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Springer
Handbook oƒ
Atmospheric
Measurements
Foken
Editor
123
Springer Handbook
of Atmospheric
Measurements
Springer Handbooks provide a
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and easy retrieval of essential re-
liable key information, including
tables, graphs, and bibliographies.
References to extensive sources are
provided.
H
Springer
Handbook
of Atmospheric Measurements
Thomas Foken (Ed.)
With 752 Figures and 526 Tables
K
Editor
Thomas Foken
University of Bayreuth
Bayreuth, Germany
ISBN 978-3-030-52170-7 e-ISBN 978-3-030-52171-4

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52171-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

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V
Foreword
Taking measurements in the atmosphere means to work in a “non-periodic”, chaotic

environment. Consequently, it is impossible to repeat any measurements under same
conditions, because every state of the atmosphere is unique and will never occur again.
Another consequence is the basic impossibility to find a representative location for
a measurement because of the non-linear scale interaction in the atmosphere. Pro-
cesses on any scale interacts with those on all other scales. The basic requirement
of reproducibility, any laboratory experiment has to meet, can, therefore, never be
fulfilled by measurements in the atmosphere.
To address this dilemma atmospheric scientists have learned to think in spatial
and time scales and to select such information from measurements which is relevant
for the scale of interest. This is achieved by selecting suitable designs of the field
experiments, station networks, instrumentation, and data processing. Therefore, the
requirements on observation systems and the applied observation technologies are Gerhard Adrian
progressing continuously with the state of science and technology. President DWD and WMO
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has established under the (photo: © Bildkraftwerk-
“WMO Integrated Global Observing System” (WIGOS) a process to monitor these Bela/DWD)
“rolling” requirements and to document them with the web-based “Observing Sys-
tems Capability Analysis and Review Tool” (OSCAR). OSCAR provides a structure
along scales, applications, and variables and is an open tool to which everybody can
contribute.
Systematic meteorological observations were established when scientists began
to develop classifications (taxonomies) of natural phenomena. Up to day, we still use
a cloud classification scheme inspired by the British pharmacist Luke Howard, who
developed its basic version at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Meanwhile
we have learned to describe and predict the state of the atmosphere with quantita-
tive methods based on physical principles formulated with mathematical equations.
Consequently, we are not able today to use phenomenological descriptions anymore.
Today we need information on physically well-defined variables. From my perspec-
tive, this is the challenge for the further development of observing systems and the
required measurement techniques. It is also an opportunity to improve and extend our
knowledge about the atmosphere.
This book supplements the guidance provided by the intergovernmental Tech-
nical Commission for Observation, Infrastructure and Information Systems (COIIS)
of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), which is tasked as a specialized
UN organization “to promote standardization of meteorological and related observa-
tions. . . ” (Article 2 of WMO Convention).
Prof. Dr. Gerhard Adrian

President German Meteorological Service (DWD)
and World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
VII
Preface
The Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measure- With the ability to measure fluxes, ecologists have
ments is the result of many rounds of discussion with become an important group that apply atmospheric
renowned scientists and the publisher, with the intention measurements. The handbook therefore also includes
of developing a reference work that comprehensively specific measurements at the interface between the at-
covers all aspects of measurements in the atmosphere mosphere and the biosphere and pedosphere.
and at its interface with plants, soil, and water, includ- As already mentioned, quality control and stan-
ing some general aspects of metrology. I was happy to dardization are important procedures for ensuring that
bring to this project my nearly 50 years of experience highly accurate meteorological information with high
in atmospheric measurements, with a strong focus on spatial resolution is made available. This is not only
micrometeorology, and my more than 25 years of expe- a task for calibration laboratories. It is important that
rience working in the standardization of meteorological the developers and implementers of software tools un-
measurements for VDI (The Association of German derstand the complicated structure of the atmosphere
Engineers) and DIN (the German Institute of Standard- in terms of the vertical and horizontal fields of meteo-
ization). rological elements, particularly in heterogeneous areas
Several developments have made this handbook such as cities and their surroundings.
necessary and timely. Most of the classical in-situ in- This handbook is divided into five parts. Part A is
struments have been replaced by electrical measuring an introduction to the handbook, with chapters covering
devices. Not only has the toxicity of mercury led to the structure of the atmosphere, the basics of measure-
international agreements preventing its use in barom- ments, the fundamentals of quality control, and the stan-
eters and thermometers, but the reduction in visual dardization of measurements. Furthermore, quantities
weather observations has resulted in a requirement for that are necessary for measurements in the atmosphere
low-maintenance electrical sensors and automatic sta- and the soil are provided in abundant tables. Some of
tions. Besides the use of discrete sensors for the various those tables are also available online. All quantities are
meteorological elements at classical weather and cli- given in accordance with the International Temperature
mate stations, more compact sensors are now available. Scale (ITS-90).
These incorporate all of the sensors into a small weather Part B includes all in-situ measurement methods,
station with dimensions of 10–30 cm. Furthermore, so- and starts with an overview of ground-based platforms.
called smart sensors with wireless connectivity and Besides classical measurements such as temperature,
satellite positioning data enable anyone to measure me- humidity, wind, pressure, radiation, precipitation, and
teorological parameters. The issue of quality control visibility, sensors for electricity, trace gases, aerosols,
is then shifted from the single sensor to the network, stable isotopes, and radioactivity are also described.
and the crowdsourcing approach necessitates intelligent Only basic information is provided for the latter cate-
software to separate biased from accurate data. gory because other monographs are available for trace
Remote sensing instruments were the exclusive do- gas and aerosol measurements. A final chapter cov-
main of meteorological services or scientific institu- ers the relatively new technique of optical-fiber-based
tions, but more recently they have—with the exception measurements in addition to classical odor and visual
of some very complicated instruments and instruments observations.
that are in development—passed into more general use. Parts C and D are devoted to remote sensing
Besides weather radar, ceilometers and radar wind pro- techniques, which are separated into ground-based
filers have recently become standard instrumentation in and aircraft/satellite-based techniques. An introduction
meteorological networks. The fast development of the to airborne platforms is included. The discussion of
wind power industry has supported the development of ground-based measurements (Part C) includes sodar,
Doppler wind lidars, and these instruments have be- RASS, different types of lidar, radar, scintillometers,
come much smaller and even relatively inexpensive. spectrometric methods that use light of different wave-
Similarly, throughout their long history, meteoro- lengths and microwaves. Furthermore, tomographic
logical observations have been the task of meteorol- methods that use sound waves, and electromagnetic
ogists alone—until recently. Nowadays, agencies that waves of satellite navigation systems, are chapters
carry out environmental monitoring use meteorologi- of the handbook. Because aircraft- and satellite-based
cal data and have their own networks, as does industry. methods have become more and more important for an-
VIII Preface
alyzing a very large number of meteorological elements tured in the same way for easier orientation of the
and properties of the Earth’s surface, they are consid- reader, although the subject matter of some chapters
ered separately in Part D, in spite of some overlap with meant that they could only broadly follow this schema.
earlier discussions of lidar, radar, and methods based on Section 1 of each chapter gives a short overview of the
microwaves, visible light, or infrared light. measured variables and their dimensions as well as the
Part E is largely atypical for a book concerning main measurement principles. Section 2 is a historical
atmospheric measurements. It describes the combi- part, which we included not only because this is quite
nation of different sensors for specific applications interesting but also because many techniques have not
and measurements at the interface between the atmo- been in use for the last 10–50 years. For currently used
sphere and the underlying surface. First, horizontally measurement methods, Section 3 presents the theory
distributed observations—including classical weather and Section 4 the applicable devices. In most of the
stations, crowdsourcing, and mesometeorological net- chapters, the advantages and disadvantages of the vari-
works—are considered, followed by vertical measure- ous relevant sensors or methods are also listed at the end
ment systems such as aerological measurements and of Section 4. In the majority of the chapters, Section 5,
composite profiling. Here, horizontally moving systems on specifications, allows the reader to rapidly review the
are aircraft, unmanned aircraft systems, and ground- measurement ranges, accuracies, or response times of
based moving systems. Subsequent chapters focus on the devices and methods in tabulated form. Quality con-
special applications such as measurements of different trol, calibration, and reference standards are discussed
types of renewable energy and urban measurements, in Section 6, and Section 7 gives an overview of nec-
and then on measurement techniques for and appli- essary maintenance actions along with the appropriate
cations of fluxes: fog deposition, dry deposition, the time intervals. Some selected examples of applications
eddy-covariance technique and similar measurements, of the devices and methods are shown in Section 8, and
lysimeter and evapotranspiration measurements and further developments are discussed in Section 9. Mono-
calculations, and chamber measurements at plants and graphs, overview papers, and standards are available for
the soil surface. Finally, short chapters describe mea- many of the techniques, and these are listed in the Fur-
surements in soil and water. ther Reading section. Every chapter ends with a long
Part F—the final part of this handbook—discusses list of references.
networks, which play important roles in rendering mea- I want to thank the 140 authors and, in particular,
surements comparable and achieving a high standard of the corresponding authors for their significant contri-
measurement quality. The two chapters in Part F give butions to this handbook, as well as the more than 60
an overview of networks of atmospheric and ecological reviewers for their helpful reviews of all chapters. Many
measurements. thanks are due to Dr. Judith Hinterberg for develop-
Given the timeframe of the present edition of this ing the concept of the handbook, and to Ursula Barth,
handbook, it was not possible to provide complete cov- both from Springer Nature Heidelberg, for the intensive
erage of all instruments used for atmospheric measure- communication with me and the authors and Jeannette
ments. However, the editor and Springer are hopeful Krause (le-tex, Leipzig) for the preparation of the final
that, in a future edition, the minor gaps in coverage will manuscript. Last but not least, I thank my wife and our
be filled by recruiting authors who are able to take on family for their sympathy and support of this project
the time-consuming task of providing new chapters on over the last four years.
instruments not discussed here.
Some comments on the organization of this hand- Bayreuth, Germany Thomas Foken
book may be helpful. Most of the chapters are struc- August 2021
IX
About the Editor
Thomas Foken is retired Professor of Micrometeorology at the University of

Bayreuth (Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research), Germany. He
obtained his doctoral degree (Dr rer nat) from Leipzig University in 1978 and his
second doctoral degree (Dr sc nat) from the Humboldt University of Berlin in 1990.
He headed the Laboratories of Boundary Layer Research and Land Surface Processes
of the Meteorological Service of the GDR and the German Meteorological Service
(DWD) at the Observatories at Potsdam (1981–1994) and Lindenberg (1994–1997).
In 1997, Thomas Foken was appointed Professor of Micrometeorology at the Univer-
sity of Bayreuth. He has taught courses on micrometeorology in Berlin, Potsdam, and
Bayreuth. His main research areas are related to the interaction between the Earth’s
surface and the atmosphere, and the measurement and modeling of energy and matter
fluxes, with a strong focus on measurement devices. He has organized and participated
in experiments at the international level, e.g. in Russia, USA, Tibet, and Antarctica. Thomas Foken
He has published in peer-reviewed journals as well as textbooks and has made signifi- (photo: U. Krzywinski)
cant advancements in the application of the eddy-covariance method. These scientific
contributions have been recognized through various awards, including the Dionyz
Stur Medal in Silver of the Slovak Academy of Science, the Award for Outstanding
Achievements in Biometeorology of the American Meteorological Society, the Honor
Badge of the Association of German Engineers (VDI), and Honorary Membership
of the Hungarian Meteorological Society. In recent years, he has been consultant for
Arctic and forest fire projects, and lecturer at the Eötvös Loránd University Budapest.
In Germany, Thomas Foken is responsible for the standardization of atmospheric in-
situ measurement techniques (VDI/DIN, ISO). As a specialist for climate and climate
change in Northern Bavaria, he is regularly invited to give lectures for school students
at events organized by the Fridays for Future movement.
XI
About the Authors
Bianca Adler Alec Bennett

NOAA/Physical Sciences Laboratory Biral
CIRES, University of Colorado Boulder Portishead, UK
Boulder, CO, USA alec.bennett@biral.com
bianca.adler@noaa.gov
Frank Beyrich
Richard Allen Meteorologisches Observatorium Lindenberg –
Soil and Water Systems Richard-Aßmann-Observatorium
University of Idaho Lindenberg, Germany
Kimberly, USA frank.beyrich@dwd.de
rallen@uidaho.edu
Jacqueline Bieringer
Christof Ammann
Atmospheric Radioactivity and Trace Analysis
Climate and Agriculture
Federal Office for Radiation Protection
Agroscope Research Institute
Freiburg, Germany
Zürich, Switzerland
jbieringer@bfs.de
christof.ammann@agroscope.admin.ch
Marc Aubinet Christina Bogner

TERRA Teaching and Research Centre Institute of Geography
University of Liege University of Cologne
Gembloux, Belgium Cologne, Germany
marc.aubinet@uliege.be christina.bogner@uni-koeln.de
Jens Bange Annette Borowiak

Centre for Applied Geo-Science Air and Climate Unit
University of Tübingen Joint Research Centre
Tübingen, Germany Ispra, Italy
jens.bange@uni-tuebingen.de annette.borowiak@ec.europa.eu
Karsten Baumann Jerald A. Brotzge

Environmental Sciences and Engineering New York State Mesonet
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill University at Albany
Chapel Hill, USA Albany, USA
kbaumann@unc.edu jbrotzge@albany.edu
Andreas Behrendt
Steven S. Brown
Institute of Physics and Meteorology
NOAA Chemical Sciences Laboratory
University of Hohenheim
Boulder, USA
Stuttgart, Germany
steven.s.brown@noaa.gov
andreas.behrendt@uni-hohenheim.de
Klaus Behrens William Brown

Nuthetal, Germany Earth Observing Laboratory
klaus.behrens@mailbox.org National Center for Atmospheric Research
Boulder, USA
Michael Bender wbrown@ucar.edu
FE12 Datenassimilation
German Meteorological Service (DWD) Henk A.R. Bruin
Offenbach, Germany Bilthoven, The Netherlands
michael.bender@dwd.de hardb@xs4all.nl
XII About the Authors
Matthias Budde Matthias Cuntz

Institute of Telematics, TECO / Chair for Pervasive UMR Silva
Computing Systems Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Nancy, France
Karlsruhe, Germany matthias.cuntz@inrae.fr
and
Disy Informationssysteme GmbH Axel Delan
Karlsruhe, Germany IFU GmbH Privates Institut für Analytik
matthias.budde@disy.net Frankenberg, Germany
axel.delan@ifu-analytik.de
Arianna Cauteruccio
DICCA – Dep. Civil, Chemical and Environmental Julien Delanoë
Engineering LATMOS/IPSL, UVSQ Université Paris-Saclay,
University of Genova Sorbonne Université, CNRS
Genova, Italy Guyancourt, France
arianna.cauteruccio@edu.unige.it julien.delanoe@latmos.ipsl.fr
Jan Cermak Raymond L. Desjardins

Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research Science and Technology Branch
and Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Sensing Ottawa, Canada
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) ray.desjardins@canada.ca
Karlsruhe, Germany
jan.cermak@kit.edu Galina Dick
GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences,
Shih-Chieh Chang Department 1: Geodesy
Department of Natural Resources and Helmholtz Centre Potsdam
Environmental Studies, Center for Potsdam, Germany
Interdisciplinary Research on Ecology and galina.dick@gfz-potsdam.de
Sustainability
National Dong Hwa University Anna Dzvonkovskaya
Hualien, Taiwan Helzel Messtechnik GmbH
scchang@gms.ndhu.edu.tw Kaltenkirchen, Germany
dzvonkovskaya@gmail.com
Matteo Colli
DICCA – Dep. Civil, Chemical and Environmental André Ehrlich
Engineering Leipzig Institute for Meteorology (LIM)
University of Genova University of Leipzig
Genova, Italy Leipzig, Germany
matteo.colli@unige.it a.ehrlich@uni-leipzig.de
Heinz Coners Scott Ellis

Plant Ecology and Ecosystems Research Research Applications Laboratory
University of Göttingen National Center for Atmospheric Research
Göttingen, Germany Boulder, USA
hconers@uni-goettingen.de sellis@ucar.edu
Susanne Crewell Stefan Emeis

Institute for Geophysics and Meteorology Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research
University of Cologne Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
Köln, Germany Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
susanne.crewell@uni-koeln.de stefan.emeis@kit.edu
About the Authors XIII
Florian Ewald Ulrich Görsdorf

Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre Meteorologisches Observatorium Lindenberg –
Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V. Richard Aßmann Observatorium
(DLR) German Meteorological Service (DWD)
Weßling, Germany Lindenberg, Germany
florian.ewald@dlr.de ulrich.goersdorf@dwd.de
Christopher A. Fiebrich Sue Grimmond

Oklahoma Mesonet/Oklahoma Climatological Department of Meteorology
Survey University of Reading
University of Oklahoma Reading, UK
Norman, USA c.s.grimmond@reading.ac.uk
fiebrich@ou.edu
Martin Hagen
Anita Flohr Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Ocean and Earth Science Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.
University of Southampton (DLR)
Southampton, UK Weßling, Germany
a.flohr@southampton.ac.uk martin.hagen@dlr.de
Thomas Foken Samuel Haimov

University of Bayreuth Atmospheric Science Department
Bayreuth, Germany University of Wyoming
thomas.foken@uni-bayreuth.de Laramie, USA
haimov@uwyo.edu
Wolfgang Foken
R. Michael Hardesty
Automotive Engineering
Cooperative Institute for Research in
University of Applied Sciences in Zwickau
Environmental Sciences
Zwickau, Germany
University of Colorado Boulder
wolfgang.foken@online.de
Boulder, USA
r.michael.hardesty@colorado.edu
Jeffrey French
Department of Atmospheric Science Giles Harrison
University of Wyoming Department of Meteorology
Laramie, USA University of Reading
jfrench@uwyo.edu Reading, UK
r.g.harrison@reading.ac.uk
Julia Fuchs
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research Oscar K. Hartogensis
and Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Environmental Sciences – Meteorology and Air
Sensing Quality
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Wageningen University
Karlsruhe, Germany Wageningen, The Netherlands
julia.fuchs@kit.edu oscar.hartogensis@wur.nl
Masatomo Fujiwara Matthew Hayman

Faculty of Environmental Earth Science Earth Observing Laboratory
Hokkaido University National Center for Atmospheric Research
Sapporo, Japan Boulder, USA
fuji@ees.hokudai.ac.jp mhayman@ucar.edu
XIV About the Authors
Dwayne Heard Jürgen Junk

School of Chemistry Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN)
University of Leeds Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology
Leeds, UK (LIST)
d.e.heard@leeds.ac.uk Belvaux, Luxembourg
juergen.junk@list.lu
Andreas Held
Environmental Chemistry and Air Research Norbert Kalthoff
Technische Universität Berlin Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research,
Berlin, Germany Department Troposphere
held@tu-berlin.de Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
Karlsruhe, Germany
Olaf Hellmuth no.kalthoff@web.de
Modeling Department
TROPOS Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research
Leipzig, Germany Ayse Kilic
olaf.hellmuth@tropos.de School of Natural Resources and Dept. Civil
Engineering
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Gerald Heymsfield
Lincoln, USA
Mesoscale Atmospheric Processes Laboratory
akilic@unl.edu
Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, USA
gerald.heymsfield@nasa.gov Bruce Kindel
Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics
Klaus Heyn University of Colorado at Boulder
Sensing Technologies Boulder, USA
Vaisala GmbH bruce.kindel@lasp.colorado.edu
Hamburg, Germany
klaus.heyn@vaisala.com Olaf E. E. Kolle
Field Experiments and Instrumentation
Jochen Horstmann Max-Planck-Institute for Biogeochemistry
Ocean Surface Dynamics Jena, Germany
Institute of Coastal Ocean Dynamics of the olaf.kolle@bgc-jena.mpg.de
Helmholtz-Zentrum hereon, Germany
Geesthacht, Germany
jochen.horstmann@hereon.de Christoph Kottmeier
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research,
Department Troposphere
Bernd Huwe
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
Soil Physics
Karlsruhe, Germany
christoph.kottmeier@kit.edu
Bayreuth, Germany
bernd.huwe@uni-bayreuth.de
Lars Kutzbach
Andreas Ibrom Institute of Soil Science
Environmental Engineering Universität Hamburg
Technical University of Denmark (DTU) Hamburg, Germany
Lyngby, Denmark lars.kutzbach@uni-hamburg.de
anib@env.dtu.dk
Gerhard Lammel
Simon Jäckel Multiphase Chemistry Department
VDI e.V. – The Association of German Engineers Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
Düsseldorf, Germany Mainz, Germany
jaeckel@vdi.de g.lammel@mpic.de
About the Authors XV
Luca G. Lanza Stefan Metzger

DICCA – Dep. Civil, Chemical and Environmental National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON);
Engineering Battelle
University of Genova Boulder, USA
Genova, Italy smetzger@battelleecology.org
luca.lanza@unige.it
Volker Mohrholz
Volker Lehmann
Physical Oceanography and Instrumentation
Meteorologisches Observatorium Lindenberg
Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research
German Meteorological Service (DWD)
Warnemünde
Lindenberg, Germany
Rostock, Germany
volker.lehmann@dwd.de
volker.mohrholz@io-warnemuende.de
Ingeborg Levin
Institut für Umweltphysik J. William Munger
Heidelberg University John A. Paulson School of Engineering and
Heidelberg, Germany Applied Sciences
ingeborg.levin@iup.uni-heidelberg.de Harvard University
Cambridge, USA
Martin Löffler-Mang jwmunger@seas.harvard.edu
School of Engineering
htw saar, University of Applied Sciences Christoph Münkel
Saarbrücken, Germany Vaisala GmbH
loeffler-mang@htwsaar.de Hamburg, Germany
cmuenkel@web.de
Ulrich Löhnert
Institute for Geophysics and Meteorology
University of Cologne Axel Murk
Köln, Germany Institute of Applid Physics
ulrich.loehnert@uni-koeln.de University of Bern
Bern, Switzerland
Ian MacPherson axel.murk@iap.unibe.ch
National Research Council of Canada
Ottawa, Canada Sascha Nehr
ian.macpherson@rogers.com European University of Applied Sciences
Brühl, Germany
Alexander Mangold s.nehr@eufh.de
Scientific Service Observations
Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium
Brussels, Belgium Reinhard Nolz
alexander.mangold@meteo.be Institute for Soil Physics and Rural Water
Management
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Matthias Mauder
Vienna
Institute of Hydrology and Meteorology
Wien, Austria
Technische Universität Dresden
reinhard.nolz@boku.ac.at
Dresden, Germany
matthias.mauder@tu-dresden.de
Samuel Ortega-Farias
Mario Mech Research and Extension Center for Irrigation and
Institute for Geophysics and Meteorology Agroclimatology (CITRA)
University of Cologne Universidad de Talca
Köln, Germany Talca, Chile
mario.mech@uni-koeln.de sortega@utalca.cl
XVI About the Authors
Eberhard Parlow Andreas Platis

Department of Environmental Sciences Centre for Applied Geo-Science
Atmospheric Sciences University of Tübingen
University Basel Tübingen, Germany
Basel, Switzerland andreas.platis@uni-tuebingen.de
eberhard.parlow@unibas.ch
Christopher Pöhlker
Elizabeth Pattey Multiphase Chemistry Department
Science and Technology Branch Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Mainz, Germany
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada c.pohlker@mpic.de
elizabeth.pattey@canada.ca
Catherine Prigent
LERMA
Kyaw Tha Paw U CNRS, Observatoire de Paris
Land, Air and Water Resources Paris, France
University of California catherine.prigent@obspm.fr
Davis, CA, USA
ktpawu@ucdavis.edu Armin Raabe
Leipzig Institute for Meteorology (LIM)
Andrew L. Pazmany University of Leipzig
ProSensing Inc. Leipzig, Germany
Amherst, USA raabe@uni-leipzig.de
pazmany@prosensing.com
Corinna Rebmann
Department Computational Hydrosystems
Oscar Perez-Priego
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research
Biological Science
Leipzig, Germany
Macquarie University
corinna.rebmann@ufz.de
Sydney, NSW, Australia
oscarperezpriego@gmail.com
Oliver Reitebuch
Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Gerhard Peters Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.
Metek, Meteorologische Messtechnik GmbH (DLR)
Elmshorn, Germany Weßling, Germany
peters@metek.de oliver.reitebuch@dlr.de
Ralf Petrich Sascha Reth

IFU GmbH Privates Institut für Analytik UGT GmbH
Frankenberg, Germany Hallbergmoos, Germany
ralf.petrich@ifu-analytik.de sascha.reth@ugt-online.de
Joachim Reuder
Rolf Philipona Geophysical Institute, and Bjerknes Centre for
Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology Climate Research
MeteoSwiss University of Bergen
Davos Dorf, Switzerland Bergen, Norway
rolf.philipona@gmail.com joachim.reuder@gfi.uib.no
Peter Pilewskie Janne Rinne

Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics and Department of Physical Geography and Ecosystem
Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences Science
University of Colorado Boulder Lund University
Boulder, USA Lund, Sweden
peter.pilewskie@lasp.colorado.edu janne.rinne@nateko.lu.se
About the Authors XVII
David Risk Scott M. Spuler

Earth Sciences Earth Observing Laboratory
St. Francis Xavier University National Center for Atmospheric Research
Antigonish, Canada Boulder, USA
drisk@stfx.ca spuler@ucar.edu
Christoph Ritter Brian Stacey

Physics of the Atmosphere Ricardo Energy and Environment
Alfred-Wegener-Institute Didcot, UK
Potsdam, Germany brian.stacey@ricardo.com
christoph.ritter@awi.de
Mattia Stagnaro
Raymond Rülke DICCA – Dep. Civil, Chemical and Environmental
Langendorf, Germany Engineering
University of Genova
Genova, Italy
Klaus Schäfer mattia.stagnaro@unige.it
Atmospheric Physics Consultant
Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Manuela Starke
schaefer@atmosphericphysics.de Chair of Meteorology
Technische Universität Dresden
Robert S. Schemenauer Tharandt, Germany
FogQuest: sustainable water solutions manuela.starke@tu-dresden.de
Kamloops, Canada
fogquest@shaw.ca Thomas Steinkopff
Surveillance of Radioactivity
Hans Peter Schmid German Meteorological Service (DWD)
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research – Offenbach, Germany
Atmospheric Environmental Research tommy_theater@t-online.de
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Ulrich Stöhlker
hape.schmid@kit.edu IMIS measurement tasks
Federal Office for Radiation Protection
K. Sebastian Schmidt Freiburg, Germany
Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ustoehlker@bfs.de
University of Colorado at Boulder
Boulder, USA Cove Sturtevant
sebastian.schmidt@lasp.colorado.edu National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON);
Battelle
Boulder, USA
John Selker
csturtevant@battelleecology.org
Oregon State University
Corvallis, USA
john.selker@oregonstate.edu Jens-Arne Subke
Biological and Environmental Sciences
University of Stirling
Jörg E.E. Seltmann Stirling, UK
Hohenpeissenberg Observatory jens-arne.subke@stir.ac.uk
Hohenpeissenberg, Germany
Christoph K. Thomas
joerg.seltmann@yandex.com
Micrometeorology
Dietrich Sonntag Bayreuth, Germany
Berlin, Germany christoph.thomas@uni-bayreuth.de
XVIII About the Authors
Anni Torri Manfred Wendisch

Vaisala Oyj Physics and Earth Sciences
Vantaa, Finland University of Leipzig
anni.torri@vaisala.com Leipzig, Germany
m.wendisch@uni-leipzig.de
Ivonne Trebs
Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN)
Mark Wenig
Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology
Department of Physics, Meteorological Institute
(LIST)
Munich
Belvaux, Luxembourg
Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich
ivonne.trebs@list.lu
Munich, Germany
mark.wenig@lmu.de
Ricardo Trezza
California Irrigation Management Information
System (CIMIS) Lisa K. Whalley
California Department of Water Resources School of Chemistry
Sacramento, USA National Centre for Atmospheric Science,
ricardo.trezza@water.ca.gov University of Leeds
Leeds, UK
Isabel F. Trigo l.k.whalley@leeds.ac.uk
Portuguese Institute for the Sea and the
Atmosphere (IPMA) Bodo Wichura
Lisboa, Portugal Climate and Environment Consultancy, Regional
isabel.trigo@ipma.pt Office Potsdam
Holger Vömel Potsdam, Germany
Earth Observing Laboratory bodo.wichura@dwd.de
National Center for Atmospheric Research
Boulder, USA
voemel@ucar.edu Stefan Wilbert
Institut für Solarforschung
Emanuele Vuerich Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.
Italian Air Force (DLR)
Rome, Italy Almeria, Spain
emanuele.vuerich@aeronautica.difesa.it stefan.wilbert@dlr.de
Helen C. Ward Martin Wirth

Department of Atmospheric and Cryospheric Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Sciences Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.
University of Innsbruck (DLR)
Innsbruck, Austria Weßling, Germany
helen.ward@uibk.ac.at martin.wirth@dlr.de
Konradin Weber
Laboratory for Environmental Measurement Devon E. Worth
Techniques Science and Technology Branch
Duesseldorf University of Applied Sciences Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Duesseldorf, Germany Ottawa, Canada
konradin.weber@hs-duesseldorf.de devon.worth@canada.ca
Tammy M. Weckwerth Volker Wulfmeyer

Earth Observing Laboratory Institute of Physics and Meteorology
National Center for Atmospheric Research University of Hohenheim
Boulder, USA Stuttgart, Germany
tammy@ucar.edu volker.wulfmeyer@uni-hohenheim.de
About the Authors XIX
Astrid A. Ziemann Mark A. Zondlo

Chair of Meteorology Civil and Environmental Engineering
Technische Universität Dresden Princeton University
Tharandt, Germany Princeton, USA
astrid.ziemann@tu-dresden.de mzondlo@princeton.edu
XXI
Contents
List of Abbreviations ............................................................. XLI

List of Symbols .................................................................... LV
Part A Basics of Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

1 Introduction to Atmospheric Measurements
Thomas Foken, Frank Beyrich, Volker Wulfmeyer ............................. 3
1.1 Measuring Meteorological Elements ................................... 4
1.2 History.................................................................... 7
1.3 The Structure of the Atmosphere....................................... 9
1.4 Devices, Systems, and Typical Specifications ......................... 23
1.5 Applications.............................................................. 26
1.6 Future Developments ................................................... 27
1.7 Further Reading ......................................................... 28
References ....................................................................... 28
2 Principles of Measurements
Wolfgang Foken ................................................................. 33
2.1 Basics of Measurements ................................................ 34
2.2 History.................................................................... 34
2.3 Errors in Measurement .................................................. 34
2.4 Regression Analysis ..................................................... 38
2.5 Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Signals and Systems ...... 39
2.6 Dynamics of Measuring Systems........................................ 40
2.7 Analog and Digital Signal Processing .................................. 44
2.8 Hardware for Digital Measurement Systems........................... 46
2.9 Further Reading ......................................................... 47
References ....................................................................... 47
3 Quality Assurance and Control

Cove Sturtevant, Stefan Metzger, Sascha Nehr, Thomas Foken .............. 49
3.1 Principles and Definition ............................................... 50
3.2 History.................................................................... 51
3.3 Elements of Quality Management...................................... 52
3.4 Application............................................................... 77
3.6 Further Reading ......................................................... 85
References ....................................................................... 85
4 Standardization in Atmospheric Measurements

Simon Jäckel, Annette Borowiak, Brian Stacey................................ 93
4.1 Background and Definitions............................................ 93
4.2 History.................................................................... 94
4.3 Principles and Procedures .............................................. 96
4.4 Standardization in the Field of Atmospheric Measurements ........ 98
XXII Contents

4.6 Further Reading ......................................................... 104
References ....................................................................... 104
5 Physical Quantities
Thomas Foken, Olaf Hellmuth, Bernd Huwe, Dietrich Sonntag .............. 107
5.1 Selection of Parameters ................................................. 108
5.2 History and Thermodynamic Standards ............................... 108
5.3 Units and Constants ..................................................... 111
5.4 Parameters of Air, Water Vapor, Water, and Ice ....................... 115
5.5 Parameterization of Optical Properties of Clouds ..................... 130
5.6 Absorption Coefficients for Water Vapor, Ozone, and Carbon Dioxide 141
5.7 Parameters of Soil ....................................................... 142
5.8 Time and Astronomical Quantities ..................................... 146
5.9 Tables in Other Chapters ................................................ 147
5.11 Further Reading ......................................................... 148
References ....................................................................... 148
Part B In situ Measurement Techniques

6 Ground-Based Platforms
Olaf Kolle, Norbert Kalthoff, Christoph Kottmeier, J. William Munger ...... 155
6.1 Principles of Platforms .................................................. 156
6.2 History.................................................................... 157
6.3 Theory .................................................................... 158
6.4 Platforms and Sensor Installations .................................... 160
6.5 Specification ............................................................. 174
6.6 Quality Control and Safety .............................................. 175
6.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 175
6.8 Applications.............................................................. 176
6.10 Further Readings ........................................................ 179
References ....................................................................... 180
7 Temperature Sensors
Thomas Foken, Jens Bange ..................................................... 183
7.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters.............................. 184
7.2 History.................................................................... 187
7.3 Theory .................................................................... 190
7.4 Devices and Systems .................................................... 196
7.5 Specifications ............................................................ 201
7.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 202
7.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 203
7.8 Applications.............................................................. 204
7.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 206
References ....................................................................... 206
Contents XXIII
8 Humidity Sensors
Dietrich Sonntag, Thomas Foken, Holger Vömel, Olaf Hellmuth ............. 209
8.2 History.................................................................... 212
8.3 Theory .................................................................... 217
8.5 Specifications ............................................................ 233
8.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 234
8.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 236
8.8 Application............................................................... 237
References ....................................................................... 238
9 Wind Sensors
Thomas Foken, Jens Bange ..................................................... 243
9.2 History.................................................................... 245
9.3 Theory .................................................................... 249
9.5 Specifications ............................................................ 262
9.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 263
9.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 266
9.8 Application............................................................... 267
9.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 270
References ....................................................................... 270
10 Pressure Sensors
Anni Torri, Thomas Foken, Jens Bange ........................................ 273
10.2 History.................................................................... 275
10.3 Theory .................................................................... 278
10.5 Specifications ............................................................ 290
10.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 291
10.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 292
10.8 Application............................................................... 292
10.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 294
References ....................................................................... 294
11 Radiation Sensors
Klaus Behrens.................................................................... 297
11.2 History.................................................................... 303
11.3 Theory .................................................................... 315
11.5 Specifications ............................................................ 339
11.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 341
11.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 348
XXIV Contents
11.8 Applications.............................................................. 349

11.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 353
References ....................................................................... 353
12 In-situ Precipitation Measurements

Arianna Cauteruccio, Matteo Colli, Mattia Stagnaro, Luca G. Lanza,
Emanuele Vuerich ............................................................... 359
12.2 History.................................................................... 362
12.3 Theory .................................................................... 367
12.5 Specifications ............................................................ 375
12.6 Quality Control, Uncertainty, and Calibration ......................... 376
12.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 392
12.8 Application............................................................... 394
12.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 397
References ....................................................................... 397
13 Visibility Sensors
Martin Löffler-Mang, Klaus Heyn .............................................. 401
13.2 History.................................................................... 403
13.3 Theory .................................................................... 405
13.5 Specifications ............................................................ 417
13.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 418
13.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 421
13.8 Application............................................................... 423
13.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 427
References ....................................................................... 428
14 Electricity Measurements
Giles Harrison, Alec Bennett .................................................... 431
14.2 History.................................................................... 432
14.3 Theory .................................................................... 434
14.5 Specifications ............................................................ 448
14.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 448
14.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 450
14.8 Applications.............................................................. 452
14.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 453
References ....................................................................... 453
Contents XXV
15 Radioactivity Sensors
Jacqueline Bieringer, Thomas Steinkopff, Ulrich Stöhlker .................... 457
15.2 History.................................................................... 459
15.3 Theory .................................................................... 460
15.5 Specifications ............................................................ 467
15.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 468
15.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 469
15.8 Application............................................................... 469
15.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 471
References ....................................................................... 471
16 Gas Analysers and Laser Techniques

Dwayne Heard, Lisa K. Whalley, Steven S. Brown ............................. 475
16.2 History.................................................................... 478
16.3 Theory .................................................................... 480
16.5 Specifications ............................................................ 494
16.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 495
16.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 496
16.8 Applications.............................................................. 498
16.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 502
References ....................................................................... 502
17 Measurement of Stable Isotopes in Carbon Dioxide,

Methane, and Water Vapor
Ingeborg Levin, Matthias Cuntz ................................................ 509
17.2 History of Stable Isotope Measurements in Atmospheric CO2 ,
CH4 and H2 O ............................................................. 512
17.3 Theory .................................................................... 513
17.5 Specifications ............................................................ 523
17.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 524
17.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 525
17.8 Application............................................................... 525
References ....................................................................... 527
18 Measurement of Fundamental Aerosol Physical Properties

Andreas Held, Alexander Mangold............................................. 533
18.2 History.................................................................... 537
18.3 Theory .................................................................... 537
18.5 Specifications ............................................................ 552
XXVI Contents
18.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 553

18.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 555
18.8 Application............................................................... 556
18.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 558
References ....................................................................... 559
19 Methods of Sampling Trace Substances in Air

Christopher Pöhlker, Karsten Baumann, Gerhard Lammel................... 565
19.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters ............................. 566
19.2 History.................................................................... 568
19.3 Theory .................................................................... 570
19.5 Specifications ............................................................ 589
19.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 590
19.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 592
19.8 Application............................................................... 593
19.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 596
References ....................................................................... 596
20 Optical Fiber-Based Distributed Sensing Methods

Christoph K. Thomas, John Selker .............................................. 609
20.2 History.................................................................... 613
20.3 Theory .................................................................... 614
20.4 Devices ................................................................... 619
20.5 Specifications ............................................................ 623
20.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 624
20.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 625
20.8 Applications.............................................................. 626
20.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 629
References ....................................................................... 629
21 Odor Measurements
Ralf Petrich, Axel Delan ......................................................... 633
21.2 History.................................................................... 635
21.3 Theory .................................................................... 635
21.5 Specifications ............................................................ 639
21.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 640
21.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 641
21.8 Application............................................................... 641
References ....................................................................... 642
Contents XXVII
22 Visual Observations
Thomas Foken, Raymond Rülke ................................................ 645
22.1 Principles of Visual Observations....................................... 645
22.2 History.................................................................... 646
22.3 Theory .................................................................... 647
22.4 Observed Parameters .................................................... 647
22.5 Quality Control ........................................................... 655
22.6 Application............................................................... 655
References ....................................................................... 656
Part C Remote-Sensing Techniques (Ground-Based)

23 Sodar and RASS
Stefan Emeis ..................................................................... 661
23.2 History.................................................................... 665
23.3 Theory .................................................................... 666
23.5 Specifications ............................................................ 674
23.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 675
23.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 677
23.8 Applications.............................................................. 677
23.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 680
References ....................................................................... 680
24 Backscatter Lidar for Aerosol and Cloud Profiling

Christoph Ritter, Christoph Münkel............................................. 683
24.1 Measurement Prinziples and Parameters.............................. 684
24.2 History.................................................................... 686
24.3 Theory .................................................................... 687
24.5 Specifications ............................................................ 706
24.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 707
24.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 709
24.8 Applications.............................................................. 710
24.9 Further Reading ......................................................... 714
References ....................................................................... 714
25 Raman Lidar for Water-Vapor and Temperature Profiling

Volker Wulfmeyer, Andreas Behrendt .......................................... 719
25.2 History.................................................................... 721
25.3 Theory .................................................................... 722
25.5 Specifications ............................................................ 728
25.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 729
XXVIII Contents
25.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 731

25.8 Applications.............................................................. 731
25.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 733
References ....................................................................... 734
26 Water Vapor Differential Absorption Lidar

Scott M. Spuler, Matthew Hayman, Tammy M. Weckwerth .................. 741
26.2 History.................................................................... 743
26.3 Theory .................................................................... 744
26.5 Specifications ............................................................ 751
26.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 751
26.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 752
26.8 Applications.............................................................. 752
References ....................................................................... 754
27 Doppler Wind Lidar

Oliver Reitebuch, R. Michael Hardesty ......................................... 759
27.2 History.................................................................... 762
27.3 Theory .................................................................... 765
27.5 Specifications ............................................................ 782
27.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 783
27.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 784
27.8 Applications.............................................................. 785
References ....................................................................... 791
28 Spectrometers
Klaus Schäfer, Mark Wenig, Mark A. Zondlo, Axel Murk, Konradin Weber .. 799
28.2 History.................................................................... 801
28.3 Theory .................................................................... 803
28.5 Specifications ............................................................ 809
28.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 810
28.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 811
28.8 Applications.............................................................. 812
References ....................................................................... 814
Contents XXIX
29 Passive Solar and Microwave Spectral Radiometers

Susanne Crewell, Manfred Wendisch, Ulrich Löhnert ......................... 821
29.2 History.................................................................... 825
29.3 Theory .................................................................... 826
29.5 Specifications ............................................................ 832
29.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 833
29.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 834
29.8 Application............................................................... 835
References ....................................................................... 838
30 Weather Radar
Jörg E.E. Seltmann .............................................................. 841
30.2 History.................................................................... 843
30.3 Theory .................................................................... 845
30.4 Radar Systems ........................................................... 858
30.5 Specifications ............................................................ 869
30.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 871
30.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 882
30.8 Applications.............................................................. 883
30.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 896
References ....................................................................... 896
31 Radar Wind Profiler

Volker Lehmann, William Brown ............................................... 901
31.2 History.................................................................... 903
31.3 Theory .................................................................... 904
31.4 Systems................................................................... 916
31.5 Specifications ............................................................ 920
31.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 923
31.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 924
31.8 Applications.............................................................. 925
31.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 926
References ....................................................................... 927
32 Radar in the mm-Range

Gerhard Peters ................................................................... 935
32.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters ............................. 935
32.2 History.................................................................... 938
32.3 Theory .................................................................... 938
32.5 Specifications ............................................................ 946
32.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 947
32.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 947
XXX Contents
32.8 Application............................................................... 948

32.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 948
References ....................................................................... 949
33 High Frequency Radar

Jochen Horstmann, Anna Dzvonkovskaya..................................... 953
33.2 History.................................................................... 954
33.3 Theory .................................................................... 955
33.5 Specifications ............................................................ 959
33.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 961
33.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 961
33.8 Applications.............................................................. 962
33.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 965
References ....................................................................... 965
34 Scintillometers
Frank Beyrich, Oscar K. Hartogensis, Henk A.R. de Bruin, Helen C. Ward ... 969
34.2 History.................................................................... 971
34.3 Theory .................................................................... 972
34.5 Specifications ............................................................ 984
34.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 985
34.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 987
34.8 Applications.............................................................. 989
References ....................................................................... 992
35 Acoustic Tomography
Armin Raabe, Manuela Starke, Astrid A. Ziemann ............................ 999
35.2 History.................................................................... 1001
35.3 Theory .................................................................... 1001
35.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1015
35.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1015
35.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1017
35.8 Application............................................................... 1017
References ....................................................................... 1021
Contents XXXI
36 GNSS Water Vapor Tomography

Michael Bender, Galina Dick ................................................... 1025
36.2 History.................................................................... 1028
36.3 Theory .................................................................... 1028
36.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1039
36.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1040
36.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1041
36.8 Application............................................................... 1042
36.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1046
References ....................................................................... 1046
Part D Remote Sensing Techniques

(Space- and Aircraft-Based)
37 Satellite and Aircraft Remote Sensing Platforms
Manfred Wendisch, André Ehrlich, Peter Pilewskie ........................... 1053
37.1 Principles of Platforms .................................................. 1054
37.2 History.................................................................... 1054
37.3 Issues and Instrumental Requirements ............................... 1056
37.4 Available Platforms for Active and Passive Remote Sensing ......... 1056
37.5 Future Development .................................................... 1057
37.6 Further Reading ......................................................... 1065
References ....................................................................... 1065
38 Airborne Lidar
Martin Wirth ..................................................................... 1067
38.2 History.................................................................... 1071
38.3 Theory .................................................................... 1072
38.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1089
38.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1089
38.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1089
38.8 Applications.............................................................. 1090
38.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1091
References ....................................................................... 1091
39 Airborne Radar
Martin Hagen, Julien Delanoë, Scott Ellis, Florian Ewald,
Jeffrey French, Samuel Haimov, Gerald Heymsfield, Andrew L. Pazmany .. 1097
39.1 Measurement Parameters and Principles.............................. 1098
39.2 History.................................................................... 1100
39.3 Theory .................................................................... 1102
39.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1114
39.6 Calibration and Quality Control ........................................ 1114
XXXII Contents
39.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1117

39.8 Applications.............................................................. 1117
39.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1124
References ....................................................................... 1125
40 Airborne Solar Radiation Sensors

K. Sebastian Schmidt, Manfred Wendisch, Bruce Kindel ..................... 1131
40.2 History.................................................................... 1132
40.3 Theory .................................................................... 1134
40.4 Devices and Subsystems ................................................ 1135
40.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1138
40.6 Calibration and Quality Control ........................................ 1139
40.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1141
40.8 Applications.............................................................. 1141
References ....................................................................... 1147
41 Spaceborne Microwave Radiometry

Susanne Crewell, Catherine Prigent, Mario Mech ............................. 1151
41.2 History.................................................................... 1155
41.3 Theory .................................................................... 1156
41.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1162
41.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1163
41.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1163
41.8 Application............................................................... 1164
References ....................................................................... 1167
42 Imaging Techniques
Jan Cermak, Isabel F. Trigo, Julia Fuchs ....................................... 1171
42.2 History.................................................................... 1172
42.3 Theory .................................................................... 1175
42.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1179
42.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1180
42.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1180
42.8 Applications.............................................................. 1180
42.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1182
References ....................................................................... 1182
Contents XXXIII
Part E Complex Measurement Systems –

Methods and Applications
43 Atmospheric Measurements for Different Purposes
Bodo Wichura, Thomas Foken .................................................. 1187
43.1 Principles of Atmospheric Measurement Station Classification ...... 1188
43.2 History.................................................................... 1190
43.3 Theory .................................................................... 1190
43.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1195
43.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1195
43.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1195
43.8 Applications.............................................................. 1196
43.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1197
References ....................................................................... 1197
44 Crowdsourcing
Matthias Budde ................................................................. 1199
44.2 History.................................................................... 1201
44.3 Theory .................................................................... 1202
44.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1212
44.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1213
44.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1217
44.8 Applications.............................................................. 1218
References ....................................................................... 1227
45 Mesometeorological Networks
Jerald A. Brotzge, Christopher A. Fiebrich ..................................... 1233
45.2 History.................................................................... 1235
45.3 Theory .................................................................... 1235
45.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1239
45.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1240
45.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1240
45.8 Applications.............................................................. 1242
45.9 Future Development .................................................... 1243
References ....................................................................... 1244
46 Aerological Measurements
Holger Vömel, Masatomo Fujiwara ............................................ 1247
46.2 History.................................................................... 1250
46.3 Theory .................................................................... 1254
46.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1268
XXXIV Contents
46.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1270

46.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1272
46.8 Application............................................................... 1272
46.9 Further Development ................................................... 1275
References ....................................................................... 1276
47 Composite Atmospheric Profiling

Christoph Kottmeier, Bianca Adler, Norbert Kalthoff, Ulrich Löhnert,
Ulrich Görsdorf................................................................... 1281
47.1 The Relevance of Composite Atmospheric Measurements............ 1282
47.2 History.................................................................... 1285
47.3 Theory .................................................................... 1287
47.4 Observation Platforms .................................................. 1291
47.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1294
47.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1294
47.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1295
47.8 Applications.............................................................. 1295
47.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1299
References ....................................................................... 1300
48 Aircraft-Based Flux Density Measurements

Raymond L. Desjardins, Devon E. Worth, Ian MacPherson,
Matthias Mauder, Jens Bange.................................................. 1305
48.2 History.................................................................... 1307
48.3 Theory .................................................................... 1308
48.5 Specifications of Sensors for Flux Density Measurements ............ 1313
48.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1314
48.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1315
48.8 Applications.............................................................. 1315
48.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1321
48.A Appendix................................................................. 1321
References ....................................................................... 1325
49 Unmanned Aircraft Systems

Jens Bange, Joachim Reuder, Andreas Platis ................................. 1331
49.2 History.................................................................... 1332
49.3 Theory .................................................................... 1333
49.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1339
49.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1339
49.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1340
49.8 Applications.............................................................. 1341
References ....................................................................... 1344
Contents XXXV
50 Ground-based Mobile Measurement Systems

Eberhard Parlow, Thomas Foken ............................................... 1351
50.2 History.................................................................... 1353
50.3 Theory .................................................................... 1354
50.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1361
50.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1361
50.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1362
50.8 Application............................................................... 1362
References ....................................................................... 1366
51 Measurement Systems for Wind, Solar

and Hydro Power Applications
Stefan Emeis, Stefan Wilbert.................................................... 1369
51.1 Measured Parameters ................................................... 1370
51.2 History.................................................................... 1371
51.3 Theory .................................................................... 1373
51.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1382
51.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1383
51.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1383
51.8 Application............................................................... 1384
References ....................................................................... 1387
52 Urban Measurements and Their Interpretation

Sue Grimmond, Helen C. Ward ................................................. 1391
52.1 Measurement Principles and Variables ................................ 1392
52.2 History.................................................................... 1394
52.3 Theory .................................................................... 1396
52.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1407
52.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1408
52.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1409
52.8 Applications.............................................................. 1409
52.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1413
References ....................................................................... 1413
53 Fog Deposition
Shih-Chieh Chang, Robert S. Schemenauer ................................... 1425
53.2 History.................................................................... 1430
53.3 Theory .................................................................... 1432
53.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1438
53.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1439
XXXVI Contents
53.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1440

53.8 Applications.............................................................. 1441
53.9 Further Developments .................................................. 1441
53.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1442
References ....................................................................... 1442
54 Immission and Dry Deposition

Ivonne Trebs, Christof Ammann, Jürgen Junk ................................. 1445
54.2 History.................................................................... 1448
54.3 Theory .................................................................... 1449
54.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1458
54.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1459
54.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1460
54.8 Application............................................................... 1460
54.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1463
References ....................................................................... 1463
55 Eddy-Covariance Measurements
Matthias Mauder, Thomas Foken, Marc Aubinet, Andreas Ibrom ........... 1473
55.1 Measurement Principles and Variables ................................ 1474
55.2 History.................................................................... 1477
55.3 Theory .................................................................... 1478
55.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1489
55.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1489
55.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1494
55.8 Application............................................................... 1494
References ....................................................................... 1496
56 Alternative Turbulent Trace Gas Flux Measurement Methods

Janne Rinne, Christof Ammann, Elizabeth Pattey, Kyaw Tha Paw U,
Raymond L. Desjardins.......................................................... 1505
56.2 History.................................................................... 1507
56.3 Theory .................................................................... 1509
56.4 Devices and Measuring Systems ........................................ 1516
56.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1522
56.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1523
56.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1523
56.8 Application............................................................... 1524
References ....................................................................... 1525
Contents XXXVII
57 Evapotranspiration Measurements and Calculations

Richard Allen, Thomas Foken, Ayse Kilic, Ricardo Trezza,
Samuel Ortega-Farias ........................................................... 1531
57.1 Principles of Evapotranspiration Determination ...................... 1532
57.2 History.................................................................... 1532
57.3 Theory .................................................................... 1535
57.4 Devices and Methods ................................................... 1555
57.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1556
57.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1556
57.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1559
57.8 Application............................................................... 1560
57.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1561
References ....................................................................... 1562
58 Lysimeter
Sascha Reth, Oscar Perez-Priego, Heinz Coners, Reinhard Nolz ............. 1569
58.1 Principles and Parameters .............................................. 1570
58.2 History.................................................................... 1571
58.3 Theory .................................................................... 1572
58.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1578
58.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1578
58.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1579
58.8 Applications.............................................................. 1579
58.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1581
References ....................................................................... 1582
59 Plant Chamber Measurements

Oscar Perez-Priego .............................................................. 1585
59.2 History of Chamber Measurements .................................... 1587
59.3 Theory .................................................................... 1587
59.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1593
59.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1593
59.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1594
59.8 Application............................................................... 1594
References ....................................................................... 1598
60 Soil Chamber Measurements

Jens-Arne Subke, Lars Kutzbach, David Risk .................................. 1603
60.1 Measurement Approaches, Principles, and Parameters .............. 1604
60.2 History of Soil Chamber Measurements................................ 1606
60.3 Theory .................................................................... 1608
60.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1616
60.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1616
XXXVIII Contents
60.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1619

60.8 Application............................................................... 1619
References ....................................................................... 1621
61 Soil Measurements
Bernd Huwe, Christina Bogner, Thomas Foken ............................... 1625
61.2 History.................................................................... 1630
61.3 Theory .................................................................... 1631
61.4 Devices, Systems, and Analyses ........................................ 1634
61.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1646
61.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1647
61.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1647
61.8 Applications.............................................................. 1648
61.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1651
References ....................................................................... 1651
62 Water Measurements
Volker Mohrholz, Anita Flohr ................................................... 1657
62.2 History.................................................................... 1660
62.3 Theory .................................................................... 1662
62.5 Specifications ............................................................ 1673
62.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 1674
62.7 Maintenance ............................................................. 1675
62.8 Application............................................................... 1676
62.10 Further Reading ......................................................... 1678
References ....................................................................... 1678
Part F Measurement Networks

63 Networks of Atmospheric Measuring Techniques
Rolf Philipona ................................................................... 1687
63.1 Relevance and Parameters of Networks ............................... 1688
63.2 History.................................................................... 1691
63.3 Network Structure ....................................................... 1693
63.4 Other Important Networks.............................................. 1699
63.5 Quality Control ........................................................... 1708
63.6 Maintenance ............................................................. 1709
63.7 Application............................................................... 1709
63.9 Further Reading ......................................................... 1710
References ....................................................................... 1710
Contents XXXIX
64 Integration of Meteorological and Ecological Measurements

Hans Peter Schmid, Corinna Rebmann ........................................ 1713
64.1 Relevance and Parameters of Networks ............................... 1714
64.2 History.................................................................... 1716
64.3 Structures of Notable Networks ........................................ 1717
64.4 Temporal and Spatial Scales ............................................ 1720
64.5 Quality Control of Ecological Measurement Networks ................ 1720
64.6 Maintenance ............................................................. 1721
64.7 Applications.............................................................. 1721
64.9 Further Reading ......................................................... 1722
References ....................................................................... 1722
Subject Index ...................................................................... 1727

XLI
List of Abbreviations
1-D one-dimensional AHSRL Arctic High-Spectral Resolution Lidar

2-D two-dimensional AI artificial intelligence
3-D three-dimensional AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research
3DVar 3-D variational Monitoring Network
4-D four-dimensional AIRS Atmospheric Infrared Sounder
4DVar 4-D variational AIS Air Ion Spectrometer
ALADIN Atmospheric Laser Doppler Instrument
ALADINA Application of Light-weight Aircraft for
A Detecting In Situ Aerosol
A-TOM acoustic travel-time tomography ALC Automatic Lidar and Ceilometers
A-Train afternoon train ALINE America Lidar Network
A/D analog/digital ALISSA L’Atmosphère Par Lidar Sur Saliout
A2D Aladin Airborne Demonstrator ALOMAR Arctic Lidar Observatory
AATSR Advanced Along Track Scanning AMDAR Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay
Radiometer AMF ARM mobile facility
ABI advanced baseline imager AMF air mass factor
ABL atmospheric boundary layer AMMA African Monsoon Multidisciplinary
AC alternating current Analysis
AC air capacity AMNet Atmospheric Mercury Network
ACARS Aircraft Communications Addressing AMoN Ammonia Monitoring Network
and Reporting System AMR antenna-mounted receiver
ACCC Aluminum Conductor Composite Core AMS aerosol mass spectrometer
ACE Aerosol–Cloud-Ecosystem AMSR Advanced Microwave Scanning
ACMS Aircraft Condition Monitoring System Radiometer
ACONS Aircraft-Fixed Orthonormal System AMSU Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit
ACP Absolute Cavity Pyrgeometer AOD aerosol optical depth
ACS auto-correlation spectrometers AOM acousto-optic modulator
ACTRIS Aerosols, Clouds and Trace Gases AOS acousto-optical spectrometers
Research Infrastructure AOT aerosol optical thickness
AD2CP Acoustic Doppler Dual Current Profiler APAR airborne phased array radar
ADC analog digital converter APD avalanche photodiode
ADCP acoustic Doppler current profiler API application programming interface
ADD aircraft-derived data APi-TOF Atmospheric Pressure Interface
ADER Ambient Dose Equivalent Rate Time-of-flight
ADONS aerodynamic coordinate system APRS Automated Packet Reporting System
ADP acoustic Doppler profiler APS aerodynamic particle sizer
ADR amplitude domain reflectometry aqSOA aqueous secondary organic aerosol
ADS automatic dependent surveillance ARE acoustic received echo
ADV acoustic Doppler velocimeter ARISE Arctic Radiation IceBridge Sea and Ice
AERI Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Experiment
Interferometer ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
AERONET Aerosol Robotic Network ART Algebraic Reconstruction Technique
AESA active electronically scanned array ARTS Atmospheric Radiative Transfer
AFC automatic frequency control Simulator
aFC available field capacity ASAP Automated Shipboard Aerological
AFIB aerodynamic fluxes using iterative Program
energy balance ASCAT Advanced Scatterometer
AFTIR Airborne FTIR ASCENDS Active Sensing of CO2 Emissions over
AGAGE Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Nights, Days and Seasons
Experiment ASCII American Standard Code for
AGC automatic gain control Information Exchange
AGL above ground level ASL above sea level
AGM aerodynamic gradient method ASL atmospheric surface layer
AHI Advanced Himawari Imager ASOS Automated Surface Observing System
XLII List of Abbreviations
ASR Absolute Sky-scanning Radiometer BR Bowen ratio

ASR Arctic System Reanalysis BRDF bidirectional reflectance distribution
ASTAR Arctic Study of Tropospheric Aerosol function
and Radiation BREB Bowen ratio energy balance
ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal BREEAM building research establishment
Emission and Reflection Radiometer environmental assessment method
ASTEX Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition BRF body reference frame
Experiment BS biosensor
ASY asymmetry parameter BSRN Baseline Surface Radiation Network
AT acoustic tomography BSU beam steering unit
ATC air traffic control BT Bluetooth
ATD arrival time difference BT brightness temperature
ATLID Atmospheric Lidar BUFR binary universal form for the
ATMS Advanced Technology Microwave representation of meteorological data
Sounder BWT beam widening telescope
ATOVS Advanced TIROS Operational Vertical
Sounder
ATS Applications Technology Satellite C
ATS Applications Technology System
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicel CAENEX Complete Atmospheric Energetics
AVAPS Airborne Vertical Atmospheric Profiling Experiment
System CAL calibration factor
AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution CAL/VAL calibration and validation
Radiometer CALIOP Cloud–Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal
AVIRIS Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Polarization
Spectrometer CALIPSO Cloud–Aerosol Lidar and Infrared
AVIRIS-NG Next-Generation Airborne Pathfinder Satellite Observation
Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer CAMS Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring
AVV Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift Service
AW available water CAPE convective available potential energy
AWS Automatic Weather Station CAPMoN Canadian Air and Precipitation
Monitoring Network
CAPS Cavity-attenuated Phase-shift
B Spectroscopy
CARIBIC Civil Aircraft for the Regular
BADM Biological, Ancillary, Disturbance, and Investigation of the Atmosphere Based
Metadata on an Instrument Container
BAPMoN Background Air Pollution Monitoring CASIE Characterization of Arctic Sea Ice
Network Experiment
BB broadband CASTNET Clean Air Status and Trends Network
BBCES Broadband Cavity-enhanced CAT clear-air turbulence
Spectrometer CATS cloud–aerosol transport system
BBR Broad Band Radiometer CBD central business district
BBS bulletin board systems CBL convective boundary layer
BC black carbon CC cloud-to-cloud
BCE Before the Common Era CCA constant-current anemometer
BD beam dump CCD charge-coupled device
BDC Brewer–Dobson circulation CCN cloud condensation nucleus
BDS BeiDou Navigation Satellite System CCOR clutter correlation
BE beam expander CDD cooling degree days
BEARPEX Biosphere Effects on Aerosol and CDR climate data record
Photochemistry Experiment CDR circular depolarization ratio
BITE built-in test equipment CDT Central Daylight Time
BL boundary laser CE Common Era
BLE Bluetooth low energy CERES Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy
BLS boundary-layer scintillometer System
BOMEX Barbados Oceanographic and CES cavity-enhanced spectroscopy
Meteorological Experiment CESAR Cabauw Experimental Site for
BOREAS Boreal Ecosystem–Atmosphere Study Atmospheric Research
BPLO backpropagated local oscillator CET Central European Time
List of Abbreviations XLIII
CF Climate and Forecasting CT computer-assisted tomography

CF fractional cloud cover CT cloud type
CFC chlorofluorocarbon CTA constant-temperature anemometer
CFD computational fluid dynamics CTBT Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
CFH cryogenic frostpoint hygrometer CTD conductivity-temperature-depth
CFHC carbon-fiber heated cable technology CTH cloud top height
CFL constant flux layer CTM chemical transport modeling
CFSR Climate Forecast System Reanalysis CTS chirp transform spectrometers
CG cloud to ground CubeRRT CubeSat Radiometer Radio Frequency
CHAM chamber method Interference Technology Validation
CHIOTTO continuous high-precision tall tower CVA constant-voltage anemometer
observations of greenhouse gases CW continuous wave
CIMR Copernicus Imaging Microwave CWC condensed water content
Radiometer CWOP Citizen Weather Observer Program
CIMS chemical ionization mass spectrometry
CIN convective inhibition
CLARREO Climate Absolute Radiance and D
Refractivity Observatory
CLD chemiluminescence detector DA data assimilation
ClearfLo Clean Air for London DAPPLE Dispersion of Air Pollution and its
CLRTAP Convention on Long-Range Penetration into the Local Environment
Transboundary Air Pollution DARE direct aerosol radiative effect
CNC Condensation Nucleus Counter DART discrete anisotropic radiative transfer
CNR carrier-to-noise ratio DAS Direct Absorption Spectroscopy
COBALD Compact Optical Backscatter and DASE differential absorption of scattered
Aerosol Detector energy
COD cloud optical depth DBH diameter at breast height
CODAR Coastal Ocean Dynamics Applications DBLS double-beam laser scintillometer
Radar DBS Doppler beam swinging
CODE California Ozone Deposition Experiment DC direct current
COHO highly coherent oscillator DCM 4-(dicyanomethylene)-2-methyl-6-(4-
CONRAD Convection Development in Operational dimethylaminostyryl)-4h-pyran
Radar Products DD double difference
COOP Cooperative Observer Program DDA discrete dipole approximation
COPS Convective and Orographically-induced DDIM dry deposition inferential method
Precipitation Study DDPIR double direction precision infrared
COR coherent on receive radiometer
COST European Cooperation in Science and DDS direct digital waveform synthesis
Technology DE detection efficiency
COT cloud optical thickness DEA Disjunct Eddy Accumulation
CPC condensation particle counter DEBITS Deposition of Biogeochemically
CPL Cloud Physics Lidar Important Trace Species
CPR Cloud Profiling Radar DEC Disjunct Eddy Covariance
CPU Central Processing Unit DELTA Denuder for Long-Term Atmospheric
CR catch ratio Sampling
CR color ratio DER cloud droplet effective radius
CR capillary rise DFG Difference Frequency Generation laser
CRDS Cavity Ring-down Spectroscopy spectroscopy
CRLB Cramer Rao lower bound DFIR double fence intercomparison reference
CRN clutter ratio narrow DFR differential frequency ratio
CRNS cosmic-ray neutron sensor DFS dynamic frequency selection
CRS cloud radar system DFT discrete Fourier transform
CRT cathode ray tube DHI diffuse horizontal irradiance
CRTM Community Radiative Transfer Model DIAL differential-absorption lidar
CS citizen science DIC dissolved inorganic carbon
CSAR cryogenic solar absolute radiometer DIF Directory Interchange Format
CSC concentrating solar technologies DIN Deutsche Industrienorm
CSET Cloud System Evolution in the Trades DIW deionized water
CSIP Convective Storms Initiation Project DIY do-it-yourself
CSP concentrating solar power DMA differential mobility analyzer
XLIV List of Abbreviations
DMPS differential mobility particle sizer EMEP European Monitoring and Evaluation
DNI direct normal irradiance Programme
DNS direct numerical simulation EMF electromotive force
DOAS differential optical absorption EMI electromagnetic interference
spectroscopy EN European standard
DOF degrees of freedom ENTA Environmental and Networking
DOI digital object identifier Technologies and Applications
DORIS Doppler Orbitography and EO Earth observation
Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite EOL Earth Observing Laboratory
DOY day of the year EOS Earth Observing System
DP depth of percolation EPC electronic pressure controller
DPR dual-frequency precipitation radar EPOS Earth Parameter and Orbit System
DQO data quality objective EPS EUMETSAT Polar System
DSD drop-size distribution EPS-SG EUMETSAT Polar System—Second
DSM digital surface model Generation
DSP digital signal processor ERF Environmental Response Function
DSY design summer year ERP Earth rotation parameter
DTS distributed temperature sensing ESAS Earth Science and Applications from
DWL Doppler Wind Lidar Space
DWR dual-wavelength ratio ESM electric supplementary material
DYN dynamic range ESM mobile experience sampling
ESTAR Electronically Scanned Thinned Array
Radiometer
E ET evapotranspiration
ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus
EA eddy accumulation EUMETNET European Meteorological Network
EAA electrical aerosol analyzer EUPHORE European Photoreactor
EANET Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in EURDEP European Radiological Data Exchange
East Asia Platform
EARLINET European Aerosol Research Lidar EUV Extreme Ultraviolet
Network EVA-GRIPS Evaporation at Grid-Pixel Scale
EBCM extended boundary condition method EVI Enhanced Vegetation Index
EBEX Energy Balance Experiment EXCO extinction coefficient
EC eddy covariance EXRAD ER-2 X-Band Radar
EC Executive Committee
ECC electrochemical concentration cell
ECD electron capture detector F
ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range
Weather Forecasts FA fractional absorption
ECV essential climate variable FAGE Fluorescence Assay by Gas Expansion
EDFA erbium-doped fiber amplifier FAPAR Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically
EDOP ER-2 Doppler Radar Active Radiation
EEFlux Earth Engine Flux FAR false alarm rate
EEPS Engine Exhaust Particle Sizer FASTEM fast microwave emissivity model
EESS Earth Exploration Satellite Service FBG fiber Bragg grating
EFEDA European Field Experiment in a FC field capacity
Desertification-Threatened Area FCA full correlation analysis
EG-CLIMET European Ground-Based Observations FCDR fundamental climate data records
of Essential Variables for Climate and FD forced diffusion
Operational Meteorology FDI frequency-domain interferometry
EIA extended-interaction amplifier FDL flux detection limit
EIK extended-interaction klystron FDMS filter dynamic measurement system
EIKA extended-interaction klystron amplifier FDR frequency domain reflectometry
ELDORA Electra Doppler Radar FET field-effect transistors
ELF extremely low frequency FFT Fast Fourier Transform
ELPI electrical low-pressure impactor FFTS Fast Fourier Transform Spectrometer
ELVOC extremely low-volatility organic FGGE First GARP Global Experiment
compound FHP five-hole probe
EM electromagnetic FIA flow injection analysis
eMAS Enhanced MODIS Airborne Simulator FIFE First ISLSCP Field Experiment
List of Abbreviations XLV
FIR finite impulse response GF (s.c.) glass fiber filter coated with s.c.
FIR fog interception rate GHG greenhouse gas
FLEX FLuorescence EXplorer GHI global horizontal irradiance
FLEX Fluorescence Explorer GHOST Global Horizontal Sounding Technique
FLUXNET Network of FLUX Measurement Sites GIS Geographic Information System
FM flow meter GLAS Geoscience Laser Altimeter System
FMCW frequency-modulated continuous wave GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System
FMCW radar frequency-modulated continuous-wave GLORIA Gimballed Limb Observer for Radiance
radar Imaging in the Atmosphere
FMICW frequency-modulated interrupted GM Geiger–Müller
continuous wave GM gradient method
FMPS fast mobility particle sizer GMD geometric mean diameter
FMS frequency modulation GMI GPM Microwave Imager
FNBW first null beam width GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite
FO fiber-optic GMT Greenwich Mean Time
FOM figure of merit GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
FORTRAN Formula Translation GO3OS Global Ozone Observing System
FOV field of view GOCE Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean
FPGA field-programmable gate array Circulation Explorer
FPH frostpoint hygrometer GOES Geostationary Operational
FRAND fair, reasonable, nondiscriminatory Environmental Satellite
FRP fire radiative power GOME Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment
FSOI forecast sensitivity to observation index GOMS Geostationary Operational
FSS forward scatter signal Meteorological Satellite
FT free troposphere GORN Liaison Group on Radar Networking
FTIR Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy GOS Global Observing System
FTIR Fourier-Transform Infrared GOSAT Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite
Spectroscopy GPM Global Precipitation Measurement
FTP file transfer protocol GPS Global Positioning System
FTS Fourier-transform Spectrometer GPSRO GPS Radio Occultation
FVFD fractional vertical flux divergence GRACE-II Gravity Recovery and Climate
FWHM full width at half maximum Experiment II
GRAS GNSS Receiver for Atmospheric
Sounding
G GRP glass-fiber reinforced plastic
GRUAN GCOS Reference Upper-Air Network
GAARS Global Atmospheric Aerosol and GSO geosynchronous orbit
Radiation Study GTI global tilted irradiance
GaAsP gallium arsenide phosphide GTS Global Telecommunication System
GACM Global Atmospheric Composition GUAN GCOS Upper-Air Network
Mission GUM Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty
GARP Global Atmospheric Research Program in Measurement
GAW Global Atmosphere Watch GURME GAW Urban Research Meteorology and
GAW-PFR Global Atmosphere Watch–Precision Environment Project
Filter Radiometer GV Gulfstream V
GAWSIS GAW Station Information System GW ground water
GC gas chromatography
GCM Global Climate Model
GCOS Global Climate Observing System H
GCRF Geocentric Celestial Reference Frame
GDACCS Geometrical Displacement and HADCP horizontal ADCP
Conduction Current Sensor HALO High Altitude and Long Range Research
GDP Global Drifter Program Aircraft
GEO-CAPE Geostationary Coastal and Air Pollution HAMP HALO Microwave Package
Event HAPEX Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot
GEOSS Global Earth Observing System of EXperiment
Systems HAR High-Altitude Radar
GERB Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget HATPRO Humidity and Temperature Profiler
Experiment HATS Halocarbons and other Atmospheric
GEWEX Global Energy and Water Exchanges Trace Species
XLVI List of Abbreviations
HCI human–computer interaction ICL Interband Cascade Laser

HCP height corrected pressure ICM Implementation and Coordination
HCR HIAPER Cloud Radar Meeting
HD hazard distance ICON-LEM Icosahedral Nonhydrostatic Large Eddy
HD high dose Model
HDD heating degree days ICOS Integrated Carbon Observation System
HDF Hierarchical Data Format ICOS Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy
HDF5 Hierarchical Data Format, version 5 IE intercomparison exercise
HDPE high-density polyethylene IF intermediate frequency
HDSS High-Definition Sounding System IF interference filter
HEPA high-efficiency particulate air IFC intensive field campaign
HF high frequency IFD intermediate frequency digitizer
HFC hydrofluorocarbon IFS integrated forecast system
HIAPER High-Performance Instrumented IGACO Integrated Global Atmospheric
Airborne Platform for Environmental Chemistry Observation
Research IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistor
HIRDLS High-Resolution Dynamics Limb IGRA infrared absorption gas analyzer
Sounder IGY International Geophysical Year
HIRS/4 High-Resolution Infrared Radiation IHOP International Water Vapor Project
Sounder IIR infinite impulse response
HITRAN High-Resolution Transmission IIR Imaging Infrared Radiometer
Molecular Absorption Database IL interception loss
HIWRAP High-Altitude Imaging Wind and Rain ILS instrumental line shape
Airborne Profiler IMIS Integrated Measuring and Information
HMMS Horizontal Mobile Measurement System System for the Surveillance of
HOM highly oxidized multifunctional Environmental Radioactivity
molecule IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected
HOPE HD(CP)2 Observational Prototype Visual Environments
Experiment IMS International Monitoring System
HPBW half-power beam width IMS ion-mobility spectroscopy
HPLC high-performance liquid IMU inertial measurement unit
chromatography IN ice nucleus
HRDL High Resolution Doppler Lidar INDAAF International Network to Study
HREA Hyperbolic Relaxed Eddy Accumulation Deposition and Atmospheric Chemistry
HS heterogeneous sensor in Africa
HSB Humidity Sounder for Brazil INS inertial navigation system
HSR high spectral resolution IOMS instrument odor measurement system
HSRL High Spectral Resolution Lidar IoT internet of things
HTDMA Hygroscopic Tandem Differential IP internet protocol
Mobility Analyzer IPAB International Programme for Antarctic
HWS horizontal wind speed Buoys
HYMEX Hydrological Cycle in the Mediterranean IPC International Pyrheliometer Comparison
Experiment IPDA integrated path differential absorption
IPgC International Pyrgeometer Comparison
IPM inflection point method
I IPS International Pyrheliometric Scale
IPT integrated profiling technique
IABP International Arctic Buoy Program IR infrared
IAGC instantaneous automatic gain control IRGA infrared gas analyzer
IAGOS In-service Aircraft for Global Observing IRIS Infrared Integrating Sphere Radiometer
System IRMS Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
IASI Infrared Atmospheric Sounding IRS Inertial Reference System
Interferometer IRSR interim reference sunshine recorder
IC ion chromatograph IRT infrared thermometer
IC ion chromatography ISA ICAO standard atmosphere
IC intracloud ISD ice crystal size distribution
IC interception capacity ISL inertial sublayer
ICESat-II Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite ISLSCP International Satellite Land Surface
II Climatology Project
ICI Ice Cloud Imager
List of Abbreviations XLVII
ISR intermediate storage reservoir LF low frequency

ITC integral turbulence characteristics LGB Lehmann–Groß–Bahn
ITOS Improved TIROS Operational System LHC lefthanded circular
ITRF international terrestrial reference frame LHN latent heat nudging
ITS International Temperature Scale LI lifted index
ITS-90 International Temperature Scale 90 lidar light detection and ranging
IWC ice water content LIF laser-induced fluorescence
IWP ice water path LIN linear channel
IWV integrated water vapor LIP laser-induced phosphorescence
I&Q In-phase & Quadrature LIPGLOS laser-induced phosphorescence of
(methyl)glyoxal spectrometry
J LIST Lidar Surface Topography
LITE Lidar In-space Technology Experiment
JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System LITFASS Lindenberg Inhomogeneous
JRAS Jena Reference Air Set Terrain—Fluxes Between Atmosphere
and Surface: a Long-Term Study
LM laser mirror
K LMS localized multifunction sensor
LNA low-noise amplifier
KENDA kilometer-scale ensemble data
LNG lidar aerosols nouvelle génération
assimilation
LN2 liquid nitrogen
KO convektiv-index LO local oscillator
KPR Ka-Band Precipitation Radar LO local reference frame
KU kurtosis
LoA letter of agreement
LOD limit of detection
L LOG logarithmic channel
LOPAP Long-Path Absorption Photometer
L lens LOS line of sight
LACROS Leipzig Aerosol and Cloud Remote LPI low-pressure impactor
Observations System LR lidar ratio
LADCP Lowered Acoustic Doppler Current LRU line replaceable units
Profiler LSA land surface analysis
LAFE Land–Atmosphere Feedback Experiment LSB least significant bit
LAI Leaf-area Index LSC liquid scintillation spectroscopy
LALINET Latin America Lidar Network LSE least squares estimation
LAN Local Area Network LSQ least squares
LAPSE-RATE Lower Atmospheric Process Studies at LSSF large-scale single function
Elevation—a Remotely Piloted Team LST land surface temperature
Experiment LT local time
LAS large-aperture scintillometer LTER Long-Term Ecological Research
LASE Lidar Atmospheric Sensing Experiment LTI linear time-invariant
LASS Location-aware Sensing System LTST local true solar time
LBA Large-Scale Biosphere–Atmosphere LU lower-upper (matrix decomposition)
LBLRTM Line-By-Line Radiative Transfer Model LWC liquid water content
LCZ local climate zone LWIM Low-power Wireless Integrated
LD low dose Microsensors
LDA laser Doppler anemometer LWP liquid water path
LDM local data manager
LDR linear depolarization ratio
LE latent heat M
LEANDRE lidar pour l’etude des interactions
aérosols nuages dynamique rayonnement M-GGA Microportable Greenhouse Gas Analyzer
et du cycle de l’eau M2AV Meteorological Mini Aerial Vehicle
LED light-emitting diode MAAP Multi-angle Absorption Photometer
LEED leadership in energy and environmental MAD absolute deviation from the median
design MAGS Mackenzie GEWEX Study
LERA least expensive radar MaNiP manipulation nitrogen and phosphorous
LES Large Eddy Simulation MART multiplicative algebraic reconstruction
LETKF Local Ensemble Transform Kalman technique
Filter MASC Multi-purpose Airborne Sensor Carrier
XLVIII List of Abbreviations
MASTER MODIS/ASTER Airborne Simulator MOST Monin–Obukhov similarity theory

MAV micro air vehicle MOUDI Micro-orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor
MBR modified Bowen ratio method MOZAIC Measurement of Ozone and Water
MC Monte Carlo Vapour on Airbus In-service Aircraft
MCM master chemical mechanism MPD MicroPulse DIAL
MCP microchannel plate MPL Micro-Pulse Lidar
MCS mobile crowdsourcing MPLNET Micro-Pulse Lidar Network
MCSE minimum chi square estimation MPM microwave propagation model
MDN Mercury Deposition Network MPSS Mobility Particle Size Spectrometer
MDS minimum detectable signal MR measurement result
MELTEX Impact of Melt Ponds on Energy and MRA Mutual Recognition Arrangement
Momentum Fluxes between Atmosphere MRT Magnetic Resonance Tomography
and Sea Ice MRU Motion Reference Unit
MEMS microelectromechanical system MS mesosphere
MESH maximum estimated size of hail MS mass spectrometer
METEOSAT Meteorological satellite MSG METEOSAT Second Generation
MetOp Meteorological Operational Satellite MSI Multispectral Imager
MetOp-SG Meteorological Operation Satellite, MSI Multispectral Instrument
Second Generation MSL mean sea level
METRIC Mapping Evapotranspiration at High MSP Mie spectrometer
Resolution Using Internalized MSS Multispectral Scanner
Calibration MST mesosphere-stratosphere-troposphere
METROMEX Metropolitan Meteorological MST Mountain Standard Time
Experiment MSU Microwave Sounding Unit
MFC mass flow controller MTBF Mean Time Between Failures
MFP multihole flow probe MTG METEOSAT Third Generation
MFRSR multifilter rotating shadowband MTI Moving Target Indicator
radiometer MTP Microwave Temperature Profiler
MG measurement guideline MUSIC MUltiple Signal Classification
MH mixing height MVIRI METEOSAT Visible and Infrared
MHS Microwave Humidity Sounder Imager
MIMIC Microwave and Millimeter-wave MW microwave
Integrated Circuit MWI Microwave Imager
MIMO Multiple-input Multiple-output MWR microwave radiometry
MIR mid-infrared MWR microwave radiometer
MISR Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer MWS microwave sounder
MITRA monitor to measure the integral MWS microwave scintillometer
transmittance MZI Mach–Zehnder Interferometer
ML mixed layer
MLE maximum likelihood estimation
MLH mixed-layer height N
MLS maximum length sequence
MLS Microwave Limb Sounder NADP National Atmospheric Deposition
MLT mean local time Program
MM multimode NAIS Neutral Cluster and Air Ion
MMIC Monolithic Microwave-integrated Spectrometer
Circuit NARVAL Next-Generation Aircraft Remote
MODE-S EHS Mode-Selective Enhanced Surveillance Sensing for Validation
Data NAST-I NPOESS Airborne Sounder Testbed
MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Interferometer
Spectroradiometer NAWDEX North Atlantic Waveguide and
MODTRAN MODerate resolution atmospheric Downstream Impact Experiment
TRANsmission NBL-K nocturnal boundary-layer Keeling plot
MONS Meteorological Orthonormal Coordinate NDACC Network for the Detection of
System Atmospheric Composition Change
MOPA master oscillator power amplifier NDDN National Dry Deposition Network
MOPITT Measurements of Pollution in the NDSC Network for the Detection of
Troposphere Stratospheric Change
MOR meteorological optical range NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NEDT noise equivalent differential temperature
Another random document with
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The Viceroy’s Memorial is chiefly interesting as an example of that
chief and unalterable sentiment which actuates the Chinese literati
and has been one of the strongest pillars of Manchu rule, namely,
that the Emperor is infallible, a sentiment based on the fact that
complete and unquestioning loyalty to the Throne is the essential
cornerstone of the whole fabric of Confucian morality, filial piety, and
ancestral worship. While deprecating the Imperial folly, the Viceroy is
therefore compelled to ascribe it to everyone but Her Majesty, and to
praise the Imperial wisdom and benevolence.
His Memorial is as follows:—
“The present war is due to bandits spreading slaughter and

arson on the pretext of paying off a grudge against
Christianity; thus we are face to face with a serious crisis. The
Powers are uniting to send troops and squadrons to attack
China on the plea of protecting their subjects and suppressing
this rebellion. Our position is critical and the provinces are
naturally bound to look now to their defences. I have already
made the necessary preparations, so that if those hordes of
foreigners do invade us, we shall resist them with all our
might. I feel that our Sovereigns are displaying glorious virtue
and that your Majesties are as bountiful as the Almighty. Your
indulgence to the men from afar indicates the boundless
magnanimity and good faith which animate all your actions.
“At present, the first essential is to make the Throne’s
embarrassments, which have led up to the present situation,
widely known, as well as the quality of consistent kindness
with which you are imbued. By so doing, rebels will be
deprived of any pretext for further rioting.
“At the beginning of the war, my colleagues and I issued a
proclamation bidding the people go about their avocations as
usual, and not to give heed to suspicious rumours. A petition
has now reached me from Chinese residents abroad to urge
effective protection for foreigners in China, so that there may
be no risk of revenge being taken on themselves. The
language used is very strong, and we have taken advantage
of the visit of the foreign Consuls, who suggested certain
measures for the protection of missionaries and merchants, to
give orders to the Shanghai Taotai to come to an arrangement
with them in regard to the preservation of peace in the
Yangtsze valley, and at Soochow and Hangchow. This
arrangement will hold good so long as they do not invade the
region in question. The Consuls have telegraphed to their
respective Governments, and I to our Ministers abroad,
explaining fully this arrangement. The Germans, owing to the
murder of their Minister, were disposed to oppose it, but
finally, under compulsion from their colleagues, gave their
consent also.
“I respectfully quote your Majesties’ decree of the 29th of
the 5th Moon (June 25th): ‘The foreign Ministers are now in a
desperately dangerous position; we are still doing our best to
protect them.’ The decree proceeds to direct us to guard well
our respective provinces and to take such steps as policy may
dictate at this emergency. Again, on the 3rd of the 6th Moon
(June 29th), your decree to our Ministers abroad states ‘We
are now sending troops to protect the Legations, but we are
weak and can only do our best. You are to carry on the
business of your missions abroad as usual.’
“In other words, the Throne is inflicting stern and exemplary
punishment on those foreigners in Tientsin who provoked
hostilities, while doing its utmost to protect those innocent
foreign officials, merchants and missionaries who were not
responsible for those attacks. Your benevolence and the
majesty of your wrath are displayed simultaneously,
manifested as brightly as the sun and moon.
“We have again and again implored you to protect the
foreign Ministers: this is the one all-important step which must
on no account be deferred a day, not only because your
Majesties’ own anxiety recognises its necessity, but because
the crisis now forces it upon you.
“The Ministers abroad, Yang Ju and his colleagues, have
telegraphed to the effect that our first duty is to protect the
lives of the foreign Ministers and of all foreigners in China. I
therefore humbly ask you to send competent troops to protect
the Legations in Peking, and by so doing to protect the lives
of your own Envoys abroad. I also urge you to instruct the
provincial authorities to protect all foreigners within their
respective jurisdictions, and thereby to protect our Chinese
subjects residing in foreign lands. My anxiety is intense.”
To this memorial Tzŭ Hsi replied, by express courier and telegram,

as follows:
“Your memorial has reached us. The Throne was reluctant

lightly to enter upon hostilities, as we have already informed
the several foreign Governments and the various provincial
authorities. We have also issued several decrees ordering
protection for the Ministers and foreign residents all over
China. Hence our ideas seem to be identical with your own.
[101] Happily all the Ministers, except Baron von Ketteler, are
perfectly well and quite comfortable; only a day or two ago we
sent them presents of fruits and viands, in order to show our
commiseration. If the Powers now dare to invade your
provinces, you must all protect your territories and resist with
all your might. Even though at the moment peace may prevail,
you must make most strenuous preparations against possible
emergencies. In a word, we will not willingly be the
aggressors. You are to inform our various Legations abroad of
our calm and kindly feelings towards all foreigners, so that
they may think out some plan of a peaceful settlement, in the
general interest. It is highly desirable that you give no ready
ear to vague rumours which are calculated only to lead to
further lack of unity. This decree is to be conveyed by special
courier, at six hundred li (two hundred miles) a day.”
A few days before this Decree, i.e., on the 1st of July, Her Majesty
had drafted with her own pen an explanatory decree for the
edification of the foreign Powers, recounting how the Throne had
been led into its present unpleasant situation. It is interesting to note
that, ten days before, she had offered rewards for the heads of
foreigners in Peking and had sent orders to Yü Hsien to kill every
foreigner in Shansi, which he did. But Tzŭ Hsi had studied her
classics and knew from her own experience how easily dissension
and jealousies could be created among the barbarians.
“Owing to a succession of most unfortunate circumstances,

rapidly and confusedly following each other, we are utterly at
a loss to account for the situation which has brought about
hostilities between China and the Powers. Our
representatives abroad are separated from us by wide seas,
and besides have no special knowledge of the facts, and they
are therefore unable to explain to the respective Foreign
Offices the real state of the Chinese Government’s feelings.
We therefore desire now to place before you the following
detailed statement of the facts.
“In the Provinces of Chihli and Shantung there has arisen a
certain class of disorderly characters who, in their respective
villages, have been wont to practise the use of the quarter-
staff and pugilism, combining these exercises with certain
magic arts and incantations. Owing to the failure of the local
Magistrates to detect and stop these proceedings, the result
has been that gradually a state of unrest has shown itself
throughout that region until, all of a sudden, the Boxer
movement assumed serious proportions. They spread even to
Peking, where they were regarded as possessed of
supernatural powers, so that they gained vast numbers of
followers and universal sympathy. Following in their train the
disorderly people of the lower sort raised a cry of ‘Death to
the Christians!’ following upon which, in the middle of the 5th
Moon, they proceeded to carry their words into deeds, and to
slaughter the converts. The churches were burned, the whole
city was in an uproar, and the population passed completely
out of our control.
“When the first rumours of the coming disaster were noised
abroad, the Legations asked our consent to bring up special
guards, which consent, in view of the special necessities of
the case, was readily given. In all some five hundred foreign
troops came to Peking, which in itself shows plainly the
friendly disposition of the Throne towards all foreign nations.
Under ordinary circumstances the foreign Legations and their
guards do not come in contact with the local Chinese
authorities, and have no relations with them, friendly or
otherwise; but since the arrival of these troops, the soldiers
have not confined themselves to the duty of protecting the
Legations, but have gone upon the city walls and have even
patrolled the outlying parts of the capital, with the result that
shots have been exchanged and blood has been shed.
Indeed, so great are the liberties which they have taken in the
course of their walks abroad, that on one occasion they
actually endeavoured to force their way into the Forbidden
City, which, however, they failed to do. For these reasons
great and widespread indignation has been excited against
them, and evil-doers have seized the opportunity to commit
deeds of slaughter and arson, waxing daily bolder. At this
stage the Powers endeavoured to bring up[102]
reinforcements from Tientsin, but these were cut to pieces on
their journey from the sea, and the attempt was perforce
abandoned. By this time the rebels in the two provinces had
become so intermingled with the people that it was impossible
to identify them. The Throne was by no means averse to give
orders for their suppression, but had we acted with undue
haste, the result might have been a general conflagration, and
our efforts to protect the Legations might have ended in a dire
calamity. If we had proceeded to destroy the rebels in the two
provinces, no single missionary or native Christian would
have been left alive in either, so that we had to proceed
cautiously in this dilemma.
“Under these circumstances we were compelled to suggest
the temporary withdrawal of the Legations to Tientsin, and we
were proceeding to make the necessary arrangements to this
end when the German Minister was unfortunately murdered
one morning on his way to the Tsungli Yamên. This incident
placed the rebel leaders in a desperate position, like that of
the man who rides a tiger and who hesitates whether it be
more dangerous for him to continue his ride or to jump off. It
became then inexpedient that the proposed withdrawal of the
Legations to Tientsin should proceed. All we could do we did,
which was to enforce urgent measures for the due protection
of the Legations in every emergency. To our dismay, on the
16th ultimo, certain foreign naval officers from the squadron
outside Taku had an interview with the Commandant of the
forts, demanding their surrender, and adding that, if their
demand were refused, they would take them by force on the
following day. The Commandant was naturally unable to
betray the trust confided to him, and the foreigners
accordingly bombarded the forts and captured them after a
vigorous resistance. A state of war has thus been created, but
it is none of our doing; besides, how could China be so utterly
foolish, conscious as she is of her weakness, as to declare
war on the whole world at once? How could she hope to
succeed by using the services of untrained bandits for any
such a purpose? This must be obvious to the Powers.
“The above is an accurate statement of our situation,
explaining the measures unavoidably forced upon China to
meet the situation. Our representatives abroad must carefully
explain the tenor of this decree to the Governments to which
they are accredited. We are still instructing our military
Commanders to protect the Legations, and can only do our
best. In the meantime you, our Ministers, must carry on your
duties as usual, and not pose as disinterested spectators.”
Supplementing this Decree, the Empress, possibly instigated by

some of the master-minds of the Grand Council, proceeded to
prepare the way for a time-honoured, and invariably successful,
device of Chinese statecraft, namely, the creation of dissension and
jealousy between the Powers, and to this end she addressed
telegrams to the Emperor of Russia, Queen Victoria, the Emperor of
Japan, and other rulers. It is typical of the infantile naïveté of
Chinese officials in such matters of foreign policy, that copies of
these extraordinary messages, intended solely to mislead public
opinion abroad, should have been sent in to the (still besieged)
Legations with the cards of Prince Ch’ing, and the Ministers of the
Tsungli Yamên.[103] It is certain that these artless telegrams, as well
as the conciliatory instructions subsequently sent to China’s
representatives abroad, were but the outward and visible signs of
Tzŭ Hsi’s inward and spiritual misgivings caused by the fall of the
Taku Forts, the capture of the native city of Tientsin, and the massing
of the armies of the Allies for the advance on her capital. If possible,
she would therefore make friends in advance among the humane,
and invariably gullible, sovereigns of Europe, making good use of
her knowledge of their little weaknesses in matters of foreign policy,
and be ready to pose in due course as the innocent victim of
circumstance and fate. But “in the profound seclusion of her Palace”
she continued to hope against hope for the Boxers’ promised
victories and the fall of the Legations which she was so carefully
“protecting.”
And here let us briefly digress. Students of modern Chinese
history, desirous of applying its latest lessons to future uses, will no
doubt observe, that in advising the Throne either for peace or war, all
Chinese and Manchu officials (no matter how good or bad from our
point of view, how brave or cowardly, how honest or corrupt) agree
and unite in frankly confessing to their hatred of the foreigner and all
his works. This sentiment, loudly proclaimed by the simple-minded
braggart Boxers, is politely re-echoed by the literati, and voiced with
equal candour by the picked men of the Government, men like Yuan
Shih-k’ai, Jung Lu, and Liu K’un-yi. Those who pose as the friends of
foreigners merely advocate dissimulation as a matter of expediency.
The thought should give us pause, not only in accepting at their
current value the posturings and pronouncements of the monde
diplomatique at Peking, and the reassurances given as to our
excellent relations with such-and-such officials, but it should also
lead us to consider what are the causes, in us or in them, which
produce so constant and so deep a hatred? If we study the
Memorials of high Chinese officials for the past fifty years, the same
unpleasant feature presents itself at every turn. We may meet with
exceptional cases, here and there, like Yüan Ch’ang, who will
profess respect for the European, but even his respect will be
qualified and never go to the length of intimate friendship. Our
perennial gullibility, that faculty which makes the Chinese classical
“allurements” invariably successful with the foreigner, accounts, no
doubt, to some extent for the Chinese official’s contempt for our
intelligence, and for our failure to learn by experience. It is fairly
certain that the Boxers of to-morrow will be pooh-poohed (if not
applauded) in advance by our Chinese Secretariats, as they were in
1900. But for the Chinese official’s unchanging hostility towards us,
no such explanation offers, and it is perhaps, therefore, most
satisfactory to our amour propre to assume that his attitude is
dictated by feelings similar to those which inspired Demetrius of the
Ephesians, ostensibly fearful for the cult of Diana, but in reality
disturbed for his own livelihood.
To return. The following are translations of the telegrams sent
under date 3rd July, by order of the Empress Dowager, to the
Emperor of Russia, Queen Victoria, and the Emperor of Japan. The
text of those which were sent at the same time to the Presidents of
the French and American Republics, and which were dated,
curiously enough, on the 19th of June (the Taku Forts fell on the
16th), have been published in Monsieur Cordier’s most accurate and
painstaking work, Les Relations de la Chine, Vol. III.
Telegram dated 3rd July:—
“To the Emperor of Russia:—Greeting to your Majesty! For

over two hundred and fifty years our neighbouring Empires
have enjoyed unbroken relations of friendship, more cordial
than those existing between any other Powers.
“Recent ill-feeling created between converts to Christianity
and the rest of our people have afforded an opportunity to
evil-disposed persons and rebels to create disturbances, and
the result has been that the foreign Powers have been led to
believe that the Throne itself is a party to their proceedings
and is hostile to Christianity. Your Majesty’s representative at
my Court (M. de Giers) has actually requested our Foreign
Office to suppress the rebellion and thus to allay the
suspicions of the Powers. But at the time that he made this
request, Peking was thoroughly infested with rebels, who had
stirred up the people and gained for themselves no small
prestige. Not only our soldiery but the mass of the people
were burning for revenge against those who practised the
foreign religion, and even certain Princes of our Imperial Clan
joined in the movement, declaring that there was no room in
the Celestial Kingdom for Christianity and the ancient
religions of the soil. My chief anxiety has been lest any
precipitate action on the part of the Government might lead to
some dire catastrophe (i.e., the destruction of the Legations),
and I feared, too, that the anti-foreign movement might break
out simultaneously at the Treaty Ports in the South, which
would have made the position hopeless. I was doing my
utmost to find a way out of the dilemma when the foreign
Powers, evidently failing to realise the difficulties of our
situation, precipitated matters by the bombardment and
capture of the Taku Forts: now we are confronted with all the
dire calamities of war, and the confusion in our Empire is
greater than ever before. Amongst all the Powers, none has
enjoyed such friendly relations with China as Russia. On a
former occasion I deputed Li Hung-chang to proceed to your
Majesty’s capital as my special Envoy; he drew up on our
behalf and concluded with your country a secret Treaty of
Alliance, which is duly recorded in the Imperial Archives.
“And now that China has incurred the enmity of the civilised
world by stress of circumstances beyond our power to control,
I must perforce rely upon your country to act as intermediary
and peacemaker on our behalf. I now make this earnest and
sincere appeal to your Majesty, begging that you may be
pleased to come forward as arbitrator, and thus to relieve the
difficulties of our situation. We await with anxiety your
gracious reply.”
On the same day the Empress Dowager addressed Her Majesty

Queen Victoria in a telegram which was sent in the Emperor’s name
and forwarded through the Chinese Minister in London. Its text runs
as follows:—
“To your Majesty, greeting!—In all the dealings of England

with the Empire of China, since first relations were
established between us, there has never been any idea of
territorial aggrandisement on the part of Great Britain, but only
a keen desire to promote the interests of her trade. Reflecting
on the fact that our country is now plunged into a dreadful
condition of warfare, we bear in mind that a large proportion
of China’s trade, seventy or eighty per cent., is done with
England: moreover, your Customs duties are the lightest in
the world, and few restrictions are made at your sea-ports in
the matter of foreign importations; for these reasons our
amicable relations with British merchants at our Treaty Ports
have continued unbroken for the last half century, to our
mutual benefit.
“But a sudden change has now occurred and general
suspicion has been created against us. We would therefore
ask you now to consider that if, by any conceivable
combination of circumstances, the independence of our
Empire should be lost, and the Powers unite to carry out their
long plotted schemes to possess themselves of our territory,
the results to your country’s interests would be disastrous and
fatal to your trade. At this moment our Empire is striving to the
utmost to raise an army and funds sufficient for its protection;
in the meanwhile we rely upon your good services to act as
mediator, and now anxiously await your decision.”
Again, in the name of the Emperor and through the Chinese
Minister at Tokio, the following message was addressed to the
Emperor of Japan:—
“To your Majesty, greeting!—The Empires of China and

Japan hang together, even as the lips and the teeth, and the
relations existing between them have always been
sympathetic. Last month we were plunged in deep grief when
we learned of the murder of the Chancellor of your Legation in
Peking; we were about to arrest and punish the culprits when
the Powers, unnecessarily suspicious of our motives, seized
the Taku Forts, and we found ourselves involved in all the
horrors of war. In face of the existing situation, it appears to
us that at the present time the Continents of Europe and Asia
are opposed to each other, marshalling their forces for a
conflict of irreconcilable ambitions; everything therefore
depends upon our two Asiatic Empires standing firm together
at this juncture. The earth-hungry Powers of the West, whose
tigerish eyes of greed are fixed in our direction, will certainly
not confine their attention to China. In the event of our Empire
being broken up, Japan in her turn will assuredly be hard
pressed to maintain her independence. The community of our
interests renders it clearly imperative that at this crisis we
should disregard all trifling causes of discord, and consider
only the requirements of the situation, as comrade nations.
We rely upon your Majesty to come forward as arbitrator, and
anxiously await your gracious reply to this appeal.”
These remarkable effusions have been inscribed in the annals of

the Dynasty, by order of Her Majesty, those same annals from which
all her Boxer Edicts have been solemnly expunged for purposes of
historic accuracy. One cannot but hope that, in process of time,
consideration of facts like these may cure European diplomacy and
officialdom generally of its unreasoning reverence for the Chinese
written character, a species of fetish-worship imbibed from the native
pundit and aggravated by the sense of importance which knowledge
of this ancient language so frequently confers.
These Imperial messages throw into strong relief the elementary
simplicity of China’s foreign policy, a quality which foreigners
frequently misunderstand, in the general belief that the Oriental mind
conceals great depths of subtlety and secret information. Looking at
these documents in the light of the known facts of China’s political
situation at that moment, and stripping them of all artificial glamour, it
becomes almost inconceivable that any Government should publish
to the world and file in its archives such puerile productions. But it is
frequently the case that this very kindergarten element in Chinese
politics is a stumbling-block to the elaborate and highly specialised
machinery of European diplomacy, and that, being at a loss how to
deal with the suspiciously transparent artifices of the elderly children
of the Waiwupu, the foreigner excuses and consoles himself by
attributing to them occult faculties and resources of a very high
order. If one must be continually worsted, it is perhaps not unwise to
attribute to one’s adversary the qualities of Macchiavelli, Talleyrand
and Metternich combined. As far as British interests are concerned,
one of the chief lessons emphasised by the events of the past ten
years in China is, that the reform of our diplomatic machinery (and
particularly of the Consular service) is urgently needed, a reform for
which more than one British Minister has vainly pleaded in Downing
Street.
XX
THE FLIGHT FROM PEKING AND THE COURT IN
EXILE
The diarist, Ching Shan, has described in detail the flight of the
Empress Dowager and Emperor from Peking, before dawn, on the
morning of the 15th August. From an account of the Court’s journey,
subsequently written by the Grand Secretary, Wang Wen-shao, to
friends in Chekiang, and published in one of the vernacular papers of
Shanghai, we obtain valuable corroboration of the diarist’s accuracy,
together with much interesting information.
Wang Wen-shao overtook their Majesties at Huai-lai on the 18th
August; for the past three days they had suffered dangers and
hardships innumerable. On the evening of the 19th they had stopped
at Kuanshih (seventy li from Peking), where they slept in the
Mosque. There the Mahommedan trading firm of “Tung Kuang yü”
(the well-known contractors for the hire of pack animals for the
northern caravan trade) had supplied them with the best of the poor
food available—coarse flour, vegetables, and millet porridge—and
had provided mule litters for the next stage of the journey. As the
troops of the escort had been ordered to remain at some distance
behind, so long as there was any risk of pursuit by the Allies’ cavalry,
their Majesties’ arrival was unannounced, and their identity
unsuspected. As they descended from their carts, travel-stained,
weary, and distressed, they were surrounded by a large crowd of
refugee idlers and villagers, eager for news from the capital. An eye-
witness of the scene has reported that, looking nervously about him,
the Emperor said, “We have to thank the Boxers for this,” whereupon
the Old Buddha, undaunted even at the height of her misfortunes,
bade him be silent.
Next day they travelled, by mule litter, ninety li (thirty-two miles),
and spent the night at Ch’a-Tao, just beyond the Great Wall. Here no
preparations of any kind had been made for their reception, and they
suffered much hardship, sleeping on the brick platform (k’ang)
without any adequate bedding. But the Magistrate of Yen-Ch’ing
chou had been able to find a blue sedan-chair for Her Majesty, who
had thus travelled part of the day in greater comfort. Also at midday,
stopping to eat at Chü-yung kuan, Li Lien-ying, the chief eunuch, had
obtained a few tea cups from the villagers.
On the 16th they travelled from Ch’a-Tao to Huai-lai, a hard stage
of fifty li. Some of the officials and Chamberlains of the Court now
joined their Majesties, so that the party consisted of seventeen carts,
in addition to the Old Buddha’s palanquin and the Emperor’s mule
litter. As the cortège advanced, and the news of their flight was
spread abroad, rumours began to be circulated that they were
pretenders, personating the Son of Heaven and the Old Buddha,
rumours due, no doubt, to the fact that Her Majesty was still wearing
her hair in the Chinese manner, and that her clothes were the
common ones in which she had escaped from the Forbidden City. In
spite of these rumours the Magistrate of Huai-lai, a Hupeh man (Wu
Yung), had received no intimation of their Majesties’ coming, and,
when the Imperial party, accompanied by an enormous crowd,
entered his Yamên, he had no time to put on his official robes, but
rushed down to receive them as he was. After prostrating himself, he
wanted to clear out the noisy and inquisitive rabble, but the Old
Buddha forbade him, saying, “Not so; let them crowd around us as
much as they like. It amuses me to see these honest country folk.”
Here, after three days of coarse fare, the Empress Dowager rejoiced
once more in a meal of birds’-nest soup and sharks’ fins, presented
by the Magistrate, who also furnished her with an outfit of woman’s
clothing and suits for the Emperor and the Heir Apparent, for all of
which he received Her Majesty’s repeated and grateful thanks.
It was here, at Huai-lai, while the Court was taking a day’s rest,
that Wang Wen-shao came up with them. He was cordially, even
affectionately, greeted by the Old Buddha, who condoled with him on
the hardships to which he had been exposed, and insisted on his
sharing her birds’-nest soup, which, she said, he would surely enjoy
as much as she had done after so many and great privations. She
rebuked the Emperor for not greeting the aged Councillor with warm
thanks for his touching devotion to the Throne.
From Huai-lai, Prince Ch’ing was ordered to return to Peking to
negotiate terms of peace with the Allies. Knowing the difficulties of
this task, he went reluctantly; before leaving he had a long audience
with Her Majesty, who assured him of her complete confidence in his
ability to make terms, and bade him adopt a policy similar to that of
Prince Kung in 1860.
Wang Wen-shao’s account of the first part of the Court’s journey is
sufficiently interesting to justify textual reproduction.
“Their Majesties fled from the palace at the dawn of day in

common carts. It was only after their arrival at Kuanshih that
they were provided with litters. The Emperor and Prince P’u
Lun rode on one cart until their arrival at Huai-lai, where the
District Magistrate furnished a palanquin, and later on, at
Hsüan-hua, four large sedan chairs were found for the
Imperial party. It was at this point that the Emperor’s Consort
overtook their Majesties.
“So hurried was the flight that no spare clothes had been
taken; the Empress Dowager was very shabbily dressed, so
as to be almost unrecognisable, the Chinese mode of hair-
dressing producing a very remarkable alteration in her
appearance. On the first night after leaving Peking, they slept,
like travellers of the lowest class, on the raised brick platform
of the inn, where not even rice was obtainable for the evening
meal, so that they were compelled to eat common porridge
made of millet. In all the disasters recorded in history, never
has there been such a pitiful spectacle.
“It was only after reaching Huai-lai that their condition
improved somewhat, but even then the number of personal
attendants and eunuchs was very small, and not a single
concubine was there to wait upon the Old Buddha. For the
first few days’ flight, neither Prince Li, nor Jung Lu, nor Ch’i
Hsiu (all of them Grand Councillors), were in attendance so
that Her Majesty nominated Prince Tuan to serve on the
Council. She reviled him at the outset severely, reproaching
him for the misfortunes which had overtaken the Dynasty, but
as time went on, as he shared with her the privations and
troubles of the day’s journey, she became more gracious
towards him. This was to some extent due to the very great
influence which Prince Tuan’s wife exercised at Court.
“When I reached Huai-lai, the Court consisted of the
Princes Tuan, Ching, Na, Su, and P’u Lun, with a following of
high officials led by Kang Yi, and some twenty Secretaries.
General Ma’s troops and some of the Banner Corps of Prince
Tuan formed the Imperial escort; and they plundered every
town and village on their line of march. This, however, is
hardly remarkable, because all the shops had been closed
and there were no provisions to be purchased anywhere.
“To go back for a few days. Yü Lu (Viceroy of Chihli) shot
himself in a coffin shop at a place south of the Hunting Park,
and Li Ping-heng took poison after the defeat of his troops at
T’ungchow. The Court’s flight had already been discussed
after the first advance of the Allies from T’ungchow towards
Peking; but the difficulty in providing sufficient transport was
considered insuperable. On the 19th of the Moon a steady
cannonade began at about midnight, and, from my house in
Magpie Lane, one could note, by the volume of sound, that
the attack was steadily advancing closer to the city, and
eventually bullets came whistling as thick as hail. The
bombardment reached its height at about noon on the 20th,
when news was brought that two gates of the Imperial City
had been taken by storm. I was unable to verify this report. It
was my turn for night duty at the Palace, but after the last
audience, I was unable to enter the Forbidden City, as all its
gates were barred. It was only at 7 a.m. on the 21st inst.
(August 15th) that I was able to gain admittance to the
Forbidden City, and then I learned that their Majesties had
hurriedly fled. On the previous day five urgent audiences with
the Grand Council had been held; at the last of these only
Kang Yi, Chao Shu ch’iao, and myself were present. Sadly
regarding us, the Old Buddha said, ‘I see there are only three
of you left. No doubt all the rest have fled, leaving us, mother
and son, to our fate. I want you all to come with me on my
journey.’ Turning to me she then said, ‘You are too old. I
would not wish you to share in all this hardship. Follow us as
best you can later on.’ The Emperor expressed his wishes in
the same sense.
“By this time it was nearly midnight, and they still hesitated
about leaving the city; judge then of my surprise to learn that,
at the first streak of dawn, their Majesties had left the city in
indescribable disorder and frantic haste. I could not return to
my house that day because all the gates of the Imperial City
were closed, but at 10 a.m. on the following day, I made my
way out of the Houmen.[104] On my way I came across Jung
Lu; he had fainted in his chair, and had been forsaken by his
cowardly bearers. He said: ‘This is the end. You and I never
believed in these Boxers; see now to what a pass they have
brought the Old Buddha. If you see Her Majesty, tell her that I
have gone to rally the troops, and that, if I live, I will join her
later on.’
“After leaving Jung Lu, I made my way to a little temple
which lies midway between the North and the North-West
Gates of the city, and there I rested a while. It was the opinion
of the Abbot in charge that the foreigners would burn every
temple of the city, as all of them had been used by the Boxers
for their magic rites, and he said that, in times of dire peril
such as this, it was really inconvenient for him to offer any
hospitality to visitors. Just at this moment news was brought
us that the foreign troops were on the wall of the city, between
the two gates nearest to us, and that they were firing down
upon the streets; the city was already invested, but the
foreigners were not molesting civilians, though they were
shooting all ‘braves’ and men in uniform. As the priest
declined to receive me, I sought refuge at the house of a man
named Han, retainer in the Imperial Household, who lived
close by. All my chair-bearers and servants had fled. Shortly
after noon I heard that one might still leave Peking by the Hsi-
chih Men; so leaving everything—carts, chairs, and animals—
where they were, I started off at dusk on foot with such money
and clothing as I had on my person. The road ahead of me
was blocked by a dense crowd of refugees. I took the road by
the Drum Tower, skirting the lakes to the north of the Imperial
City. Towards evening a dreadful thunderstorm came on, so I
took refuge for the night with the Ching family. The
bombardment had ceased by this time, but the whole northern
part of the Imperial City appeared to be in flames, which
broke out in fresh places all through the night. At three in the
morning we heard that the West Gates were opened, and that
the City Guards had fled, but that the foreigners had not yet
reached that part of the city.
“I had intended to travel by cart, but the disorganised troops
had by this time seized every available beast of burden. My
second son, however, was luckily able to persuade Captain
Liu to fetch one of my carts out from the city, and this was
done after several narrow escapes. I had left Peking on foot,
but at the bridge close to the North-West Gate I found this
cart awaiting me, and with it my second son, who was riding
on a mule, and the five servants who remained to us following
on foot. When we reached Hai-Tien (a town which lies close
to the Summer Palace) every restaurant was closed, but we
managed to get a little food, and then hurried on after their
Majesties to Kuanshih, where we passed the night. Next day,
continuing our journey, we learned that their Majesties were
halting at Huai-lai, where we overtook them on the 24th day of
the Moon. We expect to reach T’ai-yüan fu about the middle
of next week.
“The dangers of our journey are indescribable. Every shop
on the road had been plundered by bands of routed troops,
who pretend to be part of the Imperial escort. These bandits
are ahead of us at every stage of the journey, and they have
stripped the country-side bare, so that when the Imperial party
reaches any place, and the escort endeavour to commandeer
supplies, the distress of the inhabitants and the confusion
which ensues are really terrible to witness. The districts
through which we have passed are literally devastated.”
From Huai-lai the Court moved on to Hsüan-hua fu, a three days’

march, and there remained for four days, resting and preparing for
the journey into Shansi. The Border Warden at Sha-ho chên had
provided their Majesties with green (official) sedan chairs, and the
usual etiquette of the Court and Grand Council was being gradually
restored. Her Majesty’s spirits were excellent, and she took a keen
interest in everything. At Chi-ming yi, for instance, she was with
difficulty dissuaded from stopping to visit a temple on the summit of
an adjoining hill, in honour of which shrine the Emperor Kanghsi had
left a tablet carved with a memorial inscription in verse.
At Hsüan-hua fu there was considerable disorder, but the Court
enjoyed increased comforts; thanks to the zeal and energy of the
local Magistrate (Ch’en Pen). Here the Old Buddha received Prince
Ch’ing’s first despatch from Peking, which gave a deplorable account
of the situation.
The Court left Hsüan-hua on the 25th August (its numbers being
increased by the Emperor’s Consort with a few of her personal
attendants) and spent the night at a garrison station called Tso-Wei.
The deplorable state of the country was reflected in the
accommodation they found there; for the guards had fled, and the
official quarters had all been plundered and burnt, with the exception
of two small rooms, evil-smelling and damp. There was no food to be
had, except bread made of sodden flour. One of the two available
rooms was occupied by the Old Buddha, the other by Kuang Hsü
and his Consort, while all the officials of the Court, high and low,
fared as best they might in the stuffy courtyard. For once the
venerable mother’s composure deserted her. “This is abominable,”
she complained; “the place swarms with insects, and I cannot sleep
a wink. It is disgraceful that I should have come to such a pass at my
time of life. My state is worse even than that of the Emperor Hsüan-
Tsung of the T’ang Dynasty, who was forced to fly from his capital,
and saw his favourite concubine murdered before his very eyes.” An
unsubstantiated report that the Allies had plundered her palace
treasure vaults was not calculated to calm Her Majesty, and for a
while the suite went in fear of her wrath.
On August 27th the Court crossed the Shansi border, and spent
the night at T’ien-chen hsien. The local Magistrate, a Manchu, had
committed suicide after hearing of the fall of Moukden and other
Manchurian cities; and the town was in a condition of ruinous
disorder. Their Majesties supped off a meal hastily provided by the
Gaol Warder. But their courage was restored by the arrival of Ts’en
Ch’un-hsüan,[105] an official of high intelligence and courage, who
greatly pleased the Old Buddha by bringing her a gift of eggs and a
girdle and pouch for her pipe and purse.
On the 30th August the Court lay at Ta-t’ung fu, in the Yamên of
the local Brigadier-General. They stayed here four days, enjoying the
greatly improved accommodation which the General’s efforts had
secured for them.
On September 4th, they reached the market town of T’ai-yüeh,
having travelled thirty-five miles that day, and here again they found
damp rooms and poor fare. But Her Majesty’s spirits had recovered.
On the 16th, while crossing the hill-pass of the “Flighting Geese,”
Her Majesty ordered a halt in order to enjoy the view. “It reminds me
of the Jehol Country,” she said. Then, turning to the Emperor, “After
all, it’s delightful to get away like this from Peking and to see the
world, isn’t it?” “Under happier circumstances, it would be,” replied
Kuang Hsü. At this point Ts’en Ch’un-hsüan brought Her Majesty a
large bouquet of yellow flowers, a present which touched her deeply:
in return she sent him a jar of butter-milk tea.
On the 7th, the only accommodation which the local officials had
been able to prepare at Yüan-p’ing was a mud-house belonging to
one of the common people, in which, by an oversight, several empty
coffins had been left. Ts’en, arriving ahead of the party, was told of
this, and galloped to make excuses to Her Majesty and take her

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Springer Handbook of Atmospheric

Measurements Thomas Foken

Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering (Springer

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ISBN 978-3-030-52170-7 e-ISBN 978-3-030-52171-4

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer

Taking measurements in the atmosphere means to work in a “non-periodic”, chaotic

Prof. Dr. Gerhard Adrian

About the Editor

Thomas Foken is retired Professor of Micrometeorology at the University of

About the Authors

Bianca Adler Alec Bennett

Marc Aubinet Christina Bogner

Jens Bange Annette Borowiak

Karsten Baumann Jerald A. Brotzge

Klaus Behrens William Brown

Matthias Budde Matthias Cuntz

Jan Cermak Raymond L. Desjardins

Heinz Coners Scott Ellis

Susanne Crewell Stefan Emeis

Florian Ewald Ulrich Görsdorf

Christopher A. Fiebrich Sue Grimmond

Thomas Foken Samuel Haimov

Masatomo Fujiwara Matthew Hayman

Dwayne Heard Jürgen Junk

Luca G. Lanza Stefan Metzger

Eberhard Parlow Andreas Platis

Ralf Petrich Sascha Reth

Peter Pilewskie Janne Rinne

David Risk Scott M. Spuler

Christoph Ritter Brian Stacey

Anni Torri Manfred Wendisch

Helen C. Ward Martin Wirth

Tammy M. Weckwerth Volker Wulfmeyer

Astrid A. Ziemann Mark A. Zondlo

List of Abbreviations ............................................................. XLI

Part A Basics of Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

3 Quality Assurance and Control

4 Standardization in Atmospheric Measurements

4.5 Future Developments ................................................... 103

Part B In situ Measurement Techniques

11.8 Applications.............................................................. 349

12 In-situ Precipitation Measurements

16 Gas Analysers and Laser Techniques

17 Measurement of Stable Isotopes in Carbon Dioxide,

18 Measurement of Fundamental Aerosol Physical Properties

18.6 Quality Control ........................................................... 553

19 Methods of Sampling Trace Substances in Air

20 Optical Fiber-Based Distributed Sensing Methods

Part C Remote-Sensing Techniques (Ground-Based)

24 Backscatter Lidar for Aerosol and Cloud Profiling