ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

14.4 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

RESISTORS
 Resistors control or restrict or limit the flow of current in a circuit.

 The ability of a material or component to resist current flow is called electrical

resistance and is measured in ohms.

 There are three main types of resistors:

- fixed resistor that has a fixed value of resistance.

- variable resistors (Rheostat) which we can vary the resistance.
- special resistors, such as thermistors and light-dependent resistors (LDRs)

1.Fixed resistors
A fixed resistor has a fixed value of resistance.
These are the most common type of resistor.
They have three important uses:

 protecting components
 dividing voltage between different parts of a circuit
 controlling a time delay

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(a). Protecting components

Resistors can be used to protect other components (such as an LED) from damage
by too much current.

(b). Potential dividers

In a potential divider, a fixed resistor is used to split voltage between different

parts of the circuit. Potential dividers (or voltage dividers) are used, for example,
with LDRs in circuits which detect changes in light.

(c). Timing applications

A fixed resistor can be used in series with a capacitor to control a time delay.

2.Variable resistors or potentiometers

There are two types of variable resistor:

 Variable resistors, which are altered continually as they work: e.g. for
volume control in a radio.
 Pre-set potentiometers, which have a resistance control that is adjusted
and then fixed. These resistors would normally be adjusted once only.

The main difference between the two types of variable resistor is their size. Pre-
set potentiometers tend to be smaller and are usually adjusted with a screwdriver.
A variable resistor has a long spindle with an operating knob attached.

3.Special resistors
Examples:
 Thermistors
 LDRs (Light-dependent resistors)

 Thermistors change resistance as temperatures change. Most thermistors have a

negative temperature coefficient, meaning their resistance falls as temperature
increases. Thermistors are used in temperature-sensing circuits.

 Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) change resistance as light levels change. The

light levels are detected by a photo-sensitive plate on the resistor. Most LDRs

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have a negative light coefficient, meaning that their resistance falls as the
amount of light falling on them increases. LDRs are used in light-detection
circuits.

OHMS AND RESISTANCE VALUES

Ohm

 The Ohm is the unit of resistance. Larger values are measured in kilo-Ohms
(1000 ohms) and mega-Ohms (1,000,000 ohms).

Resistance values, colour coding and tolerance

Resistance value is shown by a series of coloured bands, read from left to right.

DIAGRAM: Colour code for resistance values.

 The first band denotes tens. Each colour stands for different tens: black is zero
tens; brown is 1 ten; red is 2 tens; orange is 3 tens ; yellow is 4 tens; green is 5
tens; blue is 6 tens; violet is 7 tens ; grey is 8 tens and white is 9 tens.
 The second band denotes units. Each colour stands for a different unit: black is
zero; brown is 1; red is 2; orange is 3; yellow is 4; green is 5; blue is 6; violet is
7; grey is 8 and white is 9.

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 The third band is the multiplier: black denotes a multiplier of 1; brown 10; red
100; orange 1000 and so on.

- So, in the diagram above, the sequence yellow to violet to red denotes a value
of 47 x 100, or 4700Ω or 4.7 kilo-ohms (4.7 kΩΩ).

WORKING

Yellow = 4 tens = 40
Violet = 7 units = 7
Red = x100
Therefore resistance = (40 + 7) x 100 Ω
= 47 x 100 Ω
= 4700 Ω
= 4.7 kΩ

 The fourth band is the tolerance. Manufacturers of resistors cannot guarantee

the exact resistance figure shown by the first three bands, so they give a
percentage value by which the resistance may be higher or lower than the
resistance quoted. A red band denotes a tolerance of 2%; gold (yellow) a
tolerance of 5%; and silver a tolerance of 10%. So a 100 ohm resistor of 10%
tolerance has an exact resistance value falling somewhere between 90 ohms and
110 ohms.

TRY THESE QUESTIONS

1. The table below gives the colour code used for marking resistors.

Black Brown Red Orang Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey Whit
e e

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4TH BAND
Red Gold (Yellow) Silver

TOLERANCE
2% 5% 10%

(a) Work out the resistance of the resistor in the diagram below.

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Solution

Red = 2 tens = 20
Green = 5 units = 5
Orange = x1000
Therefore resistance = (20 + 5) x 1000 Ω
= 25 x 1000 Ω
= 25000 Ω
= 25 kΩ

(b) Determine the resistance of the carbon resistor shown in the diagram below.

Solution

Red = 2 tens = 20
Blue = 6 units = 6
Red = x100
Therefore resistance = (20 + 6) x 100 Ω
= 26 x 100 Ω
= 2600 Ω
= 2.6 kΩ
(c) (i) What is the resistance of the resistor shown in the diagram below?
(ii) What is its tolerance?
(iii) Where does its exact resistance fall?

Solution

c (i) Black = 0 tens = 0

Brown = 1 unit = 1
Red = x100
Therefore resistance = 1 x 100 Ω
= 100 Ω

(ii) Tolerance is 5%
(iii) 5% of 100 Ω = 5 Ω
Exact resistance = 100 Ω +/- 5 Ω
= between 95 Ω and 105 Ω

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Therefore the exact resistance of the resistor falls between 95 Ω and 105 Ω.

(d) (i) What is the resistance of the resistor shown in the diagram below?
(ii) What is its tolerance?

Solution

d (i) Black = 0 tens = 0

Green = 5 units = 5
Red = x100
Therefore resistance = 5 x 100 Ω
= 500 Ω

(ii) Tolerance is 10%

(iii) 10% of 500 Ω = 50 Ω

Exact resistance = 500 Ω +/- 50 Ω
= between 450 Ω and 550 Ω
Therefore the exact resistance of the resistor is between 450 Ω and 550 Ω.

Resistance And Ohm’s Law

Resistance of a component is the ratio of the potential difference V across it to the
current I passing through it.

V
Formula: R =
I

where R = resistance (in Ω)

V = p.d (in V)
I = current (in A)

SI Unit: Ohm (Ω)

Factors affecting resistance are:

 Temperature
 Length, L
 Cross-sectional area, A or thickness of wire
 Type of material (resistivity, ρ))

Ohm’s law
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Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it, provided that physical
conditions (likΩe temperature) remain constant.

Ohmic Conductors
Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey ohm’s law. Their resistances are
constant and their V– I or I –V graphs are a straight line passing through origin.

Experimental Method to determine the Resistance of an Ohmic

Conductor

The simplified circuit is shown.

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Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus shown in the circuit diagram
2. Before closing the switch, adjust the rheostat to the maximum resistance.
3. Close the switch and record the ammeter reading, I, and voltmeter reading, V.
4. Adjust the rheostat (variable resistor) to allow a larger current to flow and
record the ammeter and voltmeter readings again.
NB. If a variable resistor is not available, the voltage can also be varied by
increasing the number of cells in the battery.
5. Repeat step 4 for at least 5 sets of readings.
6. Plot a graph of V against I.
7. Resistance is the gradient of the V– I graph.

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COMMENT
 The graph of voltage (p.d.) against current is a straight line through the origin.
 If voltage doubles, the current also doubles...and so on. This shows that current
(I) and voltage (V) are directly proportional.
 The gradient of the line is a constant and gives the resistance of the conductor.

PickΩ any two coordinates on the graph and find the gradient and hence the
resistance of the conductor.
e.g. (0.2 ; 1.0) and (0.8 ; 4.0)

Resistance = Gradient

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change∈ y
= change∈x

y 2− y 1
= x 2−x 1

4.0 V −1.0 V
= 0.8−0.2

= 5Ω
PickΩ two different points and repeat the calculation. You will get the same
answer (5Ω) to show that the resistance is constant.

Non-Ohmic Conductors
Non-Ohmic Conductors are conductors that do not obey ohm’s law. Their
resistances can be varied and their V– I or I –V graphs are not a straight line.

Examples of non-Ohmic conductors:

 Filament Lamp
 Thermistor
 Diode

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Filament Lamp Thermistor Diode

Temperature Temperature Allow current to flow in one direction

increases, Resistance increases, Resistance only.
increases decreases Forward Biased Reverse Biased
-Current flowing, -No current
-R is negligible flowing,
(0Ω), -R is very large,
-Treated as wire -Treated as open
circuit

Note that the shapes of V-I and I-V graphs are basically the reflection about V = I
line.

We can use the same experimental method discussed above to determine the
resistance of non-Ohmic conductor at a point. After plotting the graph, we just
need to mark out the point and find the respective current and p.d for that point.
Then use formula R = V / I to find the resistance.

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Resistivity (ρ))
Other than temperature, resistance also depends on

 Length, L
 Cross-sectional area, A or thickness of wire
 Type of material (resistivity, ρ)

- The resistance, R, of a wire of uniform thickness is directly proportional to its

length, L. This means that the greater the length of the wire, the greater its
resistance would be.
- The resistance of a wire is also inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area,
A. This means that the shorter the diameter (thickness) of a wire, the greater
its resistance shall be.

1
Rα L and R α
A

L
Combining the two, we get R α A

ρLL
Therefore, R = A

where R = resistance (in Ω)

ρ = a constant called resistivity (in Ωm)
L = length (in m)
A = cross-sectional area (in m2)

Note
 The SI unit of resistivity (ρ)) is the Ohm-meter (Ωm).
 Resistivity ρ) is a property of the material. It is a constant. The lower the
resistivity, the better the conductor of electricity.
 The cross-section of a wire is a circle.

WorkΩed examples:

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1. The diagram that follows shows wire X of length 50cm connected in a circuit.

a) Determine the resistance of wire X.

b) The length of wire X is doubled and its cross-sectional area halved.
Determine the new resistance and hence ammeter reading.
c) Given that the diameter of the 50 cm long wire is 5 mm, determine its
resistivity.

Answer:

V (b) L doubled -> R doubled (c) A = πrr2

(a) R = I A halved -> R doubled 0.005
new R = 20 x 4 = πr x ( 2 )2
3.0 = 80 Ω
= = 1.96 x 10-5 m2
0.15
V
I= R ρLL
= 20 Ω R= A
3.0
= ρ) x 0.5
80 20 = ⁄1.96 x 10-5

= 0.0375 A ρ) = 7.85 x 10-4 Ωm

2. The average diameter of a silver wire used in circuit is 4.0mm. If the resistivity
(ρ)) of silver is 1.5 x 10-8 Ωm, calculate the resistance for 50cm of this wire.

Solution:

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Potential Divider
- The "Potential Divider" is a line of resistors in series that are used to give
different voltages in parts of an electronic circuit. The voltages can either be
set to fixed values or be adjustable. As the name says, it divides the "potential"
(voltage) into different amounts.
- A potential divider is a simple circuit with resistors arranged in series to
obtain a fraction of the main voltage provided by a voltage supply.
- A potential divider is a resistor or series of resistors used to provide voltages
that are fractions of the source voltage.
- The voltage is divided between the resistors; the greater the value of the
resistor, the bigger the proportion of the voltage it will take.
- The diagram that follows shows a potential divider which uses two fixed
resistors, R1 and R2.

- It can be shown that the voltage (p.d.) across R1 and R2 are a fraction of the
supply voltage, V.

WORKED EXAMPLE
If 100 Ω and 200 Ω are the resistances for R 1 and R2, respectively and connected in
series with a 12V battery, calculate the voltages measured by V1 and V2.

Voltage measured by V1 Voltage measured by V2

100 Ω 200 Ω
= 100 Ω+ 200 Ω x 12V = x 12V
100 Ω+ 200 Ω
100 200
= 300 x 12V = x 12V
300

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1 2
= 3 x 12V = 3 x 12V

= 4V = 8V

- Notice that the voltages across the two resistors in series are in the same ratio as
V1 R1 1
that of their respective resistances, i.e.
V2
= R2
= 2
- The total voltage from the supply is divided between the two resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances, i.e. the greater the value of the resistor, the
bigger the proportion of the voltage it will take. This circuit divides the voltage
proportionally and therefore is called a potential divider.

Types of potential dividers

 Two Fixed Resistors
 Variable Resistors
 Potentiometer
 Transducers: Thermistor and LDR

Two Fixed Resistors

The output voltage, Vout is used to drive another circuit.

Note that with two fixed resistors, we always get the same Vout unless we replace
the resistor with one of different value.

WORKED EXAMPLE
The diagram that follows shows a potential divider circuit with two fixed resistors.
Calculate the output voltage, Vout.

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Variable Resistor / Rheostat

We can change R1 or R2 to be a variable resistor so that we can easily vary Vout

without replacing the resistors.

Case (a): When R1 increases, what Case (b): When R2 increases, what
happens to Vout? happens to Vout?
When R1 increases, When R2 increases,
Reff increases Reff increases
Current decreases as V = IR. Current decreases as V = IR.
Vout decreases as Vout = IR2 and R2 is aV1 decreases as V1 = IR1 and R1 is a fixed
fixed resistor. resistor.
Vout increases as V1 + Vout = V
Note that whenever doing this kind of reasoning,
(1) We have to make sure one of the quantities is a constant.
For example, in case (b), we cannot conclude directly Vout increases or decrease
when current decreases as both current and R2 change.
(2) We have to reason it with current. We cannot simply use the potential divider
formula to explain.

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WORKED EXAMPLE
The diagram that follows shows a variable resistor used to vary the output voltage
in a potential divider circuit. Calculate the resistance, R1, if the output voltage,
Vout, of the circuit is 5.5V.

SOLUTION

R2
Vout = X Vin
R 1+ R 2

4.4 kΩΩ
5.5V = X 6V
R 1+ 4.4 kΩΩ

5.5(R1 + 4.4kΩΩ) = 4.4kΩΩ X 6

R1 + 4.4kΩΩ = 26.4kΩ/5.5

R1 + 4.4kΩΩ = 4.8kΩ

R1 = 4.8kΩ – 4.4kΩ
= 0.4 kΩ
= 400 Ω

Potentiometer (Variable potential divider)

A potentiometer is a variable resistor that is connected at three terminals shown

as points A, B and C. Contact C is a sliding contact.

The position of C determines the ratio of resistance of AC to BC since resistance is

proportional to length (R = ρ)L / A) for a fixed cross-sectional area.

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Note

 RAB is always the sum of RAC and RBC. When RAC increases, RBC will decrease or
vice versa.
 No matter how you move the sliding contact C, the current passing through
the potentiometer does not change as both e.m.f and RAB does not change.

When C is moved towards B, what When C is moved towards A, what

happen to Vout? happen to Vout?

When C is moved towards B, When C is moved towards A,

RAC increases RAC decreases
Vout increases as V=IRAC and I is a Vout decreases as V=IRAC and I is a
constant. constant.

TRANSDUCERS AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

Transducers
In this modern world, we use many electrical circuits to carry out basic and
complex tasks. Some tasks are such that we expect an electronic system to
automatically complete them without manual interference.

Take a simple example:

When a thief breaks into a bank at night, we would expect an electronic system to
automatically detect the presence of the intruder and respond by flashing security
lights or sounding an alarm.

So, we have two important words here:

1. Detecting
2. Responding

Hence, to automatically detect a change in the environment and respond to this

stimulus, electronic systems make use of devices known as transducers.

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- Transducers are electronic devices that change (transform/convert) energy

from one form to another. They are used in control systems, instrumentation
and electronic communications.

Any electronic system can be considered to consist of three basic parts:

1. Input transducers/ sensors.

2. Processors
3. Output transducers.

Now we’ll be explaining what each part does and their examples:

Part What it does Examples

Input transducers/ Input transducers detect changes Solar cells, microphones,

sensors. in the environment. LDRs (Light dependent
Input transducers are resistors), thermistors,
transducers that change non- sensors etc.
electrical energy to electrical
energy.
Processors. Processors decide on what actions CPU in a computer
to take
Output Output transducers convert the Light emitting diodes,
transducers. electrical energy supplied by the buzzers, motors,
processor into another form to heaters, relays etc.
give an output

Input transducers (sensors)

- Input transducers detect changes in the environment.
- Input transducers are also called sensors.
- Input transducers are transducers that change non-electrical energy to
electrical energy.
- Input transducers convert a quantity to an electrical signal (voltage) or to
resistance (which can be converted to voltage).

Examples:
Solar cells (photovoltaic cells) convert solar energy to electrical energy.
LDR converts brightness (of light) to resistance.
Thermistor converts temperature to resistance.
Microphone converts sound to voltage.
Variable resistor converts position (angle) to resistance.
Potentiometer converts position (angle) to resistance.

LDR (Light dependent resistors)

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LDR is a device that has a resistance that changes with light intensity (amount of
light) shining on it. When light intensity increases, its resistance decreases.

Light dependent resistors (LDR)

What is a LDR? A LDR is a type of ‘variable resistor’ whose resistance

depends on the amount of light falling on it.
How does an LDR An LDR is made up of a material which does not conduct
work? electricity too well (such as graphite). In the dark, a LDR
has an extremely huge resistance. However, when light is
shone on the LDR, its resistance decreases, letting electric
currents flow through it.
Uses of LDRs LDRs are used in burglar alarm systems and systems
involving security lights.
LDRs are also used in some digital clocks.

When light intensity rises, what happen to Vout?

When light intensity rises,
RLDR decreases;
Effective R decreases;
Current increases as V = IR;
Vout increases as Vout = IR
It could be used to activate a burglar It could be used to switch on the street
alarm, if Vout rises above a certain
threshold value.
When light intensity rises,
RLDR decreases;
Effective R decreases;
Current increases as V = IR;
V1 increases as V1 = IR and R is a fixed
resistor.
Vout decreases as V1 + Vout = V
lamp, if Vout fall below a certain threshold
value.

WORKED EXAMPLE

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The LDR in the circuit shown in the diagram that follows has a resistance of 200 Ω
in bright light. What is the value of the output voltage, Vout, in bright light?

Thermistor [symbol ]
A thermistor is a device that has a resistance that changes with
temperature. When temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor
decreases. Therefore, it can be used for temperature control.

Thermistors
What is a thermistor? Thermistor is another type of resistor, whose resistance
depends on its environment. (In this case, the resistance
depends on the surrounding temperature.)
How does a thermistor For some thermistors, the resistance decreases as the
work? temperature increases.
For other thermistors the resistance increases as the
temperature increases.
Uses of thermistors Some thermistors are used in circuits designed to prevent
overheating.
Thermistors are also used in temperature probes
Thermistors can also be used to switch a relay.

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When temperature rises, what happen to Vout?

When temperature rises, When temperature rises,

RTH decreases;
Effective R decreases;
Current increases as V = IR;
Vout increases as Vout = IR
It could be used to activate a fire
alarm, if Vout rises above a certain
threshold value.
RTH decreases;
Effective R decreases;
Current increases as V = IR;
V1 increases as V1 = IR and R is a fixed
resistor.
Vout decreases as V1 + Vout = V
It could be used to switch on a heater, if
Vout fall below a certain threshold value.

WORKED EXAMPLE
In the potential divider circuit shown in the diagram that follows, the thermistor
has a resistance which varies between 200 Ω at 100 OC and 3.0 kΩ at 0 OC.
Calculate the range of values of the output voltage, Vout, as the temperature
changes from 0 OC to100 OC.

At 0 OC, RTH = 3 kΩ

At 100 OC, RTH = 200Ω

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Output Transducers
- Output Transducers convert an electrical signal to another quantity.

Examples:

 Lamp converts electricity to light.

 LED converts electricity to light.
 Loudspeaker converts electricity to sound.
 Motor converts electricity to motion.
 Heater converts electricity to heat.
 Relay switch

Relays
What is a relay? A relay is a type of switch that works using an
electromagnet.
How does a relay When relay is used there are two circuits:
work? 1. The electromagnet coil of the relay is in one circuit
2. The switch is in another circuit.
When a current flows through the relay coil in the first
circuit it becomes magnetised. It pulls on the switch in
the second circuit, causing it to close and allowing a
current to flow in the second circuit.
The second circuit often involves a large voltage which
would be risky for an operator to switch or which could
not be switched by a normal electronic circuit.
Uses of relays Relays are often used to switch the mains supplies in
houses
Relays are also used in electric bell/alarms

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Light Emitting Diode (LED)

What is an LED? A LED is a diode made from the semiconductor gallium

arsenide phosphide.
(A diode is a component that allows electric current to
flow in one direction only.)
How does an LED work? When a current passes through a LED, it gives out
coloured light.
Note: If the voltage passes 5V, a lot of damage can be
caused (Be careful!)
Uses of LEDs LEDs are used in indicator lamps on computers, and
electrical components such as radios.
Many clocks, calculators, video recorders and measuring
instruments have seven-segment LED numerical displays.
LEDs are also used in traffic lights.

Semiconductor diodes

- A diode is a component that allows electric current to flow in one direction

only.
- A diode is a non-Ohmic conductor. It is useful for converting alternating current
(which varies back and forth) into direct current (which flows in one direction
only).
- This process is known as a rectification and the diode acts as a rectifier.
- Refer to section 14.2 (Diodes) for full notes on semiconductor diodes and
rectification.

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CAPACITORS

 Capacitor - A device which stores electric charge.

 It consists of a pair of conductors separated by an insulator called a
dielectric.
 When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field is created which stores energy.
 Capacitors are used in time delay circuits.
 The circuit symbol for a capacitor:

- Essential features of a capacitor - Two conducting plates, an insulator

between the plates.
- Capacity - The amount of charge a capacitor is able to hold.
- When a DC supply is connected, the capacitor becomes charged and the
voltage across it increases until it is equal to the supply voltage.
- When it is connected to something that will consume the power, the voltage
decreases as the capacitor discharges

Capacitance
Defining Capacitance
- The capacitance of a body is its ability to store charge.
- Definition: Capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential.

Q
C=
V

Where Q is Quantity of charge stored (C)

V is Potential (voltage) (V)
C is Capacitance (Farads (F))

Q Q Q
1. Q = CV 2. C = 3. V =
V C
C V
- SI unit of capacitance is the Farad (F).
- Definition: The capacitance of a body is 1 Farad (F) if the addition of a charge
of 1 C raises its potential by 1V.

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Q 1C
From C =
V
➾ 1F =
1V
➾ 1F = CV
-1

Therefore, 1F = 1 Coulomb per volt.

You need to know the following prefixes used with SI units in
physics:

Pico, symbol p is x10-12

Nano, symbol n is x10-9
Micro, symbol μ is x10-6
Milli, symbol m is x10-3

It is also assumed that you also know the prefixes kilo, mega, giga etc.
The following are examples of magnitudes of capacitance and their prefixes:

pF = picofarads = x10-12 F Low resistance

nF = nanofarads = x10-9 F
μF = microfarads F = microfarads = x10-6 F
mF = millifarads = x10-3 F High resistance

Example 1: A charge of 5 μF = microfarads C is placed on a conductor of capacitance 2 pF. Find

the increase in potential of the conductor.

Solution

Q
V = C

5μC
=
2 pF

5 x 10−6 C
=
2 x 10−12 F

= 2.5 x 106 V

The Parallel-Plate Capacitor

- Capacitors can have all sorts of shapes and sizes.
- An example of a capacitor is two parallel plates separated by an insulator called
a dielectric.

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- The dielectric (insulator) can be air having the permittivity of free space or
another material like paper or mica.
- It can be shown that the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:

εA
C=
d

C: Capacitance (F)
ε : Permittivity of the insulator or dielectric (F m−1)
A: Common area of overlap of the plates (m2)
d: Distance between the plates (m)
 Permittivity, Symbol ε, is the electrical storage ability i.e. the measure of
the ability of an insulator (non-conducting material) to retain electric
energy when placed in an electric field.

Example 2: A parallel plate capacitor has a distance of 1 mm between the plates,

each of which has an area of 25 cm2. It has a mica dielectric. Find the charge on
either of the plates when the potential difference between the plates is 500 V.
(Relative permittivity of mica = 7.)
Constant: Permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.9 × 10−12 F m −1

Solution.......

Note: The relative permittivity of a material is the permittivity of the material

compared to the permittivity of free space. In the previous example, mica has a
relative permittivity of 7 which means its permittivity is 7 times that of the
permittivity of free space.

Demonstration: Factors affecting capacitance of a parallel-plate

capacitor

 Demonstrating factors affecting capacitance of a parallel-plate

capacitor using a digital multi-meter (DMM)

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1. Connect the two parallel plates to a digital multi-meter (DMM) set to read
capacitance. Note the capacitance.
2. Increase the distance between them – note that the capacitance decreases.
3. Move one plate slightly to the side (decreasing the overlap area) – note that the
capacitance decreases.
4. Place different slabs of insulating material between the plates – note that the
capacitance is lowest when nothing (air) is between the plates.

So the three factors that affect the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor are
1. Overlap area
2. Distance between the plates
3. Permittivity of the medium

 Demonstrating factors affecting capacitance of a parallel-plate

capacitor using a gold leaf electroscope
A positive charge Q is put on one of the plates. Its potential is measured using a
GLE (Gold Leaf Electroscope). The divergence of the leaf is a measure of this
potential.

The capacitance C is affected by three factors:

1. The common area, A, of the plates:

C∝ A
If the plates are moved so that their common area of overlap is reduced the leaf
divergence increases, i.e. the potential increases and so the capacitance is
reduced.

2. The distance, d, that the plates are apart:

1
C∝
d

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If the plates are moved further apart the potential rises and so the capacitance
falls.

3. The permittivity of the material, ε, between the plates: C∝ ε

A dielectric causes the leaf divergence to fall indicating an increase in capacitance

Energy in a Charged Capacitor

- A capacitor stores electrical energy.
- The energy W stored in the capacitor is the amount of work done by the battery
in charging the capacitor.
- The energy stored in a capacitor = Area under a Q-V graph

Energy stored in a capacitor = Area under a Q-V graph

E = Area of triangle
E = ½ bh

E = ½ QV
Q
From C = V ➾ Q = VC

Substitute Q = VC into E = ½ QV
➾ E = ½ (VC)V

➾ E = ½ CV2

Also written as W = ½ CV2

E or W: energy stored in a capacitor (J)
C: Capacitance (F)
V: Potential Difference or voltage (V)

Q
Substitute V = C into E = ½ QV

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Q
➾ E = ½ Q( C )

Q2
➾E =½ C

Use any of these three equations for calculating the energy stored
in a capacitor.
 E = ½ QV also written as W = ½ QV
 E = ½ CV2 also written as W = ½ CV2
Q2 Q2
 E =½ C also written as W = ½
C
The formula Q = It is sometimes used together with these formulas in calculations

Example 3: A capacitor stores a charge of 5 μF = microfarads C and has a potential difference of

20 V across it. What energy does it store?

Solution
Q = 5 μF = microfarads C
V = 20V
E=?

E = ½ QV
= ½ (5 μF = microfarads C)(20V)
= ½ (5 x 10-6C)(20V)
= 5.0 x 10-6J
Example 4: A capacitor has a capacitance of 3.2 μF = microfarads F. What charge is on it if the
energy stored is 40 mJ?

Solution
C = 3.2 μF = microfarads F
E = 40 mJ
Q=?

Q2
E=½
C

Q2
2E =
C

Q2 = 2CE

Q= √2CE
= √2(3.2 μF = microfarads F)(40mJ)

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= √2(3.2 x 10-6 F)(40 x 10-3J)

= √2.56 x 10-7 C

= 5.06 x 10-4 C

Demonstration: A Capacitor stores charge

A capacitor is a device for storing charge.
This can be demonstrated as follows:

When switch A is closed the capacitor charges up.

Open switch A and then close switch B.
The bulb flashes as the capacitor discharges through it.

Demonstration: AC and DC through Capacitors

To demonstrate that a capacitor allows A.C. to flow but blockΩs D.C.

In a direct current (DC) circuit no current flows once the capacitor is fully charged.

In the Alternating Current (AC) circuit the capacitor first of all charges in one
direction and then the other. As a result current constantly flows. Therefore, the
bulb lights.

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Conclusion: A capacitor allows A.C. to flow but blockΩs steady D.C.

Common uses of capacitors

1. Tuning radios
A variable capacitor is used to tune to a particular station on a radio.
2. Camera Flash guns
In cameras, a capacitor is charged slowly from a battery and discharged quickly
through a bulb producing a flash.
3. Smoothing
Capacitors smooth out variations in direct current.
4. Filtering
Capacitors allow certain frequencies of alternating current to pass and block
others. This is called filtering.
5. Timing circuits
Capacitors are used in time delay circuits. The voltage across a capacitor increases
with time. This is used when a time delay is needed. Capacitors are often used in
series with resistors to make time-delay circuits that control devices like the
blinkers (flash lights) on a car.
6. BlockΩs d.c
Capacitors block d.c. but allows a.c. to flow in circuits.

More worked examples

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