2.

a.
For example, longitudinal elastic sound waves propagate in an isotropic rod, which has a
cross section A, density ρ and modulus Young Y, between x and (x+dx) according to
Newton's laws there is an equation of motion

where u is the deviation from the equilibrium point and S is the pressure. The strain e=du/dx
and the stress S are related by Hooke's law

For a small part actually

so that the wave motion equation (2.1) above becomes

which is known as the one-dimensional wave equation.

A solution in the form of plane wave propagation is taken, namely

Where Ao, k and ω are the amplitude, wave number and radial frequency of the wave.
Substitution of solution (2.4) into the wave equation (2.3) produces

with

is the phase speed of the wave. The relationship (2.5) between frequency and wavenumber is
called the dispersion relation. In this case the relationship is linear, with a slope of phase
velocity, as presented in Figure 2.1 below.

b.
If the one-dimensional elastic wave above only considers the spatial domain solution, namely

and the right end of the rod oscillates the same as the left so it has periodic boundary
conditions

where L is the length of the rod, then substitution (2.7) into (2.8) produces the condition
so that

Each value of n above gives a value of k as a representation of a vibration mode.

If L is very large, then kn is almost continuous (macro view). In domain k, the distance
between points is (2π/L), so the number of vibration modes between k and
(k+dk) equal to

In the frequency domain, the above dN lies between ω and (ω+dω). The state density g(ω) is
defined so that the form g(ω)dω gives the number of vibration modes that have frequencies
between ω and (ω+dω) as above. Therefore it is obtained

This expression only applies to movement in one positive direction only. Thus g(ω) which
includes waves to the left and to the right is

It can be seen that the density of states g(ω) depends on the dispersion relation. For the linear
relationship (2.5), where dω/dk=v s , then we get

which is constant does not depend on ω.

The three-dimensional cubic discussion with edge L provides the condition that

So that

where n, m, l = 0, ±1, ±2, …. Representation in k space shows that a point has a volume
(2π/L) 3 and represents one vibration mode, as in Figure 2.2 below.

3.
Quantization of Vibrational Energy in Solids
The classical kinetic theory of gases assumes that the internal energy for a gas is stored as the
kinetic energy of the atoms. The law of equipartition states that a physical quantity of energy
whose magnitude is directly proportional to the square of distance or momentum, then for
each degree of freedom at temperature T has the same energy, namely (½)k 0 T, where k 0 is
Boltzmann's constant. This means that the kinetic energy of each gas atom has energy (½)k 0
T. Monatomic gases have three degrees of freedom, so that at temperature T the internal
energy for the gas is 1 kilomol

Thus, the heat capacity at constant volume

In fact, the heat capacity per mole is defined as the heat ΔQ required per one mole to raise the
temperature ΔT, namely C=ΔQ/ΔT. If the process takes place at a constant volume, then
ΔQ=ΔU, where ΔU is the increase in energy in the system. In terms of the above equation, N
A is Avogadro's number and R is the gas constant. According to (2.20), this theory produces a

value of C V = 12.47 J/ 0 K kmol. This value is suitable for He and Ar gases at room
temperature. Each atom in a crystal, besides having 3 degrees of freedom for its movement
around its equilibrium position (kinetic energy), also has atomic potential energy in its
harmonic motion. In simple synchronous motion, the average kinetic energy is equal to the
average potential energy, so that the total energy of the atomic system in the crystal is
according to the law of equipartition

This expression shows that the heat capacity of a crystal at constant volume is

The value (2.22) agrees with the empirical discovery of Dulong-Petit (1819), which applies to
almost all solids at room temperature or higher. Furthermore, experiments show that the CV
value decreases as T decreases, and approaches zero when T approaches 0 K. Besides that,
there are very strong indications that at very low temperatures it approaches absolute zero