BASIC CONCEPT OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamic System: those systems in which thermodynamics properties like pressure, temperature, and
entropy, etc are taken into consideration

separated from the surrounding by a wall having different thermodynamics properties from the system.

TYPES OF SYSTEM

CLOSED OR CONTROL MASS- consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. But,
energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary, and the volume of a closed system does not have to be
fixed.

-COLD SOFTDRINK IN A CAN

OPEN SYSTEM OR CONTROL VOLUME- is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that
involves mass flow such as a compressor. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume

-matter may pass through a stationary boundary, or the boundary may move through matter that is fixed in space.

-HOT COFEE IN A CUP

ISOLATED- exchanges no matter, heat, or work with the surroundings; mass and total energy of the system remain
constant over time

- A closed system with an adiabatic boundary, constrained to do no work and to have no work done on it, is an
isolated system.

-HOT WATER IN AN INSULATED BOTTLE

RIGID SYSTEM- A closed system that communicates with the surroundings by heat only.

DIATHERMAL - allows heat transfer between the system and surroundings,

ADIABATIC - (Greek: impassable) boundary, does not allow heat transfer, a wall with one with thermal insulation
and a perfect radiation shield

EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE

A quantitative property of a system describes some macroscopic feature

that, although it may vary with time, has a particular value at any given
instant of time.

EXTENSIVE PROPERTY- Is one which depends on the size of the

system such as volume, momentum, and kinetic energy.

- depends on the amount of matter in the system

- uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties

(except mass m)

- Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties, e.g. specific volume (v=V/m).
-the system to be divided by an imaginary surface into two parts, any property of the system that is the sum of the
property for the two parts

- additive properties of a system because their values are proportional to the size or amount of the substances.

-Examples are mass, volume, amount, energy, and the surface area of a solid.

-The property must also be proportional to the mass or the amount when intensive properties remain constant.

- mass, volume, amount, and energy are extensive, but surface area is not.

INTENSIVE – Is one which does not depend on the size of the system such as temperature, pressure, density, and
velocity.

- depends only on the type of matter in the system and not on the size or the amount

- lower case letters are used for intensive properties (except pressure P, temperature T)

-a homogeneous region of space to be divided into two or more parts of arbitrary size, any property that has the
same value in each part and the whole

If both extensive quantities refer to a homogeneous

region of the system or to a small volume element,
the ratio is an intensive property.

- A special case is an extensive quantity divided by

the mass, giving an intensive specific quantity

- If the symbol for the extensive quantity is a capital

letter, it is customary to use the corresponding lower-case letter as the symbol for the specific quantity. Thus the
symbol for specific volume is v .

Another special case for a pure, homogeneous substance

divided by the amount n . The resulting intensive property is
called, in general, a molar quantity or molar property.

- symbol of the extensive quantity is followed by subscript m,

and optionally the identity of the substance is indicated
either by a subscript or a formula in parentheses.
UNIVERSE = SYSTEM + SURROUNDINGS

ON THE BASIS OF
COMPOSITION

TYPES OF SYSTEM:

HOMO - when a system is

uniform throughout the system

- made of one phase only

-often has more than one

component (like salt and
water), the mixture will be
uniform throughout the sample

-examples a pure single solid, liquid, or gas ; mixture of gases or liquids

HETERO – properties change within the system

- there's clumping of salt in the salt water, or parts of the water that are saltier than others.

-examples: water with ice floating; ice in contact with water vapor – these two systems have three homogeneous
bodies such as water vapor and ice; the chemical compositions of the three phases are same but they constitute
separate phases

-ex: two or more immiscible liquids

STATE FUNCTION/POINT FUNCTION

The thermodynamic state of a system refers to the temperature, pressure and

quantity of substance present; state function only depend on these
parameters and not on how they were reached.

-Examples include density, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy.

-For a process (State1)→(State2), the change in state functions only depends

on the initial and final states, regardless of the path taken.

*STATE VARIABLE - smallest set of variables that determine the

state of the system
 PATH FUNCTIONS

-Depend on the route taken between two states.

-Two examples of path functions are heat and work; cannot

be defined for a state (you cannot say a system has an
amount of work at a specific set of conditions, only that it
does a certain amount of work to get from one state to
another, via a specified path).

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

KE AND TEMP

-particles possess KE due to their motion (high motion, high KE); (small motion, low KE)

Temperature - refers to the intensity of heat, measuring the average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance.

-The amount of heat energy, or the amount of motion of its particles

-measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a system

- also related to the kinetic energies of the molecules of a material.

- T=Average Kinetic Energy of all particles within a system (T is directly proportional to KE); (Hot obj: High KE,T)
(Cold obj: Low KE, T)

*Hotness and coldness of a system depends to KE

Hotness-high KE, more friction, more conversion of KE to thermal energy

coldness-low KE, less friction, less conversion of KE to thermal energy

*Thermal energy -energy possessed by a system due to movement of particles (KE) within a system

-directly depends on KE of particles within a system

-depends on number of particles in a system: more particles, more thermal energy

-high temp: Large thermal energy, high KE

-low temp: small thermal energy, low KE

If two systems are separated by an insulating material or insulator such as wood, plastic foam, or fiberglass, they
influence each other more slowly.

ideal insulator - material that permits no interaction at all between the two systems

- prevents the systems from attaining thermal equilibrium

Another common type of thermometer uses a bimetallic strip- made by bonding strips of two different metals
together.

-When the temperature of the composite strip increases, one metal expands more than the other and the strip
bends ( This strip is usually formed into a spiral, with the outer end anchored to the thermometer case and the
inner end attached to a pointer). The pointer rotates in response to temperature changes.

resistance thermometer - the changing electrical resistance of a coil of fine wire, a carbon cylinder, or a
germanium crystal is measured.

-usually more precise than most other types.

Some thermometers work by detecting the amount of infrared radiation emitted by an object. (I.E. temporal artery
thermometer)

GAS THERMOMETER AND KELVIN

PRINCIPLE OF GAS THERMO- the pressure of a gas at constant volume increases with temperature.

KELVIN SCALE AND ABSOLUTE TEMP

- pressure p is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature

-To complete the definition of T, we need only specify the Kelvin

temperature of a single specific state. For reasons of precision and reproducibility, the state chosen is the triple
point of water (combination of temperature and pressure at which solid water (ice), liquid water, and water vapor ).

-occurs at a temperature of and a water-vapor pressure of 610 Pa (about 0.006 atm). (This is the pressure of the
water; it has nothing to do directly with the gas pressure in the thermometer.)

The triple-point temperature of water is defined to have the value Ttriple = 273.16K corresponding to 0.01C

-if Ptriple is the pressure in a gas thermometer at

temperature Ttriple and p is the pressure at some other
temperature T, then T is given on the Kelvin scale by

-Low-pressure gas thermometers using various gases are large, bulky, and very slow to come to thermal
equilibrium. They are used principally to establish high-precision standards and to calibrate other thermometers.

The Kelvin scale - absolute temperature scale, and its zero point the temperature
is called absolute zero.

-At absolute zero a system of molecules (such as a quantity of a gas, a liquid, or a

solid) has its minimum possible total energy (kinetic plus potential);

*not all molecular motion ceases at absolute zero.

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCE

1. PRESSURE (INTENSIVE)- defines the physical forces that exert on an object or

substance.

- In fluids, gases and liquids, we speak of pressure; in solids this is stress. For a fluid at rest, the pressure at a given
point is the same in all directions.

-applies perpendicularly to the object’s surface per unit area.

- continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by

something in contact with it.

-SI Unit: Pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to Newton per square

meter (N/m^2) 101,325 Pa = 101.325kPa

= 1 atm
= 760 torr
= 760mmHg
= 14.7 psi (pound force per square inch)
= 1.013x10^6 dyne/cm^2
= 1.013 bar

-general formula for pressure is F/A, which means force per unit area. The unit of pressure is defined in Pascals
(Pa). F is the force in the formula, and A is the area.

-Scalar quantity that consists of magnitude without any directional vector characteristics.

-acts equally on all surfaces obtained from the combined energy of gas and liquid that touches the surface.

TYPES OF PRESSURE:

absolute pressure –actual pressure at a given position

-the pressure of having no matter inside a space, or a perfect vacuum.

-combination of atmospheric pressure and a gauge pressure.

-measures its pressure at an absolute zero as the reference point.

- applying an absolute pressure sensor results in the removal of changing atmospheric pressure relations. Instead,
it depends on the common reference pressure change in the system.

-example: measurement of barometric pressure.

gauge pressure –pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

-is positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for
pressures below it.

- also known as pressure meters or vacuum gauges.

- slight shift in the ambient atmospheric pressure affects the result of a gauge pressure device or sensor. Such
change in the atmospheric pressure arrives due to the altitude or weather conditions.

* Manometer -device that measures pressure using a column of liquid

- measures the gauge pressure

*Bourdon Tube - device that measures pressure using mechanical deformation.

*Pressure Transducers - devices that use piezoelectrics to measure pressure.

For both:

- very accurate and robust

- can measure from 10‐6 to 105 atm

- can measure Pgauge or Pabs

*Barometer - device that measures atmospheric pressure. It is a manometer with a near vacuum on one end

differential pressure - measures the difference between two pressure points.

* differential device - analyses the difference between two different physical areas.

-helpful in regulating loss or decrease of pressure from one body’s side to the other.

sealed pressure - measures the prevailing atmospheric pressure trapped within a sealed chamber’s sensor.

* sealed device is - analyse the sealed pressure consisting of a sensing element.

-best approach for high-pressure range applications and avoiding changes that arise due to the change in
atmosphere.

-prevents pressure transducers from any damage.

2. DENSITY (INTENSIVE)- Is the mass per unit volume.

- how much mass of that substance is packed into a given volume.

- it does not change with the varying amount of the substance. No matter how big or small a piece
of the substance you have, it will always be the same density because it is the same material.

3. SPECIFIC VOLUME - the ratio of the substance's volume to its mass

- inversely proportional to density.

-helps determine a system's capacity to store energy.

-quantifies the amount of space a certain mass of material occupies.

-measured for different materials at standard temperature and pressure, which is defined as 0 degrees Celsius
and 1 atm (or atmosphere).

NOTE: “SPECIFC”- PER UNIT MASS; when the physical quantities are determined per unit mass then we used this
word for them

4. SPECIFIC WEIGHT (INTENSIVE)-weight of the substance per unit volume

-also known as the unit weight

-the ratio between weight and volume.

-product between density and gravitational acceleration.

-is not absolute, it depends on the value of the gravitational acceleration (g).

5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY / RELATIVE DENSITY –is a dimensionless unit

defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water –
at the same temperature and pressure.

-Is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material, often
a liquid.

*IF a substance's relative density is less than one then it is less dense than water and similarly,

*if greater than 1 then it is denser than water.

LAWS OF THERMO

ZEROTH

-was suggested by British physicist Ralph Fowler in the 1930s.

-If C is initially in thermal equilibrium with both A and B, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

-Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same temperature.

- a thermometer actually measures its own temperature, but when a thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with
another body, the temperatures must be equal.

*When the temperatures of two systems are different, they cannot be in thermal equilibrium.

-uses thermal equilibrium to define how two different systems can be said to be at the same temperature.
*For example, when molten rock comes up from a volcano, it will give off heat to the atmosphere until the rock and
the atmosphere are at the same temperature.

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

-obtained if two objects with different temperature is made to have contact, and reach a common temperature. In
thermal equilibrium, the transfer of heat stopped.
-When two objects are in thermal equilibrium they are said to have the same temperature.

*During the process of reaching thermal equilibrium, heat, which is a form of energy, is transferred between the
objects.

INTRO T.E.

As the temperature rises, the vibration energy of the constituent

particles rises, resulting in an increase in particle separation and
hence thermal expansion.

*If the body is free to expand, the expansion or strain caused by a rise in temperature can be easily computed by
applying the appropriate Thermal Expansion coefficient.

*Internal tension will be created by a change in temperature if the body is restricted and cannot expand.

* Through the stress/strain connection characterised by the elastic or Young’s modulus, this stress can be
estimated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to
reduce that strain to zero.

THERMAL EXPANSION

- an object or body expands on the application of heat (temperature).

-defines the tendency of an object to change its dimension either in length, density, area, or volume due to heat.

-When the substance is heated it increases its kinetic energy.

- occurs when an object expands and becomes larger due to a change in the object's temperature.

- the tendency of an object to change its dimension either in length, density, area, or volume due to heat.

Temperature - average kinetic (or movement) energy of the molecules in a substance.

*A higher temperature means that the molecules are moving faster on average.

*If you heat up a material, the molecules move faster and, as a result, they take up more space - they tend to move
into areas that were previously empty. This causes the size of the object to increase. So when you heat up the jar
lid, the same thing happens - the jar lid expands.

-tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature.

* thermal motion – excitement of Atoms and molecules in a solid, for instance, constantly oscillate around its
equilibrium point

*coefficient of thermal expansion - The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature; it generally
varies with temperature.

LINEAR EXPANSION

-Linear expansion is the change in length due to heat.

-When the temperature increases, the energy and amplitude of the vibration also increase. The interatomic spring
forces are not symmetrical about the equilibrium position; they usually behave like a spring that is easier to stretch
than to compress. As a result, when the amplitude of vibration increases, the average distance between atoms
also increases

-As the atoms get farther apart, every dimension increases.

Suppose a rod of material has a length at some initial temperature When the temperature changes by the length
changes by Experiments show that if is not too large (say, less than or so), is directly proportional to (Fig. 17.8a). If
two rods made of the same material have the same temperature change, but one is twice as long as the other,
then the change in its length is also twice as great. Therefore, must also be proportional to (Fig. 17.8b). Introducing
a proportionality constant (which is different for different materials), we may express these relationships in an
equation:

*coefficient of linear expansion-The relative expansion of the material divided by the change in temperature is.

-varies with temperature.

-fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, we may
write:

* L - particular length measurement and

*Dl, dT - rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change in temperature.

-From the definition of the expansion coefficient, the change in the linear dimension ΔL over a temperature range
ΔT can be estimated to be:

This equation works well as long as the linear-expansion coefficient does not change much
over the change in temperature.

AREA EXPANSION

- Area expansion occurs is the change in area due to temperature change.

*

An area expansion - two-dimensional material expansion.

*The temperature of the thing determines how much it expands.

*Whenever the temperature of an object changes, the volume of the thing changes, causing the area of the object
to increase.

*The length, volume, and area of an object change as a result of thermal expansion, regardless of its original size.
*The rate of expansion is determined by two factors: temperature and material.

*The expansion of the material is aided by kinetic energy.

area thermal expansion coefficient - relates a change in temperature to a change in the area dimensions of a
material.

- The degree of area expansion divided by the temperature change

- as the temperature rises, the area of an object expands.

*It is indicated by the letter a.

*It’s a property of the substance that changes with temperature.

-Without regard for the pressure, we may write: A=1/A dA/dT

A: area on the object

dA/dT: Rate of change of area per unit change in temperature.

*Change in area can be determined as: ∆A/A=αA∆T

VOLUME EXPANSION

- Volume expansion is the change in volume due to temperature.

- The increase in volume of a solid when heated is known

-The change in volume of a solid with a change in temperature t is given by∆v= Vy∆t,

y: volume expansion.

-When the temperature, pressure, or forces acting on a gas, solid, or liquid change, the volume of that gas, solid,
or liquid changes.

*For isotropic materials, the volume expansion can be measured directly using a volume dilatometer or indirectly
by measuring the linear thermal expansion and then computing the volume expansion using appropriate software.

- The formula for temperature-dependent volume expansion is given by: ∆V=Y.VO.∆T

∆V= Volume change in m3

Y= Volumetric thermal expansions coefficient in 1/k

VO= Initial volume

∆T= Temperature change in K

- a material’s volume changes by a constant fractional amount.

-When the temperature is raised by 50 K, a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter may expand to 1.002 cubic
meters. This is a 0.2 percent increase.

-If we had a block of steel with a volume of 2 cubic meters, it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters under the same
conditions, a 0.2 percent increase.

*For 50 K, the volumetric expansion coefficient is 0.2 percent, or 0.004 percentK-¹.

-For small temp changes: The expansion coefficient did not change when the temperature changed, and the
increase in volume was minor in comparison to the original volume.

Coefficient of Volume Expansion -The degree of volume expansion divided by the change in temperature

*It is symbolized by the letter av.

*It is a feature of the substance.

*It varies based on the temperature.

-Increasing temperature usually causes increases in volume for both solid and liquid materials.

* if the temperature change is not too great (less than or so), the increase in volume is approximately proportional
to both the temperature change and the initial volume
1ST
- describes the relationship between energy and heat.

-states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or converted from one form to another.

-total amount of energy in a system remains constant, even as that energy is transferred or converted.

-think about a closed system, such as a sealed container with a gas inside. If heat is added to the gas, the
temperature of the gas will increase. The increased temperature causes the gas to expand, doing work on the
surroundings. This increase in the gas’s temperature and pressure is due to the transfer of heat from the
surroundings to the gas.

-total amount of energy in the system (the gas and its surroundings) remains constant, even as the heat is
transferred from the surroundings to the gas.

-can be thought of as a statement of the conservation of energy.

* energy is always conserved, even as it is transferred or converted from one form to another.

-when heat is added to a system, some of that energy stays in the system and some leaves the system.

* energy that leaves does work on the area around it.

*Energy that stays in the system creates an increase in the internal energy of the system.
- EX. pot of water at room temperature. You add some heat to the system.

*First, the temperature and energy of the water increases.

*Second, the system releases some energy and it works on the environment (maybe heating the air around the
water, making the air rise).

2ND

- describes the behavior of heat and the direction in which heat will flow.

-states that heat will always flow from a hotter object to a colder one, and that this process is irreversible.

-heat always moves from hotter objects to colder ones.

-it is impossible to convert heat into work with 100% efficiency.

-For example, if you have a cup of hot coffee and a cup of cold water, the heat from the coffee will naturally flow
into the cold water, causing the coffee to cool down and the water to warm up. This process is irreversible,
meaning that you cannot reverse it by simply stirring the cups or mixing the contents.

-concept of entropy.

*Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness in a system.

*the entropy of a closed system will always increase over time. ( the natural tendency of any system is to become
more disordered and random.)

-For example, if you have a sealed container with a gas inside, the gas molecules will move around randomly and
collide with each other. Over time, the gas will become more and more disordered, and the entropy of the system
will increase.

*increase in entropy is a result of the second law of thermodynamics, which tells us that heat will always flow from
hotter objects to colder ones, and that this process is irreversible.

- PT1: it is impossible to have a cyclic (repeating) process that converts heat completely into work.

*Some amount of energy in a reaction is always lost to heat.

*a system can not convert all of its energy to working energy.

-PT2:impossible to have a process that transfers heat from cool objects to warm objects without using work.

* Heat naturally wants to flow from warmer to cooler areas.

*Heat wants to flow and spread out to areas with less heat.

3RD

- describes the behavior of entropy at very low temperatures.

- states that as the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, the entropy of the system approaches a
constant minimum value.
-as the temperature of a system gets closer and closer to absolute zero, the entropy of the system will approach a
constant minimum value.

*Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, and is equal to -273.15 degrees Celsius or -459.67 degrees
Fahrenheit.

-the particles in a system stop moving and the system reaches a state of complete disorder and randomness.

-as the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, the entropy of the system will approach a constant
minimum value.

*For example, if you have a sealed container with a gas inside, the gas molecules will move around randomly and
collide with each other.

=As the temperature of the gas decreases, the gas molecules move slower and slower. Because the particles are
moving slower, the entropy of the system will decrease.

=as the temperature approaches absolute zero, the gas molecules will stop moving altogether and the entropy of
the system will reach a constant minimum value.

https://chemistrytalk.org/the-laws-of-thermodynamics/

STRESS - force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or
permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid
behaviour.

1. Tensile Stress -The external force per unit area of the material resulting in the stretch of the material

- quantity associated with stretching or tensile forces.

-responsible for the elongation of the material along the axis of the applied load.

-The magnitude F of the force applied along an elastic rod divided by the cross-sectional area A of the rod in a
direction that is perpendicular to the applied force.

- When a tensile force acts on the material, the following tensile properties can be calculated:

*Elastic modulus: It is the stiffness of the material and also known as the modulus of elasticity.

-ratio of stress and strain when the deformation is completely elastic.

-stress-strain curve is used.

*Ultimate tensile stress (UTS): It is defined as the maximum stress that a material can withstand when a force is
applied.

-When the materials are pushed beyond UTS they experience cracking.

*Modulus of resilience: It is defined as the ratio between tensile stress and two times the Young’s modulus of the
material.

*Fracture stress: It is defined as the maximum stress that is experienced in a crack point before it breaks down
and is denoted as σf.
2. Compressive stress is the force that is responsible for the deformation of the material, such that the volume of
the material reduces.

- force responsible for the deformation of the material such that the volume of the material reduces.

-stress experienced by a material which leads to a smaller volume.

-High compressive stress leads to failure of the material due to tension.

-When compressive stress is applied to the

a. brittle materials: materials fracture as there is a sudden release of the stored energy.

b. ductile materials: they compress, and there is no failure.

- three ways to deform a solid with the help of external force:

*When a solid body is stretched by applying two equal forces normal to the cross-sectional area, the resistive
force developed per unit area is known as tensile stress

*When a solid body is compressed, restoring force is developed due to an externally applied force. That restoring
force per unit cross-sectional area is known as compressive stress.

*When a solid body is exposed to two equal and opposite forces parallel to the cross-sectional area, the tangential
force that is developed per unit area is known as tangential or shearing stress.

Compressive strength - the maximum compressive stress that is experienced by the material before its
breakdown.

-obtained by dividing the maximum load by the cross-sectional area of the material.

-comparatively higher than the tensile strength for both ductile and brittle materials.

-resists compression, whereas tensile strength resists tension.

- The SI unit of compressive stress is Pascal (Pa) or Nm-2.

https://byjus.com/physics/tensile-stress/

STRAIN - amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied, divided by the initial
dimensions of the body.

- dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape.

Types of Strain:

*Tensile Strain - The deformation or elongation of a solid body due to applying a tensile force or stress

- produced when a body increases in length as applied forces try to stretch it.

*Compressive Strain - the deformation in a solid due to the application of compressive stress.
- produced when a body decreases in length when equal and opposite forces try to compress it.

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
- the stress and its corresponding strain values are plotted.

The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:

(i) Proportional Limit - region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law.

-the stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus.

-point OA in the graph represents the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit - point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load acting on
it is completely removed.

-Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in
it.

(iii) Yield Point The yield point - the point at which the material starts to deform plastically.

-After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.

There are two yield points:

A. upper yield point

B. lower yield point.

(iv) Ultimate Stress Point - point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure.

-Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point - point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.

* Hooke’s Law

-In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert Hooke noticed:

* that many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-strain relationship was studied.
*There was a linear region where the force required to stretch the material was proportional to the extension of the
material, known as Hooke’s Law.

-states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit of that material.

-Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as: F = –k.x

* F = force,

*x = extension in length,

k = constant of proportionality (known as the spring constant in N/m.)

INTRO M.E.

Elastic Constants - constants which determine the deformation produced by a given stress system acting on the
material.

-are used to determine engineering strain theoretically.

-used to obtain a relationship between engineering stress and engineering strain.

-For a homogeneous and isotropic material, the number of elastic constants is 4.

Types of Elastic Constants:

*Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity (E)

*Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G)

*Bulk modulus (K)

*Poisson’s ratio (µ)

Relationship between Elastic Constants

*E = 2G (1+ µ)

*E = 3 K (1-2µ)

*–E = 9KG / G+3K

NOTE: The value of any constant is always greater than or equal to 0. A negative sign only shows the direction.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

As per Hooke’s law, up to the proportional limit, “for small deformation, stress is directly proportional to strain.”
-Mathematically, Hooke’s Law is expressed as follows:

*Stress α Strain

*σ = E ε

“E” = the modulus of elasticity.

“σ” = stress, and ε denotes strain.

-> E = (F*L) / (A * δL)

- modulus of elasticity: the ratio of normal stress to longitudinal strain.

Unit of Modulus of Elasticity

* unit of normal stress: Pascal,

* longitudinal strain has no unit because it is the ratio of change in length to the original length.

*the unit of modulus of elasticity:Pascal (Pa).

NOTE: Most commonly, we use Megapascals (MPa) and Gigapascals (GPa) to measure the modulus of elasticity.

*1 MPa = Pa

*1 GPa = Pa

How to Measure Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity?

- that from point O to B, the region is an elastic region. After that, the
plastic deformation starts.

-Point A in the curve: limit of proportionality.

* value of the modulus of elasticity (E) is equal to the slope of the stress-
strain curve up to A.

-If the value of E increases, then longitudinal strain decreases, which

means a change in length decreases. Here are some values of E for the
most commonly used materials. Mild steel- E = 200 GPa Cast iron E =
100 GPa Aluminium E = 200/3 GPa

• Both the Modulus of Elasticity and Young’s Modulus are the same. The modulus of elasticity is
constant.
• Robert Hooke introduces it. Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703) was the early scientist who worked on
Applied Mechanics.
• Whereas Young’s modulus was denoted as “E” in 1807 by Thomas Young. It is explained in
“Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts”, which was written by
Thomas Young. He did detailed research on Elasticity Characterisation.
 • According to Robert Hook, the value of E depends on both the geometry and material under
consideration. To find out the value of E, physical testing is required for any new component.
• Thomas Young said that the value of E depends only on the material, not its geometry”. Thus, he
made a revolution in engineering strategies.
• A small piece of rubber and a large piece of rubber has the same elastic modulus.
• The modulus of elasticity is also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus.
• It is a fundamental property of every material that cannot be changed. However, it depends
upon temperature and pressure.
• The Elastic Modulus is the measure of the stiffness of a material. In other words, it is a measure
of how easily any material can be bent or stretched.
• It is the slope of the stress and strain diagram up to the limit of proportionality.

What Are Its Applications?

• It is used in engineering as well as medical science.

• You can use the elastic modulus to calculate how much a material will stretch and also how
much potential energy will be stored.
• The elastic modulus allows you to determine how a given material will respond to stress.
• Elastic modulus is used to characterise biological materials like cartilage and bone as well.

THERMAL STRESS

- stress produced by any change in the temperature of the material.

-induced in a body when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered and the body is not allowed to expand or
contract freely.

-includes both heat and cold stress.

- “Stress caused due to the change in temperature”

-measured using feet or metres.

-The thermal conductors expand on heating and contract on cooling.

Heat – Defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a temperature difference between
system and surrounding.

*Calorie (cal) - the amount of heat required to raise 1°C temperature of a 1 gram of water.

*British Thermal Unit (BTU) - is the quantity of heat required to raise 1°F of 1lb of water.

1cal = 4.186J

1BTU = 1,054J

-refers to the amount of energy in an object, measuring the total kinetic and potential energy contained by the
molecules in that object.

-transfer of thermal energy from a warmer object to a cooler object

-form of energy, where temperature is a measure of that energy.

-subject to the principle of conservation under the First Law of Thermodynamics – heat can neither be created or
destroyed.

Heat is transferred from one object to another due to differences in temperature, in one of three ways:

Conduction – heat is transferred between molecules which are in direct contact with one another, without
movement of particles.

- heat traveling through a solid material.

-form of energy related to the movement of atoms and molecules.

- movement of heat that occurs either when two objects are touching each other or within an object.

-EX. two pieces of metal touching each other (molecules in the warmer solid are more active than the molecules in
the cooler solid.)

- At the place where the two solids touch, the faster molecules in the warmer solid jostle and nudge the slower
moving molecules in the cooler solid.

*bumping and pushing- slows down the faster molecules, but speeds up the slower ones.

-spreads through all the molecules in both objects until all are moving at about the same speed.

-Enough heat energy has been conducted from the warmer object to the cooler one so that they are now both at
the same temperature and conduction stops.

-EX. conducted into your home through the roof, walls, and windows.

Convection – heat transfer takes place due to movement of particles from one place to another.

- In liquids and gases, heat moves most often by convection.

- movement of warmer material through cooler material that would not be possible in the more tightly packed are
arrangement of a solid.

-When a portion of the liquid or gas becomes hotter than its surroundings, those molecules move around more
and become less densely packed. (less dense material starts to rise upward through the surrounding material.)
-Hot air naturally rises, carrying heat away from your walls and causing it to circulate throughout your home. As the
hot air circulates past your skin (and you breathe it in), it warms you.

- As the war m er molecules rise in the convection currents, they cool off, until they are the same temperature as
their surroundings. But the heat energy that they acquired somewhere else was moved to a different place in the
liquid or gas.

Radiation – heat is transferred through a medium or vacuum where in space in between is not heated up.

- does not have to occur in matter

- Heat traveling in the form of visible and non-visible light.

-EX. Sunlight is an obvious source of heat for homes.

- low-wavelength, non-visible infrared radiation can carry heat directly from warm objects to cooler objects.

*Infrared radiation –heat energ y that the Sun puts out.

-felt as heat because it interacts with molecules by exciting them, causing them to move faster which increases
the internal temperature of the object absorbing the infrared energy.

-EX. feel the heat of a hot burner element on a stovetop, even from across the room.

-Older windows will allow infrared radiation coming from warm objects outside to radiate into your home; shades
can help to block this radiation. Infrared radiation will also carry the heat of your walls and ceiling directly to your
body.

HEAT VS. TEMP

HEAT

PROPERTY: TRAVELS FROM HOTTER OBJECTS TO COOLER OBJECTS

ABILITY TO DO WORK: YES

UNITS: JOULES, CALORIES, BTU (BRITISH THERMAL UNITS), kW (KILOWATT

DEVICE: CALORIMETER

SYMBOL: Q

TEMP

PROPERTY: RISES WHEN HEATED AND FALLS WHEN COOLED

ABILITY TO DO WORK: NO

UNITS: K, C, F, RANKINE

DEVICE: THERMOMETER
SYMBOL: T

SPECIFIC HEAT - the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one Celsius
degree.

-units of specific heat are usually calories or joules per gram per Celsius degree. (For example, the specific heat of
water is 1 calorie (or 4.186 joules) per gram per Celsius degree.)

-can be determined in the following way:

*When two materials, each initially at a different temperature, are placed in contact with one another, heat always
flows from the warmer material into the colder material until both the materials attain the same temperature.

*From the law of conservation of energy, the heat gained by the initially colder material must equal the heat lost by
the initially warmer material.

NOTE: We know that when heat energy is absorbed by a substance, its temperature increases. If the same quantity
of heat is given to equal masses of different substances, it is observed that the rise in temperature for each
substance is different. This is due to the fact that different substances have different heat capacities.

->heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of the heat required to raise the temperature of the whole substance
by one degree.

*If the mass of the substance is unity then the heat capacity is called Specific heat capacity or the specific heat.
Specific Heat of Water
For liquid at room temperature and pressure, the value of specific heat capacity (Cp) is
approximately 4.2 J/g°C.

*This implies that it takes 4.2 joules of energy to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius.
*. This (1 cal/g.deg) is the specific heat of the water as a liquid or specific heat capacity of
liquid water.

One calorie= 4.184 joules; 1 joule= 1 kg(m)2(s)-2 = 0.239005736 calorie

*The specific heat capacity of water vapour at room temperature is also higher than most
other materials.

*For water vapour at room temperature and pressure, the value of specific heat capacity
(Cp) is approximately 1.9 J/g°C.

*As with most liquids, the temperature of water increases as it absorbs heat and
decreases as it releases heat.

*the temperature of liquid falls & rises more slowly than most other liquids.

- water absorbs heat without an immediate rise in temperature.

-retains its temperature much longer than other substances.

Specific Heat Explanation

- In order to increase the temperature of the water with the multitude of joined hydrogen bonds, the molecules
have to vibrate.

*Due to the presence of so many hydrogen bonds, a larger amount of energy is required to make the water
molecules break by vibrating them.

-for hot water to cool down, it takes a bit of time.

*As heat is dissipated, temperature decreases and the vibrational movement of water molecules slow down.

*The heat that is given off counteracts the cooling effect of the loss of heat from the liquid water.

MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY

- the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a substance by one unit & is measured by
dividing heat capacity by the total number of moles.

-stated as the amount of heat energy that will be required to raise the temperature of a mass of a substance by 1
unit.

-It is an intensive property, that is, it does not change according to the amount of substance.

Some Terms related to Molar Capacity

1. Change of state

- related to the physical changes in matter.

-- changes are reversible changes that do not change matter’s chemical composition or chemical properties.

-For example, when fog converts into water vapour, it is still water and can change back to liquid water again.
2. Heat transfer

- a process of the function, as opposed to functions of the state;

*the quantity of heat transferred in a thermodynamic process that helps to change the state of a system depends on
how that process takes place, not only the net difference between the initial and final states of the process.

3. Thermal stability

-amount of work required to transform the water to a uniform water density.

- helps us to understand the stability of a water body and its resistance to mixing.

Conclusion
It is necessary as it will indicate how much energy will be needed to heat or cool an object of a given mass by a
given amount. It’s an important material property in so many fields including chemistry and physics.

Engineering disciplines mainly when designing systems where the management of heat is essential. The best
application one can see of specific heat is its use in the selection of a suitable cooling medium.

Cooking utensils are made of metal so they have low specific heat capacity so that it needs less quantity to raise the
temperature

LATENT HEAT - heat or energy that is absorbed or released during a phase change of a substance.
-be from a gas to a liquid or liquid to a solid and vice versa.

-related to a heat property called enthalpy.

Early Developments of the Concept
The Scottish scientific expert, Joseph Black, presented the idea of latent heat somewhere
close to the period 1750 and 1762. Scotch bourbon producers had employed Black to
decide the best blend of fuel and water for refining and to examine changes in volume
and weight at a steady temperature. Dark applied calorimetry for his investigation and
recorded latent heat esteems.

British physicist James Prescott Joule portrayed latent heat as a type of potential vitality.
Joule accepted that vitality relied upon the specific design of particles in a substance.
Actually, it is the direction of particles inside an atom, their substance holding, and their
extremity that influence latent heat.

Types of Latent Heat Transfer

Latent Heat of Fusion

- heat consumed or discharged when matter melts, changing state from solid to fluid
structure at a consistent temperature.

The ‘enthalpy’ of fusion is a latent heat; during softening, the heat energy expected to
change the substance from solid to fluid at air pressure is the latent heat of fusion, as the
temperature stays steady during the procedure.

->is the enthalpy change of any measure of substance when it dissolves.

specific heat of fusion- At the point when the heat of fusion is referenced to a unit of
mass,

molar heat of fusion - refer to the enthalpy change per measure of substance in moles.

->The fluid state has higher inward energy than the solid state.

*energy must be provided to the solid so as to dissolve it,

* energy is discharged from a fluid when it solidifies on the grounds that the particles in
the fluid experience more fragile intermolecular force, and thus have higher potential
energy (a sort of bond-separation energy for intermolecular powers).

->At the point when fluid water is cooled, its temperature falls relentlessly until it drops just
underneath the line of the point of solidification at 0 °C.
* temperature at that point stays consistent at the point of solidification while the water
takes shape.

*When the water is totally solidified, its temperature keeps on falling.

The enthalpy of fusion is quite often a positive amount; helium is the main known
exception. Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures beneath 0.3 K.
Helium-4 additionally has a marginally negative enthalpy of fusion underneath 0.77 K
(−272.380 °C).

*at suitable steady weights, these substances solidify with the expansion of heat [2].

*For the situation of 4He, this weight territory is somewhere in the range of 24.992 and
25.00 atm (2,533 kPa).

Latent Heat of Vaporization

- heat consumed or discharged when matter disintegrates, changing state from fluid to
gas state at a consistent temperature.

- measure of heat expected to transform 1 g of a fluid into a fume without a change in the
temperature of the fluid. This term isn’t in the rundown of definitions given by Weast
(1964), so the definition originates from Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American
Language (1959).

-The units are cal/gram.

latent originates from the Latin word latere, which intends to lie covered up or hidden.

Latent heat - extra heat required to change the condition of a substance from solid to
fluid at its softening point, or from fluid to gas at its breaking point after the temperature
of the substance has come to both of these focuses.

Note that latent heat is related to no adjustment in temperature, yet a difference in the
state. As a result of the high heat of vaporization, the vanishing of water has an
articulated cooling impact, and buildup has a warming impact.

Similar to the case for ‘Heat of Fusion/Melting,’ the heat of vaporization/buildup

additionally speaks to the measure of heat traded during a stage move.
For vaporization, it is the amount of heat (540 cal g−1) expected to change over 1 g of
water to 1 g of water fume. A similar measure of heat is traded or discharged in the stage
move during the buildup of 1 g water fume to 1 g of water.

Amphibian researchers might be normally intrigued with the enormous measure of heat
traded (80 cal g−1) in the stage move from water to ice or from ice to water, yet the
measure of heat traded (540 cal g−1) in the stage move from water to water fume, or
water fume to water is 6.75 times bigger (540/80 = 6.75). Despite the fact that the
significance of this enormous measure of heat trade through vaporization or buildup
might be undervalued by people, it is immense. On a little yet basic scale forever, water
dissipating off sweating warm-blooded creatures, including people, keeps up internal
heat levels inside thin survivable points of confinement. On a worldwide scale, the
apparently perpetual stage moves between fluid water and water fume in the climate are
the key determinants in the redistribution of water and heat inside the hydrological cycle
far and wide.

The enthalpy of vaporization, ΔHv, is additionally named the “latent heat of vaporization.”
- distinction between the enthalpy of the soaked fume and that of the immersed fluid at a
similar temperature.

-the heat of vaporization esteems are expected to discover the heat loads for the reboiler
and condenser, and information on the enthalpy of vaporization is required in the
structure of heat exchangers for disintegrating fluids.

Reasonable Heat
- anything but a steady temperature circumstance or is a stage change included.

- reflects heat move among an item and its environment.

*The heat can be “detected” as an adjustment in an item’s temperature.

Reasonable Heat and Meteorology

While latent heat of combination and vaporization are utilised in material science and
science, meteorologists also consider reasonable heat. At the point when latent heat is
ingested or discharged, it produces insecurity in the climate, conceivably delivering an
extreme climate.
*The change in latent heat adjusts the temperature into contact with hotter or cooler air.
*Both latent and reasonable heat cause air to move, creating wind and vertical
movement of air masses.

Instances of Latent and Sensible Heat

Everyday life is loaded up with instances of latent and reasonable heat:

Bubbling water on a stove happens when warm vitality from the heating component is
moved to the pot, and thus to the water. At the point when enough vitality is provided,
fluid water grows from the water fume and the water bubbles. A gigantic measure of
vitality is discharged when water bubbles are formed. Since water has such a high heat of
vaporization, it’s anything but difficult to get scorched by steam.

Correspondingly, significant energy must be assimilated to change over fluid water to ice
in a cooler. The cooler expels heat energy to permit the stage progress to happen. Water
has a high latent heat of combination, so transforming water into ice requires the
expulsion of more energy than solidifying fluid oxygen into solid oxygen per unit gram.

Specific Latent Heat

Specific latent heat is characterised as the measure of heat energy (heat, Q) that is
consumed or discharged when a body experiences a steady temperature process.

The formula for specific latent heat is:

L = Q/m

Where:

L is the specific latent heat

Q is the heat retained or discharged

m is the mass of a substance

The most widely recognised kinds of consistent temperature forms are stage changes, for
example, liquefying, solidifying, vaporization, or buildup. The energy is viewed as “latent”
on the grounds that it is basically covered up inside the atoms until the stage change
happens. The most well-known units of specific latent heat are joules per gram (J/g) and
kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg).

Specific latent heat is an escalated property of the issue.