1.7.1 Absolute Power Measurements 16

1.8 Modes of Light Propagation in Optical Fiber 17

1.10 Effects of Fiber Nonlinearities 22

1.12 Referred Standards 24

1.14 Selected Bibliography 27

2 Essentials of Fiber Optic Communication 29

2.1 Chapter Objectives 29

2.3 Optical Fiber Design Specifications 31

2.4 Optical Fiber Classification 37

2.5 Standard Optical Fiber Designs 40

2.6 Safety Standards 42

2.7 Optical Fiber Composition 43

2.8 Fiber Geometry 44

2.9 Fiber Selection Criteria 45

2.10 Common Fiber Plant Deployment 47

2.13 Referred Standards 53

2.14 Selected Bibliography 53

3 Optical Fiber Splicing and Interfaces 55

3.1 Chapter Objectives 55

3.3 Splices and Connectors 56

3.4 Optical Transmitters 65

3.5 Optical Receivers 76

3.6 Optical Modulation Techniques 77

3.7 Link Loss Budgeting 78

3.10 Referred Standards 89

3.11 Selected Bibliography 89

4 Fiber Plant Manufacturing, Installation, Maintenance,

4.1 Chapter Objectives 91

4.3 Manufacturing of Optical Fibers 93

4.4 Fiber Laying Techniques 94

4.5 Cable Preparation, Splicing, and Termination 97

4.6 Safety Guidelines 100