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CHEMISTRY 0971/41
Paper 4 Theory (Extended) May/June 2024

CHEMISTRY THEORY REVISION PACK

Common and expected definitions:
ION An atom that is charged by gaining or losing electrons

ISOTOPE Two different atoms of the same element with the same proton
number but different number of neutrons
IMPORTANT: isotopes have similar chemical properties
because they have the same electronic configuration / same
number of electrons in their outer shell

MIXTURE Two or more substances mixed together without any chemical

bonds that can be separated by physical methods.

COMPOUND Two or more atoms chemically bonded and can only be separated
by physical methods

COVALENT B. A bond where one pair of electrons is shared by two non-metal

atoms
IMPORTANT: one or more pairs of electrons is rejected

IONIC BOND Electrostatic force of attraction between a positive and a negative

ion

IONIC LATTICE Regularly arranged layers of alternating positive and negative ions

METALLIC LA. Regularly arranged layers of positive metal ions embedded in a

sea of delocalized electrons, which it is attracted to

ALLOTROPES Substances of different structures made from the same element

MALLEABLE Can be hammered and shaped without breaking

DUCTILE Can be drawn into wires

ACID Proton / H+ donor

BASE Proton / H+ acceptor

ALKALI A soluble base

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AMPHOTERIC An oxide that can react with both acids and bases
OXIDE IMPORTANT NOTE: they form polyatomic ions

ELECTROLY- Breakdown of a molten or aqueous ionic compound using

SIS electricity

CARBON CO2 released from something such as combustion used in

NEUTRAL photosynthesis, forming a closed system where no CO2 leaves

EQUILLIBRIUM Rate of forward reaction equal to rate of backward reaction,

concentration of products and reactants stay constant

SATURATED No more solute can dissolve in the solvent at a given temperature

SOLUTION

PHOTOCHE- A reaction which requires ultraviolet light in order to reach

MICAL RX. activation energy (e.g. substitution in alkanes)

UNSATURA- A hydrocarbon which contains a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C)

TED COMP.

HOMOLOG- Substances that share a functional group, a general formula and

OUS SERIES similar chemical properties, but have different physical properties
and number of carbons

STRUCTUR- Organic compounds which have same molecular formula but

AL ISOMER different structural formula

ADDITION PO- Joining of alkenes to form a long chain polymer

LYMERISATION

COND. POLY- Joining of monomers by removal of OH and H (water H2O) or

MERISATION another small molecule

CRACKING Breakdown of long-chain hydrocarbons into shorter chain and

useful alkanes and alkenes along with hydrogen in some cases

BIODEGRA- A material which can be broken down by enzymes in living

DABLE organisms

RECYCLING Reusing products in order to conserve natural resources and

energy

ENTHALPY The change in energy in a reaction (previously energy change)

CHANGE
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CLOSED Nothing comes in or goes out / None of products or reactants can

REACTION escape
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Formulae, general equations and constants

AVOGADRO 6.02×1023 per mole
CONSTANT

MOLES IN SOLIDS MOLES IN LIQ. MOLES IN GASES at rtp

mass moles vol.

mol.
moles conc. vol. mol. 24
mass

PERCENTAGE ABUNDANCE

(AX × % abundance of AX) + (AY × % abundance of AY)

CHEMICAL FORMULAE

METAL IN acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

ACID

NEUTRA- acid + base → salt + water

LISATION H+ + OH- → H2O

NEUTR. OF acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbonate

CARBONATE

ALKALI M. water + gr1metal → metal hydroxide + hydrogen

IN WATER

DISPLACEM. metal A + metal B salt → metal B + metal A salt

where metal A is more reactive than metal B

THERMAL metal carbonate → metal oxide + carbon dioxide

DECOMP.

COMPLETE CxHY + [x + y/4]O2 → [x]CO2 + [y/2]H2O

COMBUS.
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INCOMP. CXHY + [(x + y/2)/2]O2 → [x]CO + [y/2]H2O
COMBUS.

DISSOCIATI- conc. acid → H+ + negative ion

ON OF ACID dil. acid ⇌ H+ + negative ion

Qualitative analysis
CATIONS
effect of aqueous sodium
cation effect of aqueous ammonia
hydroxide
white ppt., soluble in excess, giving
aluminium, Al 3+ white ppt., insoluble in excess
a colourless solution
ammonium, NH4+ ammonia produced on warming –
calcium, Ca2+ white ppt., insoluble in excess no ppt. or very slight white ppt.
chromium(III), Cr3+ green ppt., soluble in excess green ppt., insoluble in excess
light blue ppt., soluble in excess,
copper(II), Cu2+ light blue ppt., insoluble in excess
giving a dark blue solution
green ppt., insoluble in excess, green ppt., insoluble in excess,
iron(II), Fe2+ ppt. turns brown near surface on ppt. turns brown near surface on
standing standing
iron(III), Fe3+ red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess
white ppt., soluble in excess, giving white ppt., soluble in excess, giving
zinc, Zn2+
a colourless solution a colourless solution

FLAME TESTS
metal ion flame colour
lithium, Li+ red
sodium, Na+ yellow
potassium, K+ lilac
calcium, Ca2+ orange-red
barium, Ba2+ light green
copper(II), Cu2+ blue-green
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ANIONS
anion test test result
carbonate, CO32− add dilute acid, then test for carbon effervescence, carbon dioxide
dioxide gas produced
chloride, Cl − [in acidify with dilute nitric acid, then white ppt.
solution] add aqueous silver nitrate
bromide, Br− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then cream ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous silver nitrate
iodide, I− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then yellow ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous silver nitrate
nitrate, NO3− [in add aqueous sodium hydroxide, ammonia produced
solution] then aluminium foil; warm carefully
sulfate, SO42− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then white ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous barium nitrate
sulfite, SO32− add a small volume of acidified the acidified aqueous potassium
aqueous potassium manganate(VII) changes from
manganate(VII) purple to colourless

TESTS FOR GASES

gas test and test result
ammonia, NH3 turns damp red litmus paper blue
carbon dioxide, CO2 turns limewater milky
chlorine, Cl 2 bleaches damp litmus paper
hydrogen, H2 ‘pops’ with a lighted splint
oxygen, O2 relights a glowing splint
sulfur dioxide, SO2 turns acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) from purple to
colourless

INDICATORS
indicator name colour in acid colour in neutral colour in alkali
universal indicator red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
methyl orange red orange yellow
litmus red purple blue
thymolphethalin colourless colourless blue
red litmus paper – – blue
blue litmus paper red – –
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Important compounds, structures and figures

AMPHOTERIC OXIDES
Aluminium(III) oxide (Al2O3) → forms aluminate Al2O2-
Zinc oxide (ZnO) → forms zincate ZnO2-

GIANT MOLECULES
silicon(IV) oxide (SiO2)
diamond
graphite

COMMON ACIDS
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

COMMON BASES
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Ammonia NH3 (aq)
Calcium oxide CaO

COMMON POLYATOMIC IONS (RADICALS)

Ammonium NH4+
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrate NO3-
Nitrite NO2-
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
Carbonate CO3-
Sulfate SO42-
Sulfite SO32-
Phosphate PO43-
Phosphite PO33-

AIR AND WATER – PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF GASES IN AIR

Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon ~1%
Carbon dioxide 0.04%
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CHEMICAL TESTS FOR WATER

CuSO4 • 5H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O hydrated blue ⇌ anhydrous white

CoCl2 • 6H2O ⇌ CoCl2 + 6H2O hydrated pink ⇌ anhydrous blue

Important syllabus chemical reactions

HABER PROCESS

N2 + 2H2 ⇌ 2NH3

CONDITIONS:
450°C temperature
200atm / 20 000kPa pressure
Powdered iron catalyst
HYDROGEN comes from methane / natural gas
NITROGEN comes from fractional distillation of liquid air

CONTACT PROCESS

2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3

CONDITIONS:
450°C temperature
2atm / 200kPa pressure
Vanadium(V) oxide [V2O5] catalyst
SULFUR DIOXIDE comes from combustion of sulfur and ores containing sulfide
OXYGEN comes from air

CRACKING OF ALKANES

long chain alkane → shorter chain alkane + alkenes

- or -
long chain alkane → alkene + hydrogen

CONDITIONS:
High temperature
High pressure
Presence of catalyst
ALKANES obtained from fractional distillation of crude oil
exact values aren’t important in this reaction.
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SUBSITUTION BY CHLORINE

alkane + chlorine → chloroalkane + hydrogen chloride

CONDITIONS:
Presence of ultraviolet light to provide activation energy

ADDITION OF HYDROGEN TO ALKENE (HYDROGENIATION)

alkene + hydrogen → alkane

CONDITIONS:
150-300°C temperature
Presence of catalyst

CATALYTIC ADDITION OF STEAM

alkene + water → alcohol

CONDITIONS:
300°C temperature
60 atm or 6000kPa pressure
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 catalyst
exact values not usually important

ADDITION OF BROMINE

alkene + bromine → dibromo-alkane

CONDITIONS:
Bromine must be aqueous
Used as a test for unsaturation

OXIDATION OF ALCOHOL

alcohol → carboxylic acid

CONDITIONS:
Done through refluxing
Must be in presence of acidified potassium manganate(VII)
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FERMENTATION (ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION)

glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

CONDITIONS:
Done in presence of yeast
Temperature 35-37°C (optimum temperature for enzymes in yeast)
No air / Air-locked

IMPORANT – CATALYTIC ADDITION OF STEAM vs FERMENTATION

point of comparison catalytic addition of steam fermentation
raw materials non-renewable renewable
type of process continous process batch process
rate of reaction fast slow
cost expensive comparitvely cheap
purity of product pure impure, needs to be distilled
energy needed a lot comparitvely less
yield full yield partial yield

ESTER FORMATION

alcohol + carboxylic acid → ester + water

IMPORTANT – NAMING ESTERS

example:
ethanol + butanoic acid
––––––––
Take the name of the alcohol, remove ‘anol’ and replace with ‘yl’, so ethanol would
be ethyl. Remove ‘ic’ from name of carboxylic acid, and replace with ‘ate’, so
butanoic acid would be butanoate, and product would be ethyl butanoate.
––––––––
→ ethyl butanoate + water
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BLAST FURNACE REACTIONS

1. C + O2 → CO2
combustion of carbon in air

2. CO2 + C → 2CO
reduction of carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide by coke

3. Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide into iron

4. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone)

5. CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

neutralisation of silicon(iv) oxide, the main impurity of iron, by calcium oxide,
which forms calcium silicate, also known as slag

TYPES OF FORMULAE

MOLECULAR shows the number of ions in a molecule C3H6

STRUCTURAL shows the structure of Cs and Hs CH3CH=CH2

EMPERICAL simplest form a formula CH2

GENERAL used in organic chemistry CnH2n

DISPLAYED a drawing showing all bonds

DANGERS OF CERTAIN GASES

CARBON causes enhanced greenhouse effect

DIOXIDE +
METHANE

CARBON toxic (binds to hemoglobin)

MONOXIDE

SULFUR causes acid rain, which:

DIOXIDE + kills plants, animals and fish and cause breathing difficulties
NITROGEN increases lake acidity
DIOXIDE damages buildings and destroys statues
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NITROGEN skin and eye irritation
MONOXIDE breathing problems

FRACTIONATING COLUMN

refinery gas used in cooking

gasoline used as fuel in cars

length of
carbon chains
increases
naphtha used as a chemical
boiling point feedstock
increases
kerosene / paraffin used as jet fuel
compounds
become less
volatile
diesel oil used as fuel in diesel
viscosity engines
increases
fuel oil used in home heating and
as ship fuel
crude oil
lubricating oil used in waxes and
polishes

bitumen used for surfacing roads

CHEMICAL A chemical that acts as a reactant for an industrial reaction

FEEDSTOCK
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GENERAL TIPS FOR PAPER 4 This page should be on the back of the sheet
• read answers more than once and check your answer multiple times
• speed through the exam – leave any unknown questions to the end
• don’t lose track of time – look at the clock every once in a while
• mark revised questions using the tally system (III)
• make sure all diagrams are properly labeled
• use geometric instruments for proper and accurate drawing
• enable digit separator on your calculator
• check answers to long calculation questions (e.g. moles) multiple times and
ensure all figures are written correctly
• interpret the question and highlight keywords before answering
• ensure any subscript (X1) or script (1X) numbers are clearly defined in order to
gain full credit
• use the word ‘only’ in organic chemistry definitions
• revise all definitions thoroughly.
• look out for state symbols (example) and if they are needed in your question
• do not forget the reversible reaction symbol (⇌) if applicable

NOTICE: do not use this document as a main study guide, as it doesn’t cover the
whole syllabus, only including some stuff you might want to recall on exam day