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The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits Seventh Edition
1 Introduction
1.1 Exercise Solutions
Exercise 1–1. Given the pattern in the statement 1 kΩ = 1 kilohm = 1 × 103 ohms, fill in the blanks in
the following statements using the standard decimal prefixes.
(a) 10−3 is milli or m. 5.0 mW = 5 milliwatts = 5 × 10−3 watts.
(b) d is deci or 10−1 . 10.0 dB = 10.0 decibels = 1.0 bel.
(c) p is pico or 10−12 . 3.6 ps = 3.6 picoseconds = 3.6 × 10−12 seconds.
(d) micro is 10−6 or µ. Since we have less than one microfarad, we can also find expressions in terms of
nanofarads with n being 10−9 . 0.03 µF or 30 nF = 30 nanofarads = 30.0 × 10−9 farads.
(e) 109 is giga or G. 6.6 GHz = 6.6 gigahertz = 6.6 × 109 hertz.
Exercise 1–2. A device dissipates 100 W of power. How much energy is delivered to it in 10 seconds?
Energy is the product of power and time. In this case, we have w = p t = 100 W × 10 s = 1000 J = 1 kJ.
Exercise 1–3. The graph is Figure 1–2(a) shows the charge q(t) flowing past a point in a wire as a function
of time.
(a) Find the current i(t) at t = 1, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, and 5.5 ms. Current is the time rate of change of charge,
i = dq
dt . For each time, compute the slope of the plot and account for the units. At 1 s, we have
−20 pC
i = 2 ms = −10 nA. Similarly for the other times, we have +40 nA, 0 nA, −20 nA, and 0 nA.
(b) Sketch the variation of i(t) versus time. The variations in i(t) are shown in Figure 1–2(b) in the
textbook and the plot is repeated below in Figure Ex1–3.
40
30
20
Current (nA)
10
−10
−20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time, (ms)
Figure Ex1–3
Exercise 1–4. The working variables of a set of two-terminal electrical devices are observed to be as follows:
Device 1 Device 2 Device 3 Device 4 Device 5
v +10 V ? −15 V +5 V ?
i −3 A −3 A +10 mA ? −12 mA
p ? +40 W ? +10 mW −120 mW
Device 1: p = vi = −30 W, (delivering power).

Device 2: v = p/i = −13.3 V, (absorbing power).
Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-1

Device 3: p = vi = −150 mW, (delivering power).

Device 4: i = p/v = +2 mA, (absorbing power).
Device 5: v = p/i = +10 V, (delivering power).

1.2 Problem Solutions

Problem 1–1. Express the following quantities to the nearest standard prefix using no more than three
digits.
(a). 1, 000, 000 Hz = 1 × 106 Hz = 1 MHz
(b). 102.5 × 109 W = 103 GW
(c). 0.333 × 10−7 s = 33.3 × 10−9 s = 33.3 ns
(d). 10 × 10−12 F = 10 pF
Problem 1–2. Express the following quantities to the nearest standard prefix using no more than three
digits.
(a). 0.000222 H = 222 × 10−6 H = 222 µH
(b). 20.5 × 105 J = 2.05 × 106 J = 2.05 MJ
(c). 72.25 × 103 C = 72.3 kC
(d). 3,264 Ω = 3.264 × 103 Ω = 3.26 kΩ
Problem 1–3. An ampere-hour (Ah) meter measures the time-integral of the current in a conductor. During
an 8-hour period, a certain meter records 3300 Ah. Find the number of coulombs that flowed through the
meter during the recording period.
By definition, 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second and 1 hour = 3600 seconds. So 3300 Ah = 3300 ampere-hour
= 3300 (coulomb/second)(hour)(3600 second/hour) = 11.88 MC.
Problem 1–4. Electric power companies measure energy consumption in kilowatt-hours, denoted kWh.
One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy transferred by 1 kW of power in a period of 1 hour. A power
company billing statement reports a user’s total energy usage to be 2500 kWh. Find the number of joules
used during the billing period.
We have the following relationships: 1 kWh = 1000 watt-hours, 1 watt = 1 joule/second, and 1
hour = 3600 seconds. So 2500 kWh = 2500 kilowatt-hours = 2500000 watt-hours = 2500000 (joules/sec-
ond)(hours)(3600 second/hour) = 9 × 109 J = 9 GJ.
Problem 1–5. Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
(a). To convert capacitance from picofarads to microfarads, multiply by 10−6 . We have 1 pF = 1 × 10−12
F = (1 × 10−6 ) × 10−6 F = 1 × 10−6 µF.
(b). To convert resistance from megohms to kilohms, multiply by 103 . We have 1 MΩ = 1 × 106 Ω =
(1 × 103 ) × 103 Ω = 1 × 103 kΩ.
(c). To convert voltage from millivolts to volts, multiply by 10−3 . We have 1 mV = 1 × 10−3 V.
(d). To convert energy from megajoules to joules, multiply by 106 . We have 1 MJ = 1 × 106 J.
Problem 1–6. A wire carries a constant current of 30 mA. How many coulombs flow past a given point in
the wire in 5 s?
We know that 1 ampere is equivalent to 1 coulomb/second. Since the current is constant, if we multiply
the current by the time, we get the charge flowing past a point over that period of time. We can calculate
q = i × t = 30 mA × 5 s = (30 millicoulombs/second)(5 seconds) = 150 mC.

Problem 1–7. The net positive charge flowing through a device is q(t) = 20 + 4t mC. Find the current
through the device.
The current through the device is the derivative of the charge, i = dq/dt.
dq d
i = = (20 + 4t) mC = 4 mA
dt dt
The following MATLAB code calculates the same answer.
syms t real
qt = 20 + 4*t;
it = diff(qt,t)
Problem 1–8. Figure P1–8 shows a plot of the net positive charge flowing in a wire versus time. Sketch
the corresponding current during the same period of time.
Take the derivative of the charge waveform to find the current. The charge waveform is piecewise linear,
so calculate the slope of each segment to find the current values. The following table presents the results.
Start Time (s) Stop Time (s) Start Charge (C) End Charge (C) Current (A)
0 2 10 30 +10
2 3 30 -10 -40
3 5 -10 -20 -5
5 6 -20 30 +50
The following MATLAB code plots the original charge waveform and the corresponding current.
syms t
qt = (10+10*t)*(heaviside(t)-heaviside(t-2))...
+ (110-40*t)*(heaviside(t-2)-heaviside(t-3))...
+ (5-5*t)*(heaviside(t-3)-heaviside(t-5))...
+ (-270+50*t)*(heaviside(t-5)-heaviside(t-6));
tt = 0:0.01:6;
qtt = subs(qt,t,tt);
figure; plot(tt,qtt,'b','LineWidth',3)
xlabel('Time (s)'); ylabel('Charge (C)')
grid on
it = diff(qt,t);
itt = subs(it,t,tt);
figure; plot(tt,itt,'g','LineWidth',3)
xlabel('Time (s)'); ylabel('Current (A)')
grid on; axis([0 6 -60 60])
Figure P1–8 displays the resulting plots.

30 60
25
40
20
15
20
10
Charge (C)
Current (A)
5 0
−20
−5
−10
−40
−15
−20 −60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure P1–8

Problem 1–9. The net negative charge flowing through a device varies as q(t) = 3t2 C. Find the current
through the device at t = 0 s, t = 0.5 s, and t = 1 s.
The current is the derivative of the charge with respect to time, i = dq/dt.
dq d
i(t) = = (3t2 ) C = 6t A
dt dt
Evaluate i(t) at 0, 0.5, and 1 s to find the corresponding currents. We have i(0) = 0 A, i(0.5) = 3 A, and
i(1) = 6 A. Note that since the negative charge is specified in the problem statement, the current flows in
the opposite direction as the charge flow.
syms t
qt = 3*tˆ2;
it = diff(qt,t)
tt = [0, 0.5, 1];
itt = subs(it,t,tt)
Problem 1–10. A cell-phone charger outputs 9.6 V and is protected by a 50 mA fuse. A 1.5 W cell phone
is connected to it to be charged. Will the fuse blow?
If the current to the cell phone exceeds 50 mA, then the fuse will blow. The current is the power divided
by voltage, i = p/v = (1.5 W)/(9.6 V) = 156.25 mA. The current is greater than 50 mA, so the fuse will
blow.
p = 1.5;
v = 9.6;
fuse = 50e-3;
i = p/v
FuseBlows = i>fuse
Problem 1–11. For 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 s, the current through a device is i(t) = 4t A. For 5 < t ≤ 10 s, the current
is i(t) = 40 − 4t A, and i(t) = 0 A for t > 10 s. Sketch i(t) versus time and find the total charge flowing
through the device between t = 0 s and t = 10 s.
The total charge flowing through the device is the integral of the current over time.
Z 10 Z 5 Z 10
q = i(t) dt = 4t dt + (40 − 4t) dt
0 0 5
5 10
= 2t2 + (40t − 2t2 ) = (50 − 0) + [(400 − 200) − (200 − 50)]
0 5
= 100 C
The following MATLAB code plots the current versus time and calculates the total charge flowing through
the device.
syms t
it = 4*t*(heaviside(t)-heaviside(t-5))...
+ (40-4*t)*(heaviside(t-5)-heaviside(t-10));
qTotal = int(it,t,0,10)
tt = 0:0.01:10;
itt = subs(it,t,tt);
plot(tt,itt,'b','LineWidth',3)
grid on
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabel('Current (A)')

Figure P1–11 displays the resulting plot.

20
18
16
14
12
Current (A)
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure P1–11
Problem 1–12. The charge flowing through a device is q(t) = 1 − e−1000t µC. How long will it take the
current to reach 200 µA?
d
The current is the derivative of the charge with respect to time, i(t) = dt q(t). Compute the current and
then solve for the time in terms of the current. Substitute in a current of 200 µA to find the corresponding
time.
d d e−1000t
i(t) = q(t) = (1 − e−1000t ) =
dt dt 1000
Solve for t in terms of i(t):
e−1000t
= i(t)
1000
e−1000t = 1000i(t)
−1000t = ln [1000i(t)]
1
t = − ln [1000i(t)]
1000
Substitute i(t) = 200 µA to get t = 1.6094 ms. The following MATLAB code calculates the same answer.
syms t
qt = 1e-6*(1-exp(-1000*t));
it = diff(qt,t)
Time200 = solve(it-200e-6,t);
Time200 = vpa(Time200,5)
Problem 1–13. The 12-V automobile battery in Figure P1–13 has an output capacity of 100 ampere-hours
(Ah) when connected to a head lamp that absorbs 200 watts of power. The car engine is not running and
therefore not charging the battery. Assume the battery voltage remains constant.
(a). Find the current supplied by the battery and determine how long can the battery power the headlight.
The current is the power divided by the voltage, i = p/v = 200 W/12 V = 16.667 A. Divide the
capacity of the battery by the current to determine how long the battery will power the headlight,
t = 100 Ah/16.667 A = 6 hours.

(b). A 100 W device is connected through the utility port. How long can the battery power both the
headlight and the device?
The current is the power divided by the voltage, i = p/v = (200 + 100) W/12 V = 25 A. Note that the
power requirement increased by 50%, so the current increased by 50% as well. Divide the capacity of the
battery by the current to determine how long the battery will power the headlight, t = 100 Ah/25 A = 4
hours.
The following MATLAB code calculates the same answers.
v = 12;
p = 200;
i = p/v
cap = 100;
t = cap/i
p2 = p+100;
i2 = p2/v
t2 = cap/i2
Problem 1–14. An incandescent lamp absorbs 100 W when connected to a 120-V source. A energy-efficient
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) producing the same amount of light absorbs 16 W when connected to the
same source. How much cheaper is it to operate the CFL versus the incandescent bulb over 1000 hours when
electricity costs 7.8 cents/kWh?
Find the energy in kWh used by each type of bulb and then calculate the corresponding costs. For
the incandescent lamp, we have w = (100 W)(1000 h) = 100 kWh. The corresponsding cost is (100 kWh)
(0.078 dollars/kWh) = $7.80. For the CFL, we have w = (16 W)(1000 h) = 16 kWh. The corresponsding
cost is (16 kWh) (0.078 dollars/kWh) = $1.25. While operating for 1000 hours, the CFL saves $6.55. The
following MATLAB code calculates the same answer.
V = 120;
T = 1000;
P incand = 100;
rate = 0.078;
kWh incand = P incand*T/1000;
cost incand = rate*kWh incand
P fluor = 16;
kWh fluor = P fluor *T/1000;
cost fluor = rate*kWh fluor
cost difference = cost incand - cost fluor
Problem 1–15. The current through a device is zero for t < 0 and is i(t) = 3e−2t A for t ≥ 0. Find the
charge q(t) flowing through the device for t ≥ 0.
The charge flowing through the device is the integral of the current over time.
t t
3 3 −2t 3
Z Z t
q(t) = i(τ ) dτ = 3e−2τ dτ = − e−2τ = − e −1 = 1 − e−2t C, t ≥ 0
0 0 2 0 2 2
syms t tau
it = 3*exp(-2*t);
itau = subs(it,t,tau)
qt = simple(int(itau,tau,0,t))

Problem 1–16. A string of holiday lights is protected by a 5-A fuse and has 25 bulbs, each of which is
rated at 7 W. How many strings can be connected end-to-end across a 120 V circuit without blowing a fuse?
The current is the power divided by the voltage, i = p/v. Each string of lights increases the power by
25 × 7 W = 175 W. Correspondingly, the current increases by (175 W)/(120 V) = 1.4583 A. Since each fuse
can handle up to 5 A, divide the fuse rating by the current required for each string and round down to get
the maximum number of strings. We have (5 A)/(1.4583 A) = 3.4286. The maximum number of strings is
three.
Problem 1–17. The i-v relationship for a photocell when illuminated is i = ev − 10 A. For v = −2, 2 and
3 V, find the device power and state whether it is absorbing or delivering power.
For each voltage, substitute into the expression for current and solve for the current. Multiply the current
and voltage to find power. If the power is positive, the photocell is absorbing power. If the power is negative,
the photocell is delivering power. The following table summarizes the results of the calculations.
v (V) i (A) p (W) Absorbing/Delivering
-2 -9.8647 19.7293 Absorbing
2 -2.6109 -5.2219 Delivering
3 10.0855 30.2566 Absorbing
v = [-2 2 3]
iv = exp(v)-10
p = v.*iv
pAbsorbs = p>0
Results = [v' iv' p' pAbsorbs']
Problem 1–18. A new 6 V Alkaline lantern battery delivers 237.5 kJ of energy during its lifetime. How
long will the battery last in an application that draws 15 mA continuously. Assume the battery voltage is
constant.
The power delivered is the product of the voltage and current, p = vi = (6 v)(15 mA) = 90 mW. A watt
is a joule per second, so the application draws 90 mJ/s. Divide the capacity of the battery by the rate to
get the total time, (237.5 kJ)/(90 mJ/s) = 2.6389 Ms = 733.02 h = 30.54 days.
Problem 1–19. The maximum power the device can dissipate is 0.25 W. Determine the maximum current
allowed by the device power rating when the voltage is 9 V.
The maximum current will be the maximum power divided by the voltage, iMax = pMax /v = (0.25 W)/(9
V) = 27.778 mA.
Problem 1–20. Traffic lights are being converted from incandescent bulbs to LED arrays to save operating
and maintenance costs. Typically each incandescent light uses three 100-W bulbs, one for each color R, Y,
G. A competing LED array consists of 61 LEDs with each LED requiring 9 V and drawing 20 mA of current.
There are three arrays per light - R, Y, G. A small city has 1560 traffic signals. Since one light is always on
24/7, how much can a city save in one year if the city buys their electricity at 7.2 cents per kWh?
To solve this problem, compare two lights and then scale the problem to the number of lights in the city.
The incandescent light always has on one 100-W bulb operating 24 hours per day for 365 days, which yields
a total of 876 kWh at a cost of $63.072. The LED light always has on one array, using a total power of
(61)(9 V)(20 mA) = 10.98 W. Over one year, the LED lights uses 96.185 kWh of energy at a cost of $6.9253.
The savings per light per year is $56.147, which, for a total of 1560 lights, translates into a city-wide saving
of $87,589 per year. The following MATLAB code calculates the same answer.
p incand = 100/1000; % Incandescent power in kW

rate = 0.072; % Dollars per kWh
hours = 24*365; % Hours per year
cost incand = p incand*hours*rate
v led = 9; % LED voltage

i led = 20e-3; % LED current

n led = 61; % Number of LED lights per array
p led = n led * v led * i led/1000 % Power in kW
cost led = p led *hours*rate
savings light = cost incand - cost led

lights = 1560;
savings year = lights*savings light
Problem 1–21. Two electrical devices are connected as shown in Figure P1-21. Using the reference marks
shown in the figure, find the power transferred and state whether the power is transferred from A to B or B
to A when
(a). v = +11 V and i = −1.1 A
(b). v = +80 V and i = +20 mA
(c). v = −120 V and i = −12 mA
(d). v = −1.5 V and i = −600 µA
The passive sign convention applies to Element B, so if the power is positive the transfer is from A to
B, and if the power is negative, the transfer is from B to A. For each case, calculate the power p = iv and
determine the direction of the power flow.
The following table summarizes the results of the calculations.
Case v i p Power Transfer
(a) +11 V -1.1 A -12.1 W B to A
(b) +80 V +20 mA +1.6 W A to B
(c) -120 V -12 mA + 1.44 W A to B
(d) -1.5 V -600 µA +900 µW A to B
v = [11 80 -120 -1.5];

i = [-1.1 20e-3 -12e-3 -600e-6];
p = v.*i
AtoB = p>0
Results = [v' i' p' AtoB']
Problem 1–22. Figure P1–22 shows an electric circuit with a voltage and a current variable assigned to
each of the six devices. The device voltages and currents are observed to be
v (V) i (A)
Device 1 15 −1
Device 2 5 1
Device 3 10 2
Device 4 −10 −1
Device 5 20 −3
Device 6 20 2
Find the power associated with each device and state whether the device is absorbing or delivering power.
Use the power balance to check your work.
The power associated with each device is the product of the voltage and currnet, p = vi. If the power is
positive, the device is absorbing power. If the power is negative, the device is delivering power. The original
table is expanded below to include power and the direction of power flow.

v (V) i (A) p (W) Absorbing/Delivering

Device 1 15 −1 −15 Delivering
Device 2 5 1 5 Absorbing
Device 4 −10 −1 10 Absorbing
Device 5 20 −3 −60 Delivering
For the power to balance in this system, the sum of the individual device powers should be zero. We
have −15 + 5 + 20 + 10 − 60 + 40 = 0, so the power balances.
The following MATLAB code calculates the same results.
v = [15 5 10 -10 20 20];

i = [-1 1 2 -1 -3 2];
p = v.*i
Absorbing = p>0
Balance = sum(p)
Results = [v' i' p' Absorbing']
Problem 1–23. Figure P1–22 shows an electric circuit with a voltage and a current variable assigned to
each of the six devices. Use power balance to find v4 when v1 = 20 V, i1 = −2 A, p2 = 20 W, p3 = 10 W,
i4 = 1 A, and p5 = p6 = 2.5 W. Is device 4 absorbing or delivering power?
First, calculate the power associated with device 1, p1 = v1 i1 = −40 W. The power must balance in the
circuit, so the sum of all of the device powers is zero. Therefore, we can solve for p4 and v4 as follows:
p4 = −p1 − p2 − p3 − p5 − p6 = 40 − 20 − 10 − 2.5 − 2.5 = 5 W
v4 = p4 /i4 = 5/1 = 5 V
The power is positive, so the device is absorbing power.
Problem 1–24. Suppose in Figure P1–22 a ground is connected to the minus (−) side of device 6 and
another to the junction of devices 2, 3 and 4. Further, assume that the voltage v4 is 5 V and v1 is 10 V.
What are the voltages v2 , v3 , v5 and v6 ?
Start at the junction of devices 2, 3 and 4, where the voltages is zero because it is connected to ground.
Since v4 = 5 V, there is a 5-V drop across device 4 from left to right. Therefore, the voltage at the junction
of devices 4, 5 and 6 is −5 V. Devices 5 and 6 are grounded at their negative sides, so the voltage across each
is −5 V. Device 3 is grounded on both sides, so its voltage is zero. The negative side of device 1 is grounded
and v1 = 10 V, so the voltage at the junction of devices 1 and 2 is 10 V. The negative side of device 2 is
grounded, so its voltage is also 10 V. In summary, we v2 = 10 V, v3 = 0 V, v5 = −5 V, and v6 = −5 V.
v4 = 5;
v1 = 10;
v5 = -v4
v6 = v5
v3 = 0
v2 = v1
Problem 1–25. For t ≥ 0 the voltage across and power absorbed by a two-terminal device are v(t) = 2e−t
V and p(t) = 40e−2t mW. Find the total charge delivered to the device for t ≥ 0.
First find the current i(t) = p(t)/v(t) and then integrate the current to find the charge.

p(t) 40e−2t mW
i(t) = = = 20e−t mA
v(t) 2e−t V
Z t Z t t
q(t) = i(τ ) dτ = 20e−τ dτ = −20e−τ = −20 e−t − 1 = 20 1 − e−t mC
0 0 0
To find the total charge delivered to the device for t ≥ 0, evaluate q(t) in the limit as t → ∞.

qTotal = lim q(t) = lim 20 1 − e−t = 20(1 − 0) = 20 mC
t→∞ t→∞
syms t
vt = 2*exp(-t);
pt = 40e-3*exp(-2*t);
it = simple(pt/vt)
q = simple(int(it,t,0,inf))
Problem 1–26. Repeat Problem 1–22 using MATLAB to perform the calculations. Create a vector for the
voltage values, v = [15 5 10 -10 20 20], and a vector for the current values, i = [-1 1 2 -1 -3 2].
Compute the corresponding vector for the power values, p, using element-by-element multiplication (.*) and
then use the sum command to verify the power balance.
The following MATLAB code provides the solution.
device = [1 2 3 4 5 6];
v = [15 5 10 -10 20 20];
i = [-1 1 2 -1 -3 2];
p = v.*i
Absorbing = p>0
Balance = sum(p)
Results = [device' v' i' p' Absorbing']
The corresponding MATLAB output is shown below.
Balance =
0.0000e+000
Results =
1.0000e+000 15.0000e+000 -1.0000e+000 -15.0000e+000 0.0000e+000
2.0000e+000 5.0000e+000 1.0000e+000 5.0000e+000 1.0000e+000
3.0000e+000 10.0000e+000 2.0000e+000 20.0000e+000 1.0000e+000
4.0000e+000 -10.0000e+000 -1.0000e+000 10.0000e+000 1.0000e+000
5.0000e+000 20.0000e+000 -3.0000e+000 -60.0000e+000 0.0000e+000
6.0000e+000 20.0000e+000 2.0000e+000 40.0000e+000 1.0000e+000
The power balance is zero, as expected, and the other results match those in Problem 1–22.
Problem 1–27. Using the passive sign convention, the voltage across a device is v(t) = 170 cos(377t) V
and the current through the device is i(t) = 2 sin(377t) A. Using MATLAB, create a short script (m-file) to
assign a value to the time variable, t, and then calculate the voltage, current, and power at that time. Run
the script for t = 5 ms and t = 10 ms and for each result state whether the device is absorbing or delivering
power.
The following MATLAB code provides the solution.
t = 5e-3
vt = 170*cos(377*t)

it = 2*sin(377*t)
pt = vt*it
Absorbing = pt>0
t = 10e-3
vt = 170*cos(377*t)
it = 2*sin(377*t)
pt = vt*it
Absorbing = pt>0
t = 5.0000e-003
vt = -52.5401e+000
it = 1.9021e+000
pt = -99.9357e+000
Absorbing = 0
t = 10.0000e-003
vt = -137.5240e+000
it = -1.1757e+000
pt = 161.6889e+000
Absorbing = 1
The following table summarizes the results.

t (ms) v(t) (V) i(t) (A) p(t) (W) Absorbing/Delivering
5 -52.54 1.90 -99.94 Delivering
10 -137.52 -1.18 161.69 Absorbing
Problem 1–28. Power Ratio in dB (A). A stereo amplifier takes the output of a CD player, for example,
and increases the power to an audible level. Suppose the output of the CD player is 50 mW and the desired
audible output is 100 W per stereo channel, find the power ratio of the amplifier per channel in decibels
(dB), where the power ratio in dB is
p2
PRdB = 10 log10
p1
The power values are given, so substitute into the equation for the power ratio and calculate.

p2 100
PRdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 = 10 log10 (2000) = (10)(3.301) = 33.01 dB
p1 0.05
Problem 1–29. AC to DC Converter (A). A manufacturer’s data sheet for the converter in Figure
P1-29 states that the output voltage is vdc = 5 V when the input voltage vac = 120 V. When the load draws
a current idc = 40 A the input power is iac = 300 W. Find the efficiency of the converter.
The efficiency of the converter is the percentage of input power that is delivered to the load. The power
delivered to the load is the product of the voltage and current, pLoad = vdc idc = (5 V)(40 A) = 200 W. The
power input to the converter is 300 W, so the efficiency is (200 W)/(300 W) = 66.67%.
Problem 1–30. Charge-Storage Device (A). A capacitor is a two-terminal device that can store electric
charge. In a linear capacitor the amount of charge stored is proportional to the voltage across the device.
For a particular device the proportionality is q(t) = 10−7 v(t). If v(t) = 0 for t < 0 and v(t) = 10(1 − e−5000t )
for t ≥ 0, find the energy stored in the device at t = 200 µs.
Take the derivative of the expression for charge to find the expression for current.
d −7 d −6 1 −5000t
i(t) = 10 v(t) = 10 (1 − e−5000t ) = 10−6 5000 e−5000t = e
dt dt 200
Multiply the expressions for voltage and current to find the expression for power.

−5000t
1 −5000t 1
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 10(1 − e ) e = e−5000t − e−10000t
200 20

Integrate the power from t = 0 s to t = 200 µs to determine the energy stored in the circuit.
Z 200 µs Z 200 µs
1
w = p(t) dt = e−5000t − e−10000t dt
0 0 20
200 µs
1 e−5000t e−10000t
= − +
20 5000 10000 0
1
= −60.042 × 10−6 + 100 × 10−6 = 1.9979 µJ
20
syms t
tt = 200e-6;
C = 1e-7;
vt = 10*(1-exp(-5000*t))
qt = C*vt
it = diff(qt,t)
pt = it*vt
wt = double(int(pt,t,0,tt))
vt =
10 - 10/exp(5000*t)
qt =
1/1000000 - 1/(1000000*exp(5000*t))
it =
1/(200*exp(5000*t))
pt =
-(10/exp(5000*t) - 10)/(200*exp(5000*t))
wt =
1.9979e-006
Problem 1–31. Computer Data Sheet (A). A manufacturer’s data sheet for a notebook computer lists
the power supply requirements as 7.5 A @ 5 V, 2 A @ 15 V, 2.5 A @ -15 V, 2.25 A @ -5 V and 0.5 A @
12 V. The data sheet also states that the overall power consumption is 115 W. Are these data consistent?
Explain.
Compute the power associated with each of the five requirements by multiplying the voltage and current
together. The resulting values are 37.5 W, 30 W, -37.5 W, -11.25 W, and 6 W. In this case, it is not
reasonable for the computer to supply power back to the power supply, so the negative powers are not a
correct interpretation of the passive sign convention. We should take the absolute value of the individual
powers to determine the total power requirement for the computer. Summing the magnitudes of the powers
yields a total of 122.25 W, which is greater than the stated power consumption of 115 W. The stated power
consumption is probably a reasonable value, based on the performance of the computer and the fact that,
typically, the power supply with not have to deliver the maximum values constantly.

2 Basic Circuit Analysis

2.1 Exercise Solutions
Exercise 2–1. A 6-V lantern battery powers a light bulb that draws 3 mA of current. What is the resistance
of the lamp? How much power does the lantern use?
Using Ohm’s law, we have v = iR or R = vi , so we can compute the resistance as R = 36mA
V
= 2 kΩ. The
power is p = vi = (6 V)(3 mA) = 18 mW.
Exercise 2–2. What is the maximum current that can flow through a 18 -W, 6.8-kΩ resistor? What is the
maximum voltage that can be across it?
The resistor can dissipate up to 0.125 W of power. We have pMAX = i2MAX R, which we can solved for
iMAX and then substitute in values for the power and resistance
r r
pMAX 0.125
iMAX = = = 4.2875 mA
R 6800
2
vMAX
Similarly, we can use pMAX = R to solve for the maximum voltage as follows:
p p
vMAX = R pMAX = (6800)(0.125) = 29.155 V
Exercise 2–3. A digital clock is a voltage that switches between two values at a constant rate that is used
to time digital circuits. A particular clock switches between 0 V and 5 V every 10 µs. Sketch the clock’s i-v
characteristics for the times when the clock is at 0 V and at 5 V.
When the clock has a value of 0 V, its voltage is constant and zero for a wide range of currents. In this
case, the i-v characteristic is a vertical line at 0 V. Likewise, when the clock has a value of 5 V, the voltage
is constant at 5 V for a wide range of currents. In this case, the i-v characteristic is a vertical line at 5 V.
Exercise 2–4. Refer to Figure 2–12.
Figure 2–12
(a). Write KCL equations at nodes A, B, C, and D.

KCL states that the sum of the currents entering a node is zero at every instant. As we sum the
currents at a node, if the current enters that node, it is positive and if the current leaves the node, it is
negative. At node A, both currents i1 and i2 are leaving the node, so the equation is −i1 − i2 = 0. At
node B, current i2 enters the node and currents i3 and i4 leave the node, so we have i2 − i3 − i4 = 0.
At node C, current i4 enters the node and currents i5 and i6 leave the node, so we have i4 − i5 − i6 = 0.
At node D, currents i1 , i3 , i5 , and i6 enter the node, so we have i1 + i3 + i5 + i6 = 0.
(b). Given i1 = −1 mA, i3 = 0.5 mA, i6 = 0.2 mA, find i2 , i4 , and i5 .
Applying the KCL equation for node A, we can find i2 = −i1 = 1 mA. Applying the KCL equation
for node B, we have i4 = i2 − i3 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5 mA. Finally, applying the KCL equation for node C,
we have i5 = i4 − i6 = 0.5 − 0.2 = 0.3 mA.

Figure 2–14
Exercise 2–5. Find the voltages vx and vy in Figure 2–14.

To find vx , write the KVL equation around Loop 1 as −vx + 2 + 6 = 0 and solve for vx = +8 V. To find
vy , write the KVL equation around Loop 2 as vy + 1 − 6 = 0 and solve for vy = +5 V.
Exercise 2–6. Find the voltages vx , vy , and vz in Figure 2–15.
Figure 2–15
In Figure 2–15, some of the unknown voltages do not appear across elements, but we can still write KVL
equations. For Loop 1 starting with the lowest element, the KVL equation is 10 − 40 + 5 + vx = 0, which can
be solved to yield vx = 25 V. For Loop 2, the KVL equation is −vx + 20 + vy = 0, which can be solved for
vy = 25−20 = 5 V. Finally, for Loop 3, the KVL equation is −vy −5+vz = 0, which yields vz = 5+5 = 10 V.
Exercise 2–7. Identify the elements connected in series or parallel when a short circuit is connected between
nodes A and B in each of the circuits in Figure 2–18.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2–18

In the solution, the short circuit has been applied in each of the circuits and Element 2 has been shorted
out of the circuit. For the circuit in Figure 2–18(a), all of the elements share the same two nodes, A and
C, so Elements 1, 2, and 3 are in parallel. For the circuit in Figure 2–18(b), Elements 1 and 3 share nodes
A and C, so they are in parallel. In addition, Elements 4 and 5 are the only elements connects to node D,
so they are in series. For the circuit in Figure 2–18(c), Elements 1 and 3 are in parallel because they share
nodes A and C. In addition, Elements 4 and 6 are in parallel, because they share nodes A and D.
Exercise 2–8. Identify the elements in Figure 2–19 that are connected in (a) parallel, (b) series, or (c)
neither.
Refer to the figure in the textbook.
(a). Elements 1, 8, and 11 share the upper left node and ground, so they are in parallel. In addition,
Elements 3, 4, and 5 share the center node and ground, so they are in parallel.
(b). Elements 9 and 10 are in series, because they share a single node and no other elements with current
connect to that node. Likewise, Elements 6 and 7 share a single node with no other elements, so they
are also in series.
(c). The remaining element, Element 2, is neither in series nor parallel with any other elements.
Exercise 2–9. A 1-kΩ resistor is added between nodes A and B in Figure 2–20. Find ix , vx , iO , and vO if
iS = 1 mA and R = 2 kΩ.
Figure 2–20
The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 2–20. Note that the 1-kΩ resistor has been inserted and the
current through it labeled as i1 and the voltage across it labeled as v1 . Using KCL at the current source,
we have ix = iS . Writing KCL at the top node, we have −ix − i1 − iO = 0. Writing KVL around the left
loop yields −vx + v1 = 0. Writing KVL around the right loop yields −v1 + vO = 0. Alternately, we can see
that the three elements all share the top and bottom nodes, so they are all in parallel and have the same
voltage, vx = v1 = vO . Using these equations and Ohm’s law, v = Ri, we can solve for the unknown values

as follows:
ix = iS = 1 mA
v1 = vO
R 1 i1 = R O iO
1000i1 = 2000iO
i1 = 2iO
ix + i1 + iO = 0
i1 + iO = −ix = −1 mA
2iO + iO = −1 mA
3iO = −1 mA
iO = −333 µA
vx = vO = (2 kΩ)(−333 µA) = −667mV
Exercise 2–10. The wire connecting R1 to node B in Figure 2-21 is broken. What would you measure for
iA , v1 , i2 , and v2 ? Is KVL violated? Where does the source voltage appear across?
Figure 2–21
Figure 2–21 shows the resulting circuit. If the circuit is broken between R1 and node B, then no current
can flow in the circuit and all currents are zero, iA = i1 = i2 = 0. Using Ohm’s law, v = Ri, for the voltages
across the resistors, the current is zero, so the voltages must also be zero and we have v1 = v2 = 0. Note
that a new voltage, vx , has been labeled across the gap where the circuit is broken. We can now write KVL
as −vA + v1 + vx + v2 = 0. With v1 = v2 = 0, we get vx = vA = VO . KVL is not violated because the voltage
from the source now appears across the gap in the open (broken) circuit.

Exercise 2–11. Repeat the problem of Example 2-10 if the 30-V voltage source is replaced with a 2-mA
current source with the arrow pointed up towards node A.
Figure Ex2–11
Figure Ex2–11 shows the resulting circuit. The description of the circuit requires four element equations
and four connection equations. The element equations are
v1 = 100i1
v2 = 200i2
v3 = 300i3
iA = −2 mA
The four connection equations are
KCL : Node A −iA − i1 − i3 = 0
KCL : Node B i1 − i2 = 0
KVL : Loop 1 −vA + v3 = 0
KVL : Loop 2 −v3 + v1 + v2 = 0
The KCL equation at node B implies i1 = i2 . We can then start with the KVL equation around loop 2 and
solve as follows:
−v3 + v1 + v2 = 0
v1 + v2 = v3
100i1 + 200i2 = 300i3
100i1 + 200i1 = 300i3
300i1 = 300i3
i1 = i3

Now using the KCL equation at node A, we have

−iA − i1 − i3 = 0
i1 + i3 = −iA = 2 mA
i1 + i1 = 2 mA
2i1 = 2 mA
i1 = i3 = i2 = 1 mA
Now apply Ohm’s law to solve for the voltages
v1 = 100i1 = 100 mV
v2 = 200i2 = 200 mV
v3 = 300i3 = 300 mV
Exercise 2–12. In Figure 2–24, i1 = 200 mA and i3 = −100 mA. Find the voltage vx .
The KCL equation at the center node is i1 − i2 − i3 = 0. Solving for i2 , we have i2 = i1 − i3 =
200 + 100 = 300 mA. Apply Ohm’s law to solve for v1 = 100i1 = (100)(200 mA) = 20 V, and v2 = 50i2 =
(50)(300 mA) = 15 V. Write the KVL equation around the left loop as −vx + v1 + v2 = 0. Solve for
vx = v1 + v2 = 20 + 15 = 35 V.
Exercise 2–13. In Figure 2–25(a), the 2-A source is replaced by a 100-V source with the + terminal at the
top, and the 3-A source is removed. Find the current and its direction through the voltage source.
Figure Ex2–13
Figure Ex2–13 shows the resulting circuit. Writing KCL at node C, we have i3 − 5 = 0, which yields
i3 = 5 A. Write the KCL equation at node B to get i1 −i2 −i3 = 0, which can be solved for i1 = i2 +i3 = i2 +5.
Write the KVL equation around loop 1 to get −100 + v1 + v2 = 0, which yields the following
v1 + v2 = 100
100i1 + 50i2 = 100
100(i2 + 5) + 50i2 = 100
100i2 + 500 + 50i2 = 100
150i2 = −400
i2 = −2.667 A

We can then solve for i1 = i2 + 5 = 2.333 A and iA = −i1 = −2.333 A. Since iA is negative, the current
follows in the opposite direction through the voltage source, which is up, and has a magnitude of 2.333 A.
Exercise 2–14. Find the equivalent resistance for the circuit in Figure 2–29.
Redraw the original circuit to an equivalent circuit without the diagonal resistor. Starting from the right
side, combine resistors in series or parallel as appropriate to reduce the circuit to a single resistor. The
following sequence of circuits shows the progress in reducing the circuit.
Figure Ex2–14
Starting at the far right, combine the 500-Ω and 1-kΩ resistors in series to get a 1.5-kΩ resistor. Next,
combine the three 1.5-kΩ resistors in parallel to get a 500-Ω resistor. Combine the two 500-Ω resistors in
series to get a 1-kΩ resistor. Combine the two 1-kΩ resistors in parallel to get the final equivalent resistance
of 500-Ω.
Exercise 2–15. Find the equivalent resistance between terminals A–C, B–D, A–D, and B–C in the circuit
in Figure 2–30.
Figure 2–30
If current flows only between terminals A and C, then no current flows through terminals B and D and
resistors R2 and R3 are not active in the circuit. The equivalent resistance RA−C = R1 . If current flows

only between terminals B and D, then no current flows through terminals A and C and none of the resistors
are active in the circuit. The equivalent resistance RB−D = 0. If current flows between terminals A and
D, resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel and that combination is in series with R1 . The equivalent resistance
RA−D = R1 + R2 k R3 = R1 + RR22+R R3
3
. If current flows between terminals B and C, then no current flows
through R1 and it is not part of the circuit. The equivalent resistance is the parallel combination of R2 and
R3 or RB−C = R2 k R3 = RR22+R R3
3
.
Exercise 2–16. Find the equivalent resistance between terminals A–B, A–C, A–D, B–C, B–D, and C–D in
the circuit of Figure 2-31. For example: RA−B = (80 k 80) + 60 = 100 Ω.
Figure 2–31
If current flows between terminals A and C, then no current flows through the 60-Ω and the 25-Ω resistors
and they are not part of the circuit. The two 80-Ω resistors are in parallel and that combination is in series
with the 30-Ω resistor, so we have RA−C = (80 k 80) + 30 = 70 Ω. If current flows between terminals A
and D, then no current flows through the 60-Ω and the 30-Ω resistors and they are not part of the circuit.
Again, the two 80-Ω resistors are in parallel and that combination is in series with the 25-Ω resistor, so we
have RA−D = (80 k 80) + 25 = 65 Ω. If current flows between terminals B and C, then no current flows
through the 25-Ω resistor and it is not part of the circuit. In addition, in the remaining circuit, the two 80-Ω
resistors are shorted out. The resulting circuit is a series combination of the 60-Ω and 30-Ω resistors, which
yields RB−C = 60 + 30 = 90 Ω. If current flows between terminals B and D, then no current flows through
the 30-Ω resistor and it is not part of the circuit. In addition, in the remaining circuit, the two 80-Ω resistors
are again shorted out. The resulting circuit is a series combination of the 60-Ω and 25-Ω resistors, which
yields RB−D = 60 + 25 = 85 Ω. Finally, with current flowing between terminals C and D, the 60-Ω resistor
is not part of the circuit and the two 80-Ω resistors are shorted out. The equivalent resistance is the series
combination of the 30-Ω and 25-Ω resistors, which yields RC−D = 25 + 30 = 55 Ω.
Exercise 2–17. A practical current source consists of a 2-mA ideal current source in parallel with a 500-Ω
resistance. Find the equivalent practical voltage source.
The equivalent practical voltage source will have the same 500-Ω resistance. To transform the current
source into a voltage source, we compute vS = iS R = (2 mA)(500 Ω) = 1 V.
Exercise 2–18. Find the equivalent circuit for each of the following
(a). Three ideal 1.5-V batteries connected in series.

For voltage sources connected in series, the voltages add. Assuming all three sources are oriented in
the same direction, the equivalent voltage is 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 V.
(b). A 5-mA current source in series with a 100-kΩ resistor.

A current source in series with a resistor acts as a current source without the resistor, so the equivalent
circuits is a single 5-mA current source.

(c). A 40-A ideal current source in parallel with an ideal 10-A current source.
For ideal current sources in parallel, the currents add, so the equivalent circuit is a 50-A current source.
(d). A 100-V source in parallel with two 10-kΩ resistors.

A voltage source in parallel with any resistance acts like a voltage source, so the equivalent circuits is
a single 100-V voltage source.
(e). An ideal 15-V source in series with an ideal 10-mA source.

This is not a valid combination of sources and the two cannot be combined in a theoretical perspective.
(f). A 15-V ideal source and a 5-V ideal source connected in parallel.
This is not a valid combination of voltage sources, since a parallel combination of elements must have
the same voltage.
Exercise 2–19. Find the voltages vx , vy , and vz in the circuit of Figure 2–39. Show that the sum of all the
voltages across each of the individual resistors equals the source voltage.
Figure 2–39
For each resistor, use voltage division to find its corresponding voltage.

100
vx = 24 = 1.9835 V
100 + 560 + 330 + 220

560
vy = 24 = 11.1074 V
100 + 560 + 330 + 220

330
vO = 24 = 6.5455 V
100 + 560 + 330 + 220

220
vz = 24 = 4.3636 V
100 + 560 + 330 + 220
Sum the voltages to get 1.9835 + 11.107 + 6.5455 + 4.3636 = 24 V, which matches the source voltage.

Exercise 2–20. In Figure 2-40, Rx = 10 kΩ. The output voltage vO = 20 V. Find the voltage source that
would produce that output. (Hint: It is not 10 V.)
Figure 2–40
Combine the two 10-kΩ resistors in parallel to get a single 5-kΩ resistor in series with the 2-kΩ resistor.
The 5-kΩ resistor still has 20 V across it. Use the voltage division equation to solve for the voltage of the
source as follows:

5000
20 = vs
5000 + 2000

5000 + 2000
vs = 20 = 28 V
5000
Exercise 2–21. In Figure 2–41, suppose that a resistor R4 is connected across the output. What value
should R4 be if we want 12 vS to appear between node A and ground?
Using the concept of voltage division, for one-half of vS to appear between node A and ground, the
resistance between node A and ground will have to match R1 so that the source voltage divides equally
between the two parts of the circuit. The equivalent resistance between node A and ground is the series
combination of R3 and R4 in parallel with R2 or REQ = R2 k (R3 + R4 ). Setting REQ = R1 we can solve
for R4 as follows:
R2 (R3 + R4 ) R2 R3 + R2 R4
R1 = R2 k (R3 + R4 ) = =
R2 + R3 + R4 R2 + R3 + R4
R1 (R2 + R3 + R4 ) = R2 R3 + R2 R4
R1 R4 − R2 R4 = R2 R3 − R1 R2 − R1 R3
R4 (R1 − R2 ) = R2 R3 − R1 R2 − R1 R3
R2 R3 − R1 R2 − R1 R3 R1 R3 + R1 R2 − R3 R2
R4 = =
R1 − R2 R2 − R1
Exercise 2–22. Ten volts (vs ) are connected acorss the 10-kΩ potentiometer (RTOTAL ) shown in Figure
2–42(c). A load resistor of 10 kΩ is connected across its output. At what resistance should the wiper
(RTOTAL − R1 ) be set so that 2 V appears at the output, vO ?
To solve this problem, first define R2 = RTOTAL − R1 , which is the resistance we want to find. For a
10-kΩ potentiometer, R1 + R2 = 10 kΩ, so R1 = 10 kΩ − R2 . The equivalent resistance of the output is
REQ = R2 k 10 kΩ. Now use the voltage division equation and the specified source and output voltages to

solve for R2 as follows:
104 R2
 

REQ  104 + R2 
2 = 10 =  4  10

R1 + REQ  10 R2
104 − R2 +
104 + R2
104 R2 104 R2

2 104 − R2 + = 10
104 + R2 104 + R2
(104 − R2 )(104 + R2 ) + 104 R2 = (104 R2 )(5)
−R22 + 108 + 104 R2 = (5 × 104 )R2
R22 + (4 × 104 )R2 − 108 = 0
Solving for the positive root of the quadratic equation, we get R2 = 2.36 kΩ. The other root is negative, so
it is not a valid solution for a resistance.
Exercise 2–23. (a). Find ix and iz in the circuit of Figure 2–46(a).
Use current division to find all of the currents. Note that iz flows through an equivalent resistance of
10 Ω.
1
20
ix = 1 1 1 5 = 1.25 A
20 + 20 + 10
1
20
iy = 1 1 1 5 = 1.25 A
20 + 20 + 10
1
10
iz = 1 1 1 5 = 2.5 A
20 + 20 + 10
(b). Show that the sum of ix , iy , and iz equals the source current.
Sum the currents found in part (a), ix + iy + iz = 1.25 + 1.25 + 2.5 = 5 A.
Exercise 2–24. The circuit in Figure 2-47 shows a delicate device that is modeled by a 90-Ω equivalent
resistance. The device requires a current of 1 mA to operate properly. A 1.5-mA fuse is inserted in series with
the device to protect it from overheating. The resistance of the fuse is 10 Ω. Without the shunt resistance
Rx , the source would deliver 5 mA to the device, causing the fuse to blow. Inserting a shunt resistor Rx
diverts a portion of the available source current around the fuse and device. Select a value of Rx so only 1
mA is delivered to the device.
The equivalent resistance of the device and its fuse is 100 Ω. Write the current division equation such
that the current through the device is 1 mA and then solve for the shunt resistance Rx .
!
1
100 Rx Rx
1 = 1 1 1 10 = 10 = 10
100 + Rx + 100
Rx + 100 + Rx 2Rx + 100
2Rx + 100 = 10Rx
8Rx = 100
Rx = 12.5 Ω

Exercise 2–25. Repeat the problem of Example 2–22 if the battery’s internal resistance increases to 70
mΩ. Will there be sufficient current available to start the car?
Perform a source transformation with the 12.6-V battery and the 70-mΩ resistor. The resulting current
source has a value of 180 A, so it cannot supply 210.1 A to the starter and accessories. Using the second
approach described in Example 2–22, the current through the source resistance is 210.1 A and the resistance
is 70 mΩ. The voltage drop across the source resistance is (210.1)(0.070) = 14.707 V. This voltage is greater
than the battery rating, so there will not be sufficient current to start the car.
Exercise 2–26. In Figure 2–51, R = 15 kΩ. The voltage source vS = 5 V. Find the power delivered to the
circuit by the source.
We can apply the analysis completed in Example 2–24 to solve for the source current
3 vS 3 5
iS = = = 200 µA
5 R 5 15 × 103
We can now solve for the source power ps = vS iS = (5)(200 × 10−6 ) = 1 mW.
Exercise 2–27. In Figure 2–53, find the current through the 2R resistor.
Using Figure 2–53(b) and current division, we can solve for i2R directly as follows:
1
 
2R  vS 1 vS vS
i2R =  = = A

1 1 1R 2+1+2 R 5R
+ +
R 2R R
Exercise 2–28. Find vx and ix using circuit reduction on the circuit in Figure 2–54.
Figure Ex2–28
Figure 2–28 shows the circuit reduction process. In the first step, perform a source transformation and
combined the two 15-Ω resistors in series on the right. Next, combined the 10-Ω and 20-Ω resistors in series
and the two 30-Ω resistors in parallel. Finally, combine the 30-Ω and 15-Ω resistors in series. Throughout this
reduction process we have not disturbed current ix so we can compute it directly as ix = 20/45 = 444 mA.

Tracing back to the first circuit with the voltage source, we see that ix enters a circuit where the current
divides equally between two 30-Ω resistors. The current through each resistor is half of the original or
222 mA. Therefore, 222 mA flows through each 15-Ω resistor in the original circuit. We can then compute
vx = (15)(0.222) = 3.33 V.
Exercise 2–29. Find vx and vy using circuit reduction on the circuit in Figure 2–55.
Combine the two voltage sources in series together to get a single 12-V source. To solve for vx , first
note that the voltage source is in parallel with the series combination of resistors on the far right. From the
perspective of the left side of the circuit, we can safely ignore the resistors to the right of the voltage source.
Perform a source transformation on the 12-V source and the 1-kΩ to its left to get a 12-mA current source
in parallel with a 1-kΩ resistor. Now perform current division to find the current through the 1.5-kΩ resistor
as follows  1 
ix = 
 1.5 + 2.2 
(−12) = −2.0614 mA
1 1 1
+ +
1.5 + 2.2 3.3 1
Note the sign convention for vx introduces the negative sign for the current. Apply Ohm’s law to find the
voltage vx = (1500)(−0.0020614) = −3.092 V.
To solve for vy , perform voltage division using the equivalent 12-V source as follows:

3.3
vy = 12 = 9.2093 V
1 + 3.3
Exercise 2–30. Find the voltage across the current source in Figure 2–57.
Combine the resistors on the left in series to get an equivalent resistance of 2.2 + 1.5 + 1 = 4.7 kΩ.
Combine the resistors on the right in series to get an equivalent resistance of 1 + 3.3 = 4.3 kΩ. Combine the
two equivalent resistance in parallel to get a final equivalent resistance of 4.7 k 4.3 = 2.2456 kΩ. The current
flowing through the equivalent resistance yields a voltage of (2.2456 kΩ)(0.1 mA) = 224.56 mV. Given the
sign convention in Figure 2–57, the source voltage is negative and vS = −224.56 mV.

2.2 Problem Solutions

Problem 2–1. The current through a 56-kΩ resistor is 2.2 mA. Find the voltage across the resistor.
Using Ohm’s law we have v = Ri = (56 × 103 )(2.2 × 10−3 ) = 123.2 V.
Problem 2–2. The voltage across a particular resistor is 6.23 V and the current is 2.75 mA. What is the
actual resistance of the resistor? Using the inside back cover, what is the likely standard value of the resistor?
Using Ohm’s law we can solve for resistance as R = v/i = (6.23)/(2.75 × 10−3 ) = 2.2655 kΩ. Using the
table of standard values, the resistor is likely marked as a 2.2-kΩ resistor.
Problem 2–3. A 100-kΩ resistor dissipates 100 mW. Find the current through p the resistor.
p
The power dissipated by a resistor is p = i2 R. Solving for current, we have i = p/R = (10−1 )/(105 ) =
1 mA.
Problem 2–4. The conductance of a particular resistor is 0.5 mS. Find the current through the resistor
when connected across a 5-V source.
Using the conductance version of Ohm’s law, we have i = Gv = (0.5 × 10−3 )(5) = 2.5 mA.
Problem 2–5. In Figure P2–5 the resistor dissipates 25 mW. Find Rx .
The power dissipated by a resistor can be written as p = v 2 /R. Solving for the resistance, we have
Rx = v 2 /px = (152 )/(25 × 10−3 ) = 9 kΩ.
Problem 2–6. In Figure P2–6 find Rx and the power delivered to the resistor.
Using Ohm’s law to solve for resistance, we have Rx = v/i = 100/(10−2 ) = 10 kΩ. The power delivered
to the resistor is p = vi = (100)(10−2 ) = 1 W.
Problem 2–7. A resistor found in the lab has three orange stripes followed by a gold stripe. An ohmmeter
measures its resistance as 34.9 kΩ. Is the resistor properly color coded? (See inside back cover for color
code.)
Since there are three colored stripes and a gold stripe, the first two stripes are the significant digits,
the third stripe is the multiplier, and the gold stripe is the tolerance. Using the color code table, the
significant digits for the first two stripes are 3 and 3. The multiplier associated with orange is 1 k, so we
have 33 × 1000 = 33 kΩ. The tolerance associated with the gold stripe is ±5%, which gives a range of
resistances from 31.35 to 34.65 kΩ. The resistor measured outside of this range, but its measured value is
within 10% of 33 kΩ, so it should have a silver tolerance stripe in place of the gold one.
Problem 2–8. The i-v characteristic of a nonlinear resistor is v = 82i + 0.18i3 .
(a). Calculate v and p for i = ±0.5, ±1, ±2, ±5, and ±10 A.
Since there are 10 values for the current to examine, this problem is best solved with MATLAB. We
will solve the problem for one current and then automate the process. Given i = +0.5 A, use the
expression to calculate the voltage as v = 82i + 0.18i3 = (82)(0.5) + (0.18)(0.5)3 = 41.023 V. We can
now calculate the power as p = vi = (41.023)(0.5) = 20.511 W. To compute the other solutions, we
use MATLAB as shown below.
ii = [-10, -5, -2, -1, -0.5, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10];

v = 82*ii + 0.18*ii.ˆ3;
p = v.*ii;
Results = [ii' v' p']
Results =
-10.0000e+000 -1.0000e+003 10.0000e+003
-5.0000e+000 -432.5000e+000 2.1625e+003
-2.0000e+000 -165.4400e+000 330.8800e+000
-1.0000e+000 -82.1800e+000 82.1800e+000
-500.0000e-003 -41.0225e+000 20.5113e+000

500.0000e-003 41.0225e+000 20.5113e+000

1.0000e+000 82.1800e+000 82.1800e+000
2.0000e+000 165.4400e+000 330.8800e+000
5.0000e+000 432.5000e+000 2.1625e+003
10.0000e+000 1.0000e+003 10.0000e+003
The results are summarized in the following table.

i (A) v (V) p (W)
-10 -1000.00 10000.00
-5 -432.50 2162.50
-2 -165.44 330.88
-1 -82.18 82.18
-0.5 -41.02 20.51
0.5 41.02 20.51
1 82.18 82.18
2 165.44 330.88
5 432.50 2162.50
10 1000.00 10000.00
(b). Find the maximum error in v when the device is treated as a 82-Ω linear resistance on the range
|i| < 0.5 A.
The term 0.18i3 makes the expression for v nonlinear and represents the difference between the actual
device and an 82-Ω resistor. The maximum error will occur when the absolute value of the cubic term
is maximized. That occurs at the extreme values for i, which are ±0.5 A, in this case. At +0.5 A, the
actual voltage is 41.0225 V and the voltage across a 82-Ω resistor is exactly 41 V. The error is 22.5 mV.
At −0.5 A, the actual voltage is −41.0225 V and the voltage across a 82-Ω resistor is exactly −41 V, so
the error is −22.5 mV. In both cases, the percentage of error is 0.055%, which is exceptionally small.
Problem 2–9. A 100-kΩ resistor has a power rating of 0.125 W. Find the maximum voltage that can be
applied to the resistor.
2
The
√ power p dissipated by a resistor can be expressed as p = v /R. Solving for the voltage, we have
5
v = pR = (0.125)(10 ) = 111.803 V.
Problem 2–10. A certain type of film resistor is available with resistance values between 10 Ω and 100 MΩ.
The maximum ratings for all resistors of this type are 500 V and 0.25 W. Show that the voltage rating is
the controlling limit for R > 1 MΩ, and that the power rating is the controlling limit when R < 1 MΩ.
The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed as p = v 2 /R. Solving for the resistance, we have
R = v 2 /p. With both maximum ratings applied, the resistance is R = (500)2 /(0.25) = 1 MΩ. Therefore
at R = 1 MΩ there are no issues with either type of rating. If the resistance increases above 1 MΩ, then
using R = v 2 /p, the maximum power must be less than 0.25 W. Therefore, the resistor will never dissipate
0.25 W and the voltage rating will be the only active constraint. If the resistance is less than 1 MΩ, then
the maximum voltage must be less than 500 V and power rating will be the only active constraint.
Problem 2–11. Figure P2–11 shows the circuit symbol for a class of two-terminal devices called diodes.
The i-v relationship for a specific pn junction diode is i = 2 × 10−16 e40v − 1 A.

(a). Use this equation to find i and p for v = 0, ±0.1, ±0.2, ±0.4, and ±0.8 V. Use these data to plot the
i-v characteristic of the element.
For each voltage, use the given equation to compute the current and then use p = vi to compute the
associated power. MATLAB is appropriate for these calculations and plotting.
v = [-0.8, -0.4, -0.2, -0.1, 0 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8];

ii = 2e-16*(exp(40*v)-1);
p = v.*ii;
Results = [v' ii' p']

The corresponding MATLAB output is shown below followed by a plot of the data in Figure P2–11.
Results =
-800.0000e-003 -200.0000e-018 160.0000e-018
-400.0000e-003 -200.0000e-018 80.0000e-018
-200.0000e-003 -199.9329e-018 39.9866e-018
-100.0000e-003 -196.3369e-018 19.6337e-018
0.0000e+000 0.0000e+000 0.0000e+000
100.0000e-003 10.7196e-015 1.0720e-015
200.0000e-003 595.9916e-015 119.1983e-015
400.0000e-003 1.7772e-009 710.8888e-012
800.0000e-003 15.7926e-003 12.6341e-003
−3
x 10
16
14
12
10
Current (A)
−2
−0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Voltage (V)
Figure P2–11
(b). Is the diode linear or nonlinear, bilateral or nonbilateral, and active or passive?
The plot in Part (a) shows that the device is nonlinear and nonbilateral. The power for the device is
always positive, so it is passive.
(c). Use the diode model to predict i and p for v = 5 V. Do you think the model applies to voltages in this
range? Explain.
For v = 5 V, i = 1.45 × 1071 A and p = 7.23 × 1071 W. The model is not valid because the current and
power are too large.
(d). Repeat (c) for v = −5 V.

For v = −5 V, i = −2.00 × 10−16 A and p = 1.00 × 10−15 W. The model is valid because the current
and power are both essentially zero.
Problem 2–12. A thermistor is a temperature-sensing element composed of a semiconductor material which

exhibits a large change in resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. A particular thermistor
has a resistance of 5 kΩ at 25◦ C. Its resistance is 340 Ω at 100◦ C. Assuming a straight-line relationship
between these two values, at what temperature will the thermistor’s resistance equal 1 kΩ?
Find the rate at which the resistance changes for each degree of temperature.
5000 − 340 4660

∆Ω = = = −62.13 Ω/◦ C
25 − 100 −75

To go from 5 kΩ to 1 kΩ, the resistance changes by −4 kΩ, which means the temperature change is
−4000/(−62.13) = 64.38◦ C. The final temperature is 25 + 64.38 = 89.38◦ C.
Problem 2–13. In Figure P2–13 i2 = −5 A and i3 = 2 A. Find i1 and i4 .
The KCL equations for nodes B and C are
−i1 − i2 = 0
i2 + i3 − i4 = 0
Using the first equation, we can solve for i1 = −i2 = 5 A. Using the second equation, we can solve for
i4 = i2 + i3 = −5 + 2 = −3 A.
Problem 2–14. In Figure P2–14 v1 = 3 V and v3 = 5 V. Find v2 , v4 and v5 .
We can use a KVL equation on the left loop and the two given voltages to solve for v2 . The KVL equation
is −v1 + v2 + v3 = 0. Solving for v2 = v1 − v3 = 3 − 5 = −2 V. In examining the circuit, there is a ground on
each side of v5 , so the voltage difference across this element is zero, v5 = 0 V. We can now use KVL around
the right loop to solve for v4 . The KVL equation is −v3 + v4 + v5 = 0. Solve for v4 = v3 − v5 = 5 − 0 = 5 V.
Problem 2–15. For the circuit in Figure P2–15:
(a). Identify the nodes and at least two loops.
The circuit has three nodes and three loops. The nodes are labeled A, B, and C. The first loop contains
elements 1 and 2, the second loop contains elements 2, 3, and 4, and the third loop contains elements
1, 3 and 4.
(b). Identify any elements connected in series or in parallel.
Elements 3 and 4 are connected in series. Elements 1 and 2 are connected in parallel.
(c). Write KCL and KVL connection equations for the circuit.
The KCL equations are
Node A −i1 − i2 − i3 = 0
Node B i3 − i4 = 0
Node C i1 + i 2 + i 4 = 0
The KVL equations are
Loop 1 2 −v1 + v2 = 0
Loop 2 3 4 −v2 + v3 + v4 = 0
Loop 1 3 4 −v1 + v3 + v4 = 0
Problem 2–16. In Figure P2–15, i2 = −20 mA and i4 = 10 mA. Find i1 and i3 .

The KCL equations for the circuit are
Node A −i1 − i2 − i3 = 0
Node B i3 − i4 = 0
Node C i1 + i2 + i4 = 0
Using the equation for node C, we can solve i1 = −i2 − i4 = 20 − 10 = 10 mA. Using the equation for node
B, we can solve i3 = i4 = 10 mA.

Problem 2–17. For the circuit in Figure P2–17:

(a). Identify the nodes and at least three loops in the circuit.
The are four nodes and at least five loops. There are only three independent KVL equations. The
nodes are labeled A, B, C, and D. Valid loops include the following sequences of elements: (1, 3, 2),
(2, 4, 5), (3, 6, 4), (1, 6, 5), and (2, 3, 6, 5).
(b). Identify any elements connected in series or in parallel.
In this circuit, none of the elements are connected in series and none of them are connected in parallel.
(c). Write KCL and KVL connection equations for the circuit.
Node A −i2 − i3 − i4 = 0
Node B −i1 + i3 − i6 = 0
Node C i1 + i2 + i5 = 0
Node D i4 − i5 + i6 = 0
Three independent KVL equations are
Loop 1 3 2 −v1 − v3 + v2 = 0
Loop 2 4 5 −v2 + v4 + v5 = 0
Loop 3 6 4 v3 + v6 − v4 = 0
Problem 2–18. In Figure P2–17 v2 = 10 V, v3 = −10 V, and v4 = 3 V. Find v1 , v5 , and v6 .

Loop 1 3 2 −v1 − v3 + v2 = 0
Loop 2 4 5 −v2 + v4 + v5 = 0
Loop 3 6 4 v3 + v6 − v4 = 0
Using the first equation, we can solve for v1 = v2 − v3 = 10 + 10 = 20 V. Using the second equation, we can
solve for v5 = v2 − v4 = 10 − 3 = 7 V. Using the third equation, we can solve v6 = v4 − v3 = 3 + 10 = 13 V.
Problem 2–19. In many circuits the ground is often the metal case that houses the circuit. Occasionally a
failure occurs whereby a wire connected to a particular node touches the case causing that node to become
connected to ground. Suppose that in Figure P2–17 Node B accidently touches ground. How would that
affect the voltages found in Problem 2–18?
If Node B is connected to ground, then element 6 is connected to ground on both sides, so its voltage
is v6 = 0 V. If we define v6 = 0 V, all of the original KVL equations found in Problem 2–17 are still valid.
Even though the equations are valid, Problem 2–18 is no longer valid because there is a conflict with the
given voltages. Using the KVL equation v3 + v6 − v4 = 0 and substituting in v6 = 0, we get v3 = v4 . In
Problem 2–18, the given values are v3 = −10 V and v4 = 3 V, which is not possible if Node B is connected
to ground.
Problem 2–20. The circuit in Figure P2–20 is organized around the three signal lines A, B, and C.
(a). Identify the nodes and at least three loops in the circuit.
The are four nodes and at least five loops. The nodes are labeled A, B, C, and D. Valid loops include
the following sequences of elements: (1, 3, 2), (2, 4, 5), (3, 6, 4), (1, 6, 5), and (2, 3, 6, 5).

(b). Write KCL connection equations for the circuit.

Node A −i2 − i3 − i4 = 0
Node B −i1 + i3 − i6 = 0
Node C i1 + i2 + i5 = 0
Node D i4 − i5 + i6 = 0
(c). If i1 = −20 mA, i2 = −12 mA, and i3 = 50 mA, find i4 , i5 , and i6 .

Using the KCL equation at node A, we can solve for i4 = −i2 − i3 = 12 − 50 = −38 mA. Using the
KCL equation are node C, we can solve for i5 = −i1 − i2 = 20 + 12 = 32 mA. Using the KCL equation
at node D, we can solve for i6 = i5 − i4 = 32 + 38 = 70 mA.
(d). Show that the circuit in Figure P2–20 is identical to that in Figure P2–17.
The circuits have the same nodes, connections, and current directions, so they must be equivalent.
Problem 2–21. In Figure P2–21 v2 = 10 V, v4 = 5 V, and v5 = 15 V. Find v1 , v3 , and v6 .
The KVL equations for the circuit are
Loop 1 2 3 −v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
Loop 3 4 5 −v3 + v4 + v5 = 0
Loop 2 6 4 −v2 + v6 − v4 = 0
Using the second loop equation, we can solve for v3 = v4 + v5 = 5 + 15 = 20 V. Using the first loop
equation, we can solve for v1 = v2 + v3 = 10 + 20 = 30 V. Finally, using the third loop equation, we can
solve for v6 = v2 + v4 = 10 + 5 = 15 V.
Problem 2–22. In Figure P2–22 i1 = 25 mA, i2 = 10 mA, and i3 = −15 mA. Find i4 and i5 .
The KCL equations for the circuit are
Node A i1 − i 2 + i 3 − i 4 = 0
Node B −i1 + i2 − i5 = 0
Node C −i3 + i4 + i5 = 0
Using the first node equation, we can solve for i4 = i1 − i2 + i3 = 25 − 10 − 15 = 0 mA. Using the second
node equation, we can solve for i5 = −i1 + i2 = −25 + 10 = −15 mA.
Problem 2–23.
(a). Use the passive sign convention to assign voltage variables consistent with the currents in Figure P2–22.
Write three KVL connection equations using these voltage variables.
Figure P2–23 shows the original Figure P–22 with the voltages labeled following the passive sign
convention. The KVL equations for the circuit are
Loop 1 2 v1 + v2 = 0
Loop 2 4 5 −v2 + v4 − v5 = 0
Loop 3 4 v3 + v4 = 0

Figure P2–23
(b). If v4 = 0 V, what can be said about the voltages across all the other elements?
If v4 = 0 V, then the third loop equation indicates that v3 = 0 V. Applying these voltages to the other
two loop equations, we have v1 = −v2 and v2 = −v5 .
Problem 2–24. The KCL equations for a three-node circuit are:
Node A −i1 + i2 − i4 = 0
Node B −i2 − i3 + i5 = 0
Node C i1 + i 3 + i 4 − i5 = 0
Draw the circuit diagram and indicate the reference directions for the element currents.
There are many equivalent diagrams to solve this problem. One possible solution is shown in Figure P2–
24.
Problem 2–25. Find vx and ix in Figure P2–25.

The current ix points in the opposite direction as the 500-µA current source, so ix = −500 µA. Using
Ohm’s law, we have vx = Rix = (68 × 103 )(−500 × 10−6 ) = −34 V.

The circuit has a single current, ix , which flows clockwise. Label the 22-kΩ resistor as R1 with voltage
drop v1 following the passive sign convention (positive on left and negative on right). The KVL equation for

Figure P2–24
the circuit combined with Ohm’s law provides the solution.
−18 + v1 + vx = 0
v1 + vx = 18
R 1 ix + R x ix = 18
(22 × 103 )ix + (68 × 103 )ix = 18
(90 × 103 )ix = 18
ix = 200 µA
vx = (68 × 103 )ix = 13.6 V
Problem 2–27. Find vx and ix in Figure P2–27. Compare the results of your answers with those in Problem
2–26. What effect did adding the 33-kΩ resistor have on the overall circuit? Why isn’t iy zero?
Label the 22-kΩ resistor as R1 with voltage drop v1 following the passive sign convention (positive on
left and negative on right). Label the 33-kΩ resistor with voltage vy following the passive sign convention
(positive on top and negative on bottom). Label the source current as iS following the passive sign convention
(flowing into the positive terminal of the voltage source). The KVL equations for the circuit are:
−18 + vy = 0
−vy + v1 + vx = 0
The KCL equation for the circuit is
−iS − ix − iy = 0
Solving the first KVL equation, we have vy = 18 V. Substituting this result into the second KVL equation,

we get v1 + vx = 18. Current ix flows through both R1 and Rx , so we can solve as follows:
v1 + vx = 18
R 1 ix + R x ix = 18
(22 × 103 )ix + (68 × 103 )ix = 18
(90 × 103 )ix = 18
ix = 200 µA
vx = (68 × 103 )ix = 13.6 V
These results for vx and ix match those in Problem 2–26. We can also find iy using Ohm’s law, iy = vy /Ry =
(18)/(33 × 103 ) = 545.5 µA. Applying the KCL equation, we get iS = −ix − iy = −200 − 545.5 = −745.5
µA. Adding the 33-kΩ resistor increased the amount of current flowing from the source. The current iy is
not zero because there is a voltage across the 33-kΩ resistor.
Problem 2–28. A modeler wants to light his model building using miniature grain-of-wheat light bulbs
connected in parallel as shown in Figure P2–28. He uses two 1.5-V “C-cells” to power his lights. He wants
to use as many lights as possible, but wants to limit his current drain to 500 µA to preserve the batteries.
If each light has a resistance of 36 kΩ, how many lights can he install and still be under his current limit?
The two 1.5-V batteries are connected in series to provide a total of 3 V to the circuit. Since the light
bulbs are connected in parallel, the entire 3 V appears across each one. Using Ohm’s law, the current through
each bulb is i = v/R = 3/(36 × 103 ) = 83.3 µA. The design requires the batteries to provide no more the
500 µA, so we can connect up to 500/83.3 = 6 bulbs in parallel across the batteries.

In the circuit, 0.5 A flows through the 10-Ω resistor in the center. The voltage drop across this resistor
is v = Ri = (10)(0.5) = 5 V. The 10-Ω resistor is connected in parallel to the 5-Ω resistor, so they have the
same voltage drop. The associated KVL equation verifies this fact. With 5 V across the 5-Ω resistor, the
current is ix = v/R = 5/5 = 1 A. KCL at the top node requires that the current entering the node equal
the current leaving the node. Since we have 0.5 + 1.0 = 1.5 A leaving the node, 1.5 A must enter the node
through the 4 Ω resistor. The voltage drop across the 4 Ω resistor is v = Ri = (4)(1.5) = 6 V. We can now
write a KVL equation around the first loop to get −vx + 6 + 5 = 0, which implies vx = 11 V.
Problem 2–30. In Figure P2–30:
(a). Assign a voltage and current variable to every element.

Figure P2–30 shows the voltage and current labels following the passive sign convention.
(b). Use KVL to find the voltage across each resistor.

−vS1 + v1 + vS3 = 0
−vS1 + v2 − vS2 = 0
vS2 + v3 + vS3 = 0
Solving the first equation, we have v1 = vS1 − vS3 = 10 − 15 = −5 V. Solving the second equation, we
have v2 = vS1 + vS2 = 10 + 5 = 15 V. Solving the third equation, we have v3 = −vS2 − vS3 = −5 − 15 =
−20 V.
(c). Use Ohm’s law to find the current through each resistor.

Figure P2–30
Applying i = v/R to each resistor, we have

v1 −5
i1 = = = −25 mA
R1 200
v2 15
i2 = = = 75 mA
R2 200
v3 −20
i3 = = = −100 mA
R3 200
(d). Use KCL to find the current through each voltage source.
−i1 − i2 − iS1 = 0
i2 − i3 + iS2 = 0
i1 + i3 − iS3 = 0
Solving the first equation, we have iS1 = −i1 − i2 = 25 − 75 = −50 mA. Solving the second equation,
we have iS2 = i3 − i2 = −100 − 75 = −175 mA. Solving the third equation, we have iS3 = i1 + i3 =
−25 − 100 = −125 mA.

Problem 2–31. Find the power provided by the source in Figure P2–31.
Figure P2–31 shows the voltage and current labels following the passive sign convention. The KCL
Figure P2–31
equations are
iS − i1 − i2 = 0
i2 − i3 = 0
vS + v1 = 0
−v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
The current source requires iS = 5 mA. The first KCL equation implies i1 = 5 mA − i2 and the second
implies i2 = i3 . Using Ohm’s law and substituting these equations into the second KVL equation, we can
solve for the source power as follows:
v1 = v2 + v3
R 1 i1 = R 2 i2 + R 3 i3
R1 (0.005 − i2 ) = R 2 i2 + R 3 i2
1000(0.005 − i2 ) = 500i2 + 1500i2
5 − 1000i2 = 2000i2
3000i2 = 5
i2 = 1.667 mA
i3 = i2 = 1.667 mA
i1 = 5 − i2 = 5 − 1.667 = 3.333 mA
vS = −v1 = −R1 i1 = −(1000)(0.003333) = −3.333 V
pS = v S iS = (−3.333)(0.005) = −16.667 mW
Problem 2–32. Figure P2–32 shows a subcircuit connected to the rest of the circuit at four points.

(a). Use element and connection constraints to find vx and ix .

Label the 5-kΩ resistor as R1 with the current flowing from left to right. Label the 2-kΩ resistor as R2
with the positive sign at the bottom. Using Ohm’s law, we can compute i1 = v1 /R1 = 20/5000 = 4 mA.
The KCL equation at the center node is 4 mA + i1 − i2 − ix = 0. Substituting in the known values, we
can solve for ix as ix = 4+i1 −i2 = 4+4−6 = 2 mA. Using Ohm’s law vx = Rx ix = (8000)(0.002) = 16
V.
(b). Show that the sum of the currents into the rest of the circuit is zero.
The sum of the currents entering the rest of the circuit is −i1 + i2 − 4 + ix = −4 + 6 − 4 + 2 = 0 mA.
(c). Find the voltage vA with respect to the ground in the circuit.
From the ground to vA there are three voltages. First, there is an increase across the voltage source
of 12 V. Next, there is an increase across Rx of 16 V. Finally, there is a decrease across R2 of v2 =
R2 i2 = (2000)(0.006) = 12 V. Therefore, vA = 12 + 16 − 12 = 16 V.
Problem 2–33. In Figure P2–33, ix = 0.5 mA. Find the value of R.

Label the left 10-kΩ resistor as Rx , with voltage vx . Label the unknown resistor as R1 , with current i1
flowing down. Label the right 10-kΩ resistor as R2 with the current flowing right to left. Apply the passive
sign convention to label the voltages. Use Ohm’s law to solve for vx = Rx ix = (10000)(0.0005) = 5 V. Write
the KVL equation for the left side as −4 − vx + v1 = 0 and solve for v1 as v1 = 4 + vx = 4 + 5 = 9 V. Write
the KVL equation for the right side as −v1 − v2 + 15 = 0 and solve for v2 as v2 = 15 − v1 = 15 − 9 = 6 V.
Use Ohm’s law to solve for i2 = v2 /R2 = 6/10000 = 0.6 mA. Write the KCL equation for the center
node as −i1 + i2 − ix = 0 and solve for i1 as i1 = i2 − ix = 0.6 − 0.5 = 0.1 mA. Use Ohm’s law to find
R1 = v1 /i1 = 9/(0.0001) = 90 kΩ.
Problem 2–34. Figure P2–34 shows a resistor with one terminal connected to ground and the other
connected to an arrow. The arrow symbol is used to indicate a connection to one terminal of a voltage
source whose other terminal is connected to ground. The label next to the arrow indicates the source voltage
at the ungrounded terminal. Find the voltage across, current through, and power dissipated in the resistor.
The voltage across the resistor is the voltage on the left side minus the voltage on the right side. Therefore,
vx = 0 − (−12) = 0 + 12 = 12 V. Use Ohm’s law to find ix = vx /Rx = 12/(39 × 103 ) = 307.692 µA. The
power dissipated by the resistor is px = vx ix = (12)(307.692 × 10−6 ) = 3.6923 mW.
Problem 2–35. Find the equivalent resistance REQ in Figure P2–35.

The 10-Ω resistor and the 30-Ω resistor are in parallel. That combination is in series with the 7.5-Ω
resistor. We can calculate the equivalent resistance as follows:
1 (30)(10)
REQ = 7.5 + (30 k 10) = 7.5 + = 7.5 + = 7.5 + 7.5 = 15 Ω
1 1 30 + 10
+
30 10
Combine the 33-kΩ and 47-kΩ resistors in series to get an equivalent resistance of 33+47 = 80 kΩ. The 80-
kΩ resistance is in parallel with the 100-kΩ resistor, which yields an equivalent resistance of 100 k 80 = 44.4
kΩ. That resistance is in series with the 68-kΩ resistor, which yields REQ = 68 + 44.4 = 112.4 kΩ.

Working from the right to the left, combine the 10-kΩ resistor in parallel with the 15-kΩ resistor to get an
equivalent resistance of 6 kΩ. That resistance is in series with the 33-kΩ resistor, which yields an equivalent
resistance of 39 kΩ. Finally, combine the 39-kΩ resistance in parallel with the 56-kΩ resistor to get REQ =
22.99 kΩ.
Problem 2–38. Equivalent resistance is defined at a particular pair of terminals. In the following figure
the same circuit is looked at from two different terminal pairs. Find the equivalent resistances REQ1 and
REQ2 in Figure P2–38. Note that in calculating REQ2 the 33-kΩ resistor is connected to an open circuit and
therefore doesn’t affect the calculation.

For REQ1 , ignore the two terminals on the right and collapse the circuit from right to left. The 10-kΩ
and the two 22-kΩ resistors are in series; that result is in parallel with the 56-kΩ resistor; and that result is
in series with the 33-kΩresistor. We can calculate the equivalent resistance as follows:
REQ1 = 33 + [56 k (10 + 22 + 22)] = 33 + [56 k 54] = 33 + 27.49 = 60.49 kΩ
For REQ2 , ignore the two terminals on the left and the 33-kΩ resistor. Collapse the circuit from left to
right. The 10, 56, and lower 22-kΩ resistors are in series and that result is in parallel with the right 22-kΩ
resistor. We can calculate the equivalent resistance as follows:
REQ2 = [(10 + 56 + 22) k 22] = [88 k 22] = 17.6 kΩ
Problem 2–39. Find REQ in Figure P2–39 when the switch is open. Repeat when the switch is closed.
When the switch is open, the two 100-Ω resistors are in parallel and that result is in series with the two
50-Ω resistors. We can calculate REQ = 50 + (100 k 100) + 50 = 50 + 50 + 50 = 150 Ω. With the switch
closed, the wire shorts out the two 100-Ω resistors, so they do not contribute to the equivalent resistance.
The results is that the two 50-Ω resistors are in series, so REQ = 50 + 50 = 100 Ω.
Problem 2–40. Find REQ between nodes A and B for each of the circuits in Figure P2–40. What conclusion
can you draw about resistors of the same value connected in parallel?
We can calculate the equivalent resistance for Circuit (a) as follows:
1 R R
REQ = = =
1 1 1 1+1+1 3
+ +
R R R
For Circuit (b), we have:
1 R R
REQ = = =
1 1 1 1 1 1+1+1+1+1 5
+ + + +
R R R R R
In general, for Circuit (c), we have:
1 R R
REQ = = =
1 1 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 + ··· + 1 n
+ + + ··· +
R R R R
We can conclude that for identical resistors connected in the parallel, the equivalent resistance is the value
of one resistor divided by the number of resistors.
Problem 2–41. Show how the circuit in Figure P2–41 could be connected to achieve a resistance of 100 Ω,
200 Ω, 150 Ω, 50 Ω, 25 Ω, 33.3 Ω, and 133.3 Ω.
For 100 Ω, we need a single 100-Ω resistor, which is a connection between terminals A and D. For 200
Ω, we need two 100-Ω resistors in series, which is a connection between terminals A and B. For 150 Ω, we
need a 100-Ω resistor in series with a 50-Ω resistor, which is a connection between terminals A and C. For
50 Ω, we need a single 50-Ω resistor, which is a connection between terminals C and D. We can get 25 Ω by
connecting the two 100-Ω resistors in parallel, which yields 50 Ω, and then connecting that result in parallel
with the 50-Ω resistor, to get 25 Ω. The required combination is to connect the A, B, and C terminals
together on one side and have the D terminal on the other. For 33.3 Ω, connect the 100 and 50-Ω resistors
in parallel, which requires B and C to be connected on one side and the D terminal on the other. Finally, to
get 133.3 Ω, connect a 100-Ω resistor in series with a parallel combination of a 100 and a 50-Ω resistor. This
requires a connection to the A terminal on one side and the B and C terminals connected on the other. The
following table summarizes the results.
Resistance (Ω) Terminal 1 Terminal 2
100 A D
200 A B
150 A C
50 C D
25 A+B+C D
33.3 B+C D
133.3 A B+C

Problem 2–42. In Figure P2–42 find the equivalent resistance between terminals A-B, A-C, A-D, B-C,
B-D, and C-D.
For A-B, ignore the 20-Ω resistor and the 10-Ω resistor connected to terminal D. We then have
RAB = [100 k (60 + 40)] + 30 = [100 k 100] + 30 = 50 + 30 = 80 Ω
For A-C, ignore the 30-Ω resistor and the 10-Ω resistor connected to terminal D. We then have
RAC = [60 k (100 + 40)] + 20 = [60 k 140] + 20 = 42 + 20 = 62 Ω
For A-D, ignore the 30-Ω resistor and the 20-Ω resistor. We then have
RAD == [60 k (100 + 40)] + 10 = [60 k 140] + 10 = 42 + 10 = 52 Ω
For B-C, ignore the A terminal and the 10-Ω resistor. We then have
RBC = 30 + [40 k (100 + 60)] + 20 = 30 + [40 k 160] + 20 = 30 + 32 + 20 = 82 Ω
For B-D, ignore the A terminal and the 20-Ω resistor. We then have
RBD = 30 + [40 k (100 + 60)] + 10 = 30 + [40 k 160] + 10 = 30 + 32 + 10 = 72 Ω
For C-D, ignore the A terminal and the 30-Ω resistor. In the center of the circuit, the wire shorts out the
60, 100, and 40-Ω resistors, so we then have
RCD = 20 + 0 + 10 = 30 Ω
Problem 2–43. In Figure P2–43 find the equivalent resistance between terminals A-B, A-C, A-D, B-C,
B-D, and C-D.
For RAB , only the 33-kΩ resistor is active, so RAB = 33 kΩ. Similarly for RAC , only the 33-kΩ resistor
is active, so RAC = 33 kΩ. For RAD , the two 100-kΩ resistors are in parallel and that result is in series with
the 33-kΩ resistor, so RAD = 33 + (100 k 100) = 33 + 50 = 83 kΩ. For RBC , there is a path between the two
terminals with no resistors, so RBC = 0 Ω. For RBD , ignore the 33-kΩ resistor, and the two 100-kΩ resistors
are in parallel to give RBD = 100 k 100 = 50 kΩ. Similarly for RCD , ignore the 33-kΩ resistor, and the two
100-kΩ resistors are in parallel to give RCD = 100 k 100 = 50 kΩ.
Problem 2–44. Select a value of RL in Figure P2–44 so that REQ = 6 kΩ. Repeat for REQ = 5 kΩ.
Create an expression for REQ in terms of RL and then solve for RL . Use the new expression to find the
appropriate values for RL for the given values of REQ. All resistance are in kilohms.
10(10 + RL ) 100 + 10RL
REQ = 10 k (10 + RL ) = =
10 + 10 + RL 20 + RL
REQ (20 + RL ) = 100 + 10RL
20REQ + REQ RL = 100 + 10RL
REQ RL − 10RL = 100 − 20REQ
(REQ − 10)RL = 100 − 20REQ
100 − 20REQ
RL =
REQ − 10
For REQ = 6 kΩ, we have
100 − (20)(6) −20
RL = = = 5 kΩ
6 − 10 −4
100 − (20)(5) 0
RL = = = 0 kΩ
5 − 10 −5

Problem 2–45. Using no more than four 1-kΩ resistors, show how the following equivalent resistors can be
constructed: 2 kΩ, 500 Ω, 1.5 kΩ, 333 Ω, 250 Ω, and 400 Ω.
The following table presents the solutions.
REQ (Ω) Combination of 1-kΩ Resistors

2000 Two resistors in series: R + R
500 Two resistors in parallel: R k R
1500 One resistor in series with a parallel combination of two resistors: R + (R k R)
333 Three resistors in parallel: R k R k R
250 Four resistors in parallel: R k R k R k R
400 Two resistors in series in parallel with two resistors in parallel: (R + R) k R k R
Problem 2–46. Do a source transformation at terminals A and B for each practical source in Figure P2–46.
(a). After the transformation, we will have a voltage source in series with a resistor. The resistance will
not change, so R = 100 Ω. Apply vS = iS R to find the voltage source vS = (0.005)(100) = 500 mV.
Figure P2–46 (a) shows the results.
(b). After the transformation, we will have a current source in parallel with a resistor. The resistance
will not change, so R = 5 kΩ. Apply iS = vS /R to find the current source iS = 5/5000 = 1 mA.
Figure P2–46 (b) shows the results.
(a) (b)
Figure P2–46
Problem 2–47. Find the equivalent practical voltage source at terminals A and B in Figure P2–47.
A current source in series with a resistor is equivalent to just the current source, so we can remove the
5-Ω resistor without affecting the performance of the circuit between terminals A and B. That leaves a 5-A
current source in parallel with a 10-Ω resistor. The current source and parallel resistor can be converted
into a voltage source in series with the same resistor. The value for the voltage source follows Ohm’s Law,
so vS = iS R = (5)(10) = 50 V. Figure P2–47 shows the resulting circuit.
Figure P2–47

Problem 2–48. In Figure P2–48, the i-v characteristic of network N is v + 50i = 5 V. Find the equivalent
practical current source for the network.
When the circuit is open between nodes A and B, there is no current, i = 0 A, and the voltage must
be v = 5 V in order to satisfy the i-v characteristic. When a short is placed between nodes A and B,
the voltage is zero, v = 0 V, and the current is i = 100 mA in order to satisfy the i-v characteristic.
The corresponding practical current source will have a current iS = 100 mA and a parallel resistance
R = vS /iS = (5)/(0.1) = 50 Ω.
Problem 2–49. Select the value of Rx in Figure P2–49 so that REQ = 75 kΩ.
Combining the resistors from right to left, we can find the following expression for REQ , where all
resistances are in kΩ.
REQ = 15 + 47 + [22 k (Rx + 10)]

22(Rx + 10) 22Rx + 220
REQ = 62 + = 62 +
22 + Rx + 10 32 + Rx
(32 + Rx )REQ = (32 + Rx )62 + 22Rx + 220 = 2204 + 84Rx
32REQ + REQ Rx = 2204 + 84Rx
(84 − REQ )Rx = 32REQ − 2204
32REQ − 2204
Rx =
84 − REQ

(32)(75) − 2204 196
Rx = = = 21.78 kΩ
84 − 75 9
Problem 2–50. Two 10-kΩ potentiometers (a variable resistor whose value between the two ends is 10 kΩ
and between one end and the wiper—the third terminal—can range from 0 Ω to 10 kΩ) are connected as
shown in Figure P2–50. What is the range of REQ ?
At the limits of their settings, the two poteniometers are either in series or parallel. These represent
the maximum and minimum equivalent resistances that the combination can take. When the poteniometers
are arranged in parallel, the equivalent resistance is REQ = 10 k 10 = 5 kΩ. When the poteniometers are
arranged in series, the equivalent resistance is REQ = 10 + 10 = 20 kΩ. The equivalent resistance ranges
between 5 and 20 kΩ.
Problem 2–51. Select the value of R in Figure P2–51 so that RAB = RL .

Find an expression for RAB in terms of R and RL . Set RAB equal to RL . Solve for R in terms of RL and
choose the positive solution for the resistance.
4R(R + RL )
RAB = R + [4R k (R + RL )] = R +
5R + RL
(5R + RL )RAB = (5R + RL )R + 4R2 + 4RRL
(5R + RL )RL = 5R2 + RRL + 4R2 + 4RRL
5RRL + RL2 = 9R2 + 5RRL
RL2
R2 =
9
RL
R =
3

Problem 2–52. What is the range of REQ in Figure P2–52?

The poteniometer can range from 0 Ω to 10 kΩ and it is in parallel with a 10-kΩ resistor. That parallel
combination is in series with a 5.6-kΩ resistor. When the poteniometer has a value of 0 Ω, it shorts out the
10-kΩ resistor, so only the 5.6-kΩ resistor is active and REQ = 5.6 kΩ. When the poteniometer has a value
of 10 kΩ, the parallel combination is 10 k 10 = 5 kΩ. That result is in series with the 5.6-kΩ resistor, so we
have REQ = 5.6 + 5 = 10.6 kΩ. REQ varies between 5.6 and 10.6 kΩ.
Problem 2–53. Find the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B in Figure P2–53.
Place a voltage source, vS, between terminals A and B and redraw the circuit as the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure P2–53. The figure is labeled with currents through and voltages across each of the resistors.
Figure P2–53
Using KVL, we can show that the voltage drop across each resistor is vS and it appears in the direction labeled
in the figure. Since the resistors are all equal, the current through each resistor is vS /R. Applying KCL at
the node above the voltage source, we have −iS − vS /R − vS /R − vS /R = 0, which implies iS = −3vS /R.
The equivalent resistance is the ratio of vS to the current flowing into the circuit, which −iS . Therefore, we
have
vS vS R
REQ = = =
−iS 3v S 3
R
Problem 2–54. Use voltage division in Figure P2–54 to find vx .

Apply the equation for voltage division to get

4
vx = (12) = 3.4286 V
2+8+4
Problem 2–55. Use voltage division in Figure P2–55 to obtain an expression for vL in terms of R, RL , and
vS.
The two right resistors are in parallel and the voltage vL appears across that combination. Combine the
parallel resistors and then use voltage division to develop the expression for vL .
RRL
REQ = R k RL =
R + RL
 
RRL
REQ  R + RL  RRL
vL = vS =  v = vS
R + REQ  RRL  S R2 + RRL + RRL
R+
R + RL
RL v S
vL =
R + 2RL
Problem 2–56. Use current division in Figure P2–56 to find ix and vx .

Combine the 500-Ω and the 1.5-kΩ resistors in series to get an equivalent resistance of 2 kΩ. Now apply
current division as follows:
1
 

2 1
ix = (3) = (3) = 1.5 A
 
1 1 2
+
2 2
vx = (1500)(1.5) = 2250 V = 2.25 kV
Problem 2–57. Use current division in Figure P2–57 to find an expression for vL in terms of R, RL , and
iS .
Combine the two right resistors in series to get an equivalent resistance REQ = R + RL . Apply the
two-path current division rule to solve for the current through RL .
R R R
iL = (iS ) = (iS ) = (iS )
R + REQ R + R + RL 2R + RL
Apply Ohm’s law to solve for the voltage vL
RRL iS
v L = R L iL =
2R + RL
Problem 2–58. Find ix , iy , and iz in Figure P2–58.

Combine the 20-Ω and 5-Ω resistors in parallel to get an equivalent resistance of 4 Ω. Combine that
result with the 6-Ω resistor in series to get a total equivalent resistance of 10 Ω in the right branch. Apply
the two-path current division rule to solve for ix and iz .
10
ix = (200) = 80 mA
15 + 10
15
iz = (200) = 120 mA
15 + 10
Apply the two-path current division rule again to solve for iy by dividing iz
20
iy = (120) = 96 mA
20 + 5
Problem 2–59. Find vO in the circuit of Figure P2–59.

The circuit can be treated as a voltage source in series with three resistors, so voltage division applies.
The output voltage, vO , appears across 75% of the 5-kΩ poteniometer or, equivalently, 3.75 kΩ. The 5-kΩ
resistor and the remaining 25% of the potentiometer, or 1.25 kΩ, are the other two resistors in the circuit.
Compute vO directly as follows:
3.75 3.75
vO = (5) = (5) = 1.875 V
5 + 1.25 + 3.75 10
Problem 2–60. (A) The 1-kΩ load in Figure P2–60 needs 5 V across it to operate correctly. Where should
the wiper on the potentiometer be set (RX ) to obtain the desired output voltage?
Figure P2–60 shows an equivalent circuit with the poteniometer split into its two equivalent components.
To solve the problem, find an equivalent resistance for the parallel combination of resistors and then apply

Figure P2–60
voltage division to find an expression for Rx . Solve for Rx and select the positive result.
1000Rx
REQ = Rx k 1000 =
1000 + Rx
REQ
5V = (24 V)
5000 − Rx + REQ
 
1000Rx
 1000 + Rx  24000Rx
5 =   (24) =
 1000Rx  (5000 − Rx )(1000 + Rx ) + 1000Rx
5000 − Rx +
1000 + Rx
4800Rx
1 =
5 × 106 + 4000Rx − Rx2 + 1000Rx
−Rx2 + 5000Rx + 5 × 106 = 4800Rx
Rx2 − 200Rx − 5 × 106 = 0
Rx = −2138 or 2338 Ω
Rx = 2.338 kΩ
Problem 2–61. Find the range of values of vO in Figure P2–61.

If we combine the right resistor with the poteniometer in parallel, we can use voltage division to solve
for vO . The poteniometer takes on values from 0 Ω to 1.5 kΩ. When the poteniometer is 0 Ω, the output
is shorted out and the voltage is vO = 0 V. When the poteniometer is 1.5 kΩ, the parallel combination is
1500 k 1500 = 750 Ω. The output voltage is therefore
750
vO = (50) = 21.4286 V
1000 + 750
Problem 2–62. Use current division in the circuit of Figure P2–62 to find RX so that the voltage out is
3 V.
If the output voltage is 3 V, then the current flowing through the right branch in the circuit is ix =
v/R = 3/10 = 300 mA. Note that Rx is in series with the right 10 Ω resistor. Apply the two-path current

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suprema. Moisés bajando del Sinaí no apareció seguramente más
terrible que el señor Abarca cuando, mostrando el decreto-codicilo
exclamó:
—Señores, óiganme.
Oyeron leer con atención profunda, y poco faltó para que algunos
se prosternaran, quién por servilismo mezclado de entusiasmo, quién
por ese especial instinto a lo Nabucodonosor que algunos entes
civilizados no pueden ocultar aunque vistan casaca bordada. Toda la
corte de don Carlos estaba allí, menos don Carlos, el candidato divino
que a tal hora se hallaba en su oratorio con la frente humillada y e
corazón oprimido, pidiendo a Dios que no quitara la vida a su
hermano.
XXXIV
Al llegar aquí, el narrador no puede contener su asombro ante e

peregrino suceso que va a referir, y deteniendo su relato, exclama: ¡Oh
admirables designios de la Providencia! ¡Oh vanidad de los cálculos
humanos! ¡Oh peligro de jugar con las cosas del cielo, eslabonándolas
con los apetitos o intereses de un bando político! De este modo e
ánimo del lector queda perfectamente dispuesto para saber que Dios
Todopoderoso, estimando sin duda más a don Carlos que a su partido
atendió al ruego que con amor fraternal y piedad cristiana le dirigió
aquel; y así dispuso que Fernando, ya casi muerto, tornase a la vida
dando al traste con las esperanzas de lo que el obispo de León
llamaba el partido del Altísimo. De este modo el Padre de todas las
cosas abandonaba a su grey en lo mejor de la pelea, seguido de la
Generalísima, a quien también pidió muy ardientemente don Carlos la
vida de su hermano. Hasta con su cristiandad se perjudicaba a s
mismo don Carlos como jefe visible del partido absolutista-religioso, y
si le dejaran rezar mucho, es fácil que los furibundos apostólicos
perdieran todas las batallas cortesanas y marciales que en lo futuro
habían de dar.
Fernando se aletargó por la noche. Todos le creyeron muerto; la
tremenda noticia circuló por el Real Sitio, llegó hasta Madrid, y aun fue
transmitida a las cortes europeas. Pero a la mañana siguiente, de
aquel cadáver volvieron a salir quejas y suspiros, se reanimó con
oportunas sustancias y medicinas, y en Palacio y en los jardines no se
decía sino el rey vive, el rey vive, frase de consternación para algunos
de esperanzas para los menos. Muchas caras variaron bruscamente, y
Cristina vio sonreír a los que el día anterior estaban cejijuntos y tenían
en su rostro protervo el indefinible airecillo de la defección. ¡Y el seño
obispo, que la tarde del 18 salió a los jardines diciendo en voz alta en
un corro de amigos: «Ya no volverán a levantar la cabeza los
liberales...»! ¡Y el gracioso padre Carranza, que aquella noche había
prometido solemnemente a sus allegados más de cuarenta canonjías y
beneficios simples!
En todo el día 19 fueron llegando al Real Sitio muchos jóvenes de la
aristocracia y militares de todas graduaciones, que iban a ponerse a
las órdenes de la reina Cristina. Con estas adquisiciones hechas po
un partido que se creía muerto, iban rápidamente abatiéndose los
ánimos de los apostólicos, y no se sabe qué cantidad fabulosa de
tazas de tila tuvieron que tomar doña Francisca y su hermana para
poner a raya sus desconcertados nervios. ¡Dios y la Generalísima
ayudaban a la napolitana!
Con la irrupción de personajes civiles y militares en el Real Sitio, las
habitaciones escasearon en tales términos, que Pipaón tuvo que roga
a don Benigno le dejase libre el cuarto que ocupaba en la casa de
Pajes, lo que no sintió mucho el héroe, porque estaba hasta la corona
de cortesanos, obispos y palaciegos.
—Lo siento mucho —dijo don Juan al despedirle—. Pero ya ve
usted, media España ha venido aquí a ponerse a las órdenes de la
reina... ¡Es un ángel esa señora! Aunque no lo parezca, sepa usted
que yo la admiro. Dicen que será nombrada regente... y no me pesa
no me pesa...
Cuando iba Cordero por el jardín acompañado de un chico que le
llevaba la maleta, encontró a Salvador, el cual se empeñó en comparti
con él su alojamiento, aunque estrecho, suficiente para los dos. Dio mi
excusas don Benigno, que en aquel momento sintió más vivo que
nunca el misterioso recelo que su amigo le inspiraba; pero al fin no
tuvo más remedio que aceptar, so pena de tener que dormir en la calle
o en un banco de los jardines.
—No hay que pensar ahora —le dijo Monsalud con cariño— en que
esos señores firmen. Ninguno de ellos, en estos días, sabe dónde
tiene la mano derecha. Esperando a ver en qué para esto, viviremos
juntos, nos contaremos nuestras desdichas y nos consolaremos
mutuamente.
Al día siguiente cobró Fernando algunas fuerzas, y serenándose su
mente empezó a comprender la infame sorpresa de que había sido
víctima. No obstante, todavía los reyes legítimos estaban en Palacio
como cohibidos por la gente apostólica, cuyo poder era grande aún, a
pesar de la situación desfavorable en que se encontraban
Esperábales todavía el golpe de gracia, que había de darles muerte en
la esfera cortesana, cerrándoles todo camino que no fuera el de la
guerra. En la madrugada del 22 llegó a San Ildefonso la infanta
Carlota, esposa del infante don Francisco y hermana de Cristina, muje
resuelta, varonil, desparpajada, libre y francota de palabras, alta
airosa y algo manolesca de figura, valerosa hasta lo sumo, y tan
ardiente de genio que, según pública opinión, trataba despóticamente
cuando el caso lo requería, a las personas ligadas a ella por e
parentesco más íntimo. Odiaba con toda su alma a las dos princesas
brasileñas, doña Francisca y la de Beira, y este aborrecimiento podrá
explicar mejor que ninguna razón política la guerra que había
declarado a los apostólicos. ¡Formidable influencia de la mujer en e
destino de los pueblos! Los hombres, pensando, plantean las teorías y
los sistemas, crean los partidos; las mujeres, amando o aborreciendo
determinan la acción. Comparando la historia con un drama, el hombre
es el histrión y la mujer el autor. No ha existido ningún gran suceso
político que no haya venido a la historia impulsado por manos
femeninas, y esa académica nave del Estado de que tanto hablan los
tratados políticos, no navegaría las más de las veces si no tiraran de
ella las voladoras palomitas de Venus.
Doña Carlota entró en Palacio hablando a gritos, tratando con
modales bruscos a todo el mundo, gentilhombres y damas; presentose
a su hermana, y después de abrazarla la llamó tonta unas veinte
veces. El testigo presencial de estas escenas, que ya no eran de
tragedia ni de drama, sino de opereta, cuenta que como Cristina y
Carlota hablaban acaloradamente en italiano, no era posible a los
presentes entender bien lo que decían; solo comprendían algunas
palabras, como sciocca, pazza, regina de gallería... sceleratezza..
Después la infanta descansó un momento, y a hora avanzada de la
mañana anunció que recibiría a los ministros y demás personajes que
quisieran cumplimentarla. Cuando Calomarde y el conde de la Alcudia
entraron, doña Carlota afectó serenidad y preguntó al ministro de
Gracia y Justicia la razón de haber revelado el secreto del codicilo
contra lo dispuesto por Su Majestad. Tembloroso y cortado, don Tadeo
se excusó con el letargo del rey, que parecía muerto.
—Su Majestad —dijo doña Carlota disimulando su ira— quiere
recoger el original del codicilo, y me encarga decir a usted que lo
presente ahora mismo.
El ministro se inclinó, saliendo en busca de lo que se le pedía. Entre
tanto, los que no se habían manifestado muy claramente partidarios
del infante, se reunían en la cámara. En pie y moviéndose sin cesar de
un lado para otro, altiva, nerviosa, respirando fuerte, doña Carlota
parecía que imaginaba crueldades y violencias impropias de mujer y
de princesa. Los circunstantes no le dijeron nada, y Cristina misma
con ojos encendidos de tanto llorar, el seno palpitante, enmudecía ante
la arrogantísima actitud de aquella nueva Semíramis.
Cuando Calomarde entregó a la infanta el manuscrito que tantos
desvelos y fingimiento había costado a los apostólicos, Carlota no se
tomó el trabajo de leerlo y lo rasgó con furia en multitud de pedazos
Con el mismo desprecio y enojo con que arrojó al suelo los trozos de
papel, echó sobre la persona del ministro estas duras palabras, que no
suelen oírse en boca de príncipes:
—Vea usted en lo que paran sus infamias. Usted ha engañado
usted ha sorprendido a Su Majestad abusando de su estado
moribundo; usted, al emplear tales medios para esta traición, ha
obrado en conformidad con su carácter de siempre, que es la bajeza
la doblez, la hipocresía.
Rojo como una amapola, si es permitido comparar el rubor de un
ministro a la hermosura de una flor campesina, Calomarde bajó los
ojos. Aquella furibunda y no vista humillación del tiranuelo era e
contrapeso de sus nueve años de insolente poder. En su cobardía
quiso humillarse más, y balbució algunas palabras.
—Señora..., yo...
—Todavía —exclamó la Semíramis borbónica en la exaltación de su
ira—, todavía se atreve usted a defenderse, y a insultarnos con su
presencia y con sus palabras. Salga usted inmediatamente.
Ciega de furor, dejándose arrebatar de sus ímpetus de coraje, la
infanta dio algunos pasos hacia Su Excelencia, alzó el membrudo
brazo, disparó la mano carnosa... ¡Plaf! Sobre los mofletes del ministro
resonó la más soberana bofetada que se ha dado jamás.
Todos nos quedamos pálidos y suspensos, y digo nos porque e
narrador tuvo la suerte de presenciar este gran suceso. Calomarde se
llevó la mano a la parte dolorida, y lívido, sudoroso, muerto, solo dijo
con ahogado acento:
—Señora, manos blancas...
No dijo más. La infanta le volvió la espalda.
Calomarde acabó para siempre como hombre político. Los
apostólicos, cuando se llamaron carlistas, le despreciaron, y e
execrable ministril se murió de tristeza en país extranjero.
XXXV
A la misma hora, la muchedumbre, paseando en los amenísimos

jardines, comentaba los sucesos de aquellos días. Don Benigno y
Salvador paseaban juntos como viejos amigos, y ya se habían contado
parte de sus secretos. Cordero estaba triste, Monsalud se iba
exaltando más cada día con la idea política. De pronto vieron que la
multitud se agolpaba en un sitio, por donde discurría en abigarrada
procesión gente de Palacio, con dorados uniformes y huecos
casacones. Abría calle el público para dar paso a estos señores
Cordero y Monsalud se acercaron para ver mejor. Sostenida por una
nodriza, rodeada de damas, seguida de personajes, una niña de dos
años andaba con dificultad, batiendo palmas y riendo de alegría
Aquellos eran los primeros pasos de una reina.
Del gentío salió una voz que gritó con furor: «¡Viva Isabel II!». Y una
exclamación inmensa recorrió los jardines, perdiéndose y
desparramándose como los primeros ecos de una tempestad naciente.
La tempestad estaba cerca: oíanse los primeros truenos; pero el que
quiera conocer los notables sucesos, ya privados, ya públicos, que
restan por referir, tenga paciencia y espere a leer lo que con toda
verdad se dirá en el libro siguiente.
fin de «los apostólicos»
Madrid. — Mayo-junio de 1879.

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The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits Solutions 7Th Edition Roland Thomas Albert Rosa Gregory Toussaint Online Ebook Texxtbook Full Chapter PDF

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The Analysis and Design of Linear

Circuits solutions 7th Edition Roland

The Analysis and Design of Linear Circuits 10th Edition

Analysis and Linear Algebra: An Introduction for

Trilogy of Magnetics Design Guide for EMI Filter Design

Artificial Intelligence Hardware Design: Challenges and

Introduction to Layout Design and Automation of

An Analysis of Roland Barthes s Mythologies 1st Edition

Esd Analog Circuits and Design 1st Edition Steven H.

Practical ESD Protection Design 1st Edition Wang Albert

(a) 10−3 is milli or m. 5.0 mW = 5 milliwatts = 5 × 10−3 watts.

(b) d is deci or 10−1 . 10.0 dB = 10.0 decibels = 1.0 bel.

(c) p is pico or 10−12 . 3.6 ps = 3.6 picoseconds = 3.6 × 10−12 seconds.

Device 1 Device 2 Device 3 Device 4 Device 5

Device 1: p = vi = −30 W, (delivering power).

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-1

Device 3: p = vi = −150 mW, (delivering power).

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-2

1.2 Problem Solutions

(a). 1, 000, 000 Hz = 1 × 106 Hz = 1 MHz

(b). 102.5 × 109 W = 103 GW

(c). 0.333 × 10−7 s = 33.3 × 10−9 s = 33.3 ns

(a). 0.000222 H = 222 × 10−6 H = 222 µH

(b). 20.5 × 105 J = 2.05 × 106 J = 2.05 MJ

(c). 72.25 × 103 C = 72.3 kC

(d). 3,264 Ω = 3.264 × 103 Ω = 3.26 kΩ

Problem 1–5. Fill in the blanks in the following statements.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-3

Figure P1–8 displays the resulting plots.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-4

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-5

Figure P1–11 displays the resulting plot.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-6

The following MATLAB code calculates the same answers.

cost difference = cost incand - cost fluor

The following MATLAB code calculates the same answer.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-7

p incand = 100/1000; % Incandescent power in kW

v led = 9; % LED voltage

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-8

i led = 20e-3; % LED current

savings light = cost incand - cost led

(a). v = +11 V and i = −1.1 A

(b). v = +80 V and i = +20 mA

(c). v = −120 V and i = −12 mA

(d). v = −1.5 V and i = −600 µA

v = [11 80 -120 -1.5];

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-9

v (V) i (A) p (W) Absorbing/Delivering

v = [15 5 10 -10 20 20];

p4 = −p1 − p2 − p3 − p5 − p6 = 40 − 20 − 10 − 2.5 − 2.5 = 5 W

The power is positive, so the device is absorbing power.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-10

The following MATLAB code calculates the same results.

The corresponding MATLAB output is shown below.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-11

The corresponding MATLAB output is shown below.

The following table summarizes the results.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-12

The corresponding MATLAB output is shown below.

Solution Manual Chapter 1 Page 1-13

2 Basic Circuit Analysis

(a). Write KCL equations at nodes A, B, C, and D.