Waves

1. Mechanical waves
‐ e.g. water waves, sound waves, seismic
waves, strings in musical instruments
Transverse waves 2. Electromagnetic waves
‐ light (ultraviolet, visible, infrared),
mcrowaves, radio waves, television waves,
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X‐rays
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and
3. Matter (=quantum) waves
Department of Physics, HKBU ‐ electrons, protons, other fundamental
particles, atoms and molecules
4. Gravity waves  never observed!
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Electromagnetic Spectrum Wave motion

 EM waves are transverse. (1) Transverse wave Wavefronts

up‐down motion
Rays
‐ Sending a transverse wave along a string.
‐ Each element of the string vibrates at right
angles to the propagation direction of the  Wavefronts  represented by ripples
wave.  Rays  direction of wave motion,
perpendicular (٣) to the wavefronts
(2) Longitudinal wave

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side‐to‐side motion
‐ Sending a longitudinal wave along a spring. Plane wave Spherical wave
‐ Each element of the spring vibrates parallel  Wavefronts  represented by
to the propagation direction of the wave. planes, spaced one wavelength apart.
 Rays  direction of wave motion, ٣
to the wavefronts, not observable!
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Extra information
Waves with both Transverse waves
longitudinal and transverse motions  Transverse waves
‐ the displacement of a point on the string is perpendicular (٣)
 Water waves
‐ In a water wave, all particles
to the direction of the travelling wave
ideal wave form
travel in clockwise circles . ‐ up‐down motion (true for EM and
(see the yellow dots) matter waves,
approximate for
mechanical waves)
 Rayleigh surface waves Water waves
‐ a type of waves during
earthquake, moving in elliptical
paths
‐ particles at the surface trace
out a counter‐clockwise ellipse; ‐ A single pulse is sent along a stretched string. ‐ A “sine” wave is sent along the string.
while particles at a depth could ‐ A typical string element (see the dot) moves ‐ A typical string element moves up and then
trace out clockwise ellipses up and then down once as the pulse passes. down continuously as the wave passes.
(see the yellow dots) ‐ element’s motion ٣ wave’s direction ‐ element’s motion ٣ wave’s direction
Rayleigh surface waves
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transverse wave Department of Physics
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Longitudinal waves Equation of wave propagation

Suppose that at time t = 0, a travelling wave has the form
 Longitudinal waves
‐ the displacement of a particle is parallel ( // ) to the direction of y  x,0  ym sin kx vt

travel of the wave , where ym is the amplitude and k is the wavenumber.

‐ side‐to‐side motion of the particle
‐ A sound wave is set up in an air‐filled
pipe by moving a piston back and forth.
‐ The oscillation of an element of the air
is back and forth as well.
‐ element’s motion // wave’s direction
At time t, the travelling wave will have the same form,
except that it is displaced along the positive x direction by
a displacement vt, where v is the wave speed.
Hence the displacement at position x and time t is given by
 y  x, t   ym sin  k  x  vt  
for sinusoidal waves
This is usually written as

longitudinal wave
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 y  x, t   ym sin  kx  t  , where   k or v   .
k
phase
Wave equation  a function of position and time which gives
the height of the wave at any position x and any time t
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 Wavenumber k Angular frequency ω
Suppose that at t = 0, a travelling wave has the form At x = 0, the wave function becomes
y ( x,0)  ym sin kx y (0, t )   ym sin t

Since the waveform repeats itself when displaced by one Since the waveform repeats itself when delayed by one
wavelength (λ), period (T),
ym sin kx  ym sin  k  x      ym sin  kx  k    ym sin t   ym sin   t  T     ym sin t  T 
Similar to
Thus, k = 2, which gives the wavenumber angular frequency Thus, ωT = 2, which gives the angular frequency
  2
2
  2
related to wavelength T
k (i.e. distance for one wave cycle) Unit: rad/s
 T
related to period
k is also called angular wavenumber. (i.e. time for one , and the frequency f  1   . Unit: 1/s = Hertz = Hz
wave cycle) T 2
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Wave speed ν Wave equation

Since k  2  and   2 T , the wave speed is A wave travelling towards positive x direction is described by

v
    f y ( x, t )  ym sin  k  x   t    ym sin  kx  t 
k T The wave travels by a distance of
one wavelength in one period.
A point on the waveform, as the wave moves in space and time,
Since y(x, t) = ymsin(kx  t), the peak is described by kx  t = constant.
of the travelling wave is described by
kx  t 
 A wave travelling towards negative x direction is described by
2
In general, any point on the waveform, y ( x, t )  ym sin  k  x   t    ym sin  kx  t 
as the wave moves in space and time, is
described by: A point on the waveform, as the wave moves in space and time,
kx  t  constant is described by kx + t = constant.

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 assume sinusoidal waves
Example 1 Answers of Example 1 y ( x, t )  0.00327sin  72.1x  2.72t 
ym k ω
A transverse wave travelling along a string is described by (a) ym = 0.00327 m = 3.27 mm

2 2 2 2
y ( x, t )  0.00327sin  72.1x  2.72t  (b)     0.0871  8.71 cm , T  
1
 2.31 s , f  
1
 0.433 Hz
k 72.1  2.72 T 2.31
, in which the numerical constants are in SI units.  2.72
(c) v    0.0377  3.77 cms1
k 72.1
(a) What is the amplitude of this wave?
(d) y( x, t )  0.00327sin  72.10.225 2.7218.9   0.00192  1.92 mm
(b) What are the wavelength, period, and frequency of this wave?
(c) What is the velocity of this wave? y
(e) u    ym cos  kx  t 
(d) What is the displacement y at x = 22.5 cm and t = 18.9 s? t
   2.72  0.00327  cos  72.1  0.225  2.72  18.9 
(e) What is the transverse velocity u of this element of the string
at the place time in (d)?  7.20 mms1

(f) What is the transverse acceleration ay at the position and time (f) ay 
u
  2 ym sin  kx  t    2 y
in (d)? t
   2.72   0.00192   0.0142  14.2 mms 2
2

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Section Summary Wave speed on a Stretched String

 Transverse waves
Consider the peak of a wave travelling from left to right on the
- displacement of a point ٣ wave propagation direction
stretched string.
 Longitudinal waves If we observe the wave from a reference frame moving at the
- displacement of a point // wave propagation direction wave speed v, the peak becomes stationary, but the string moves
 Equation of wave propagation (towards +ve x direction) from right to left with speed v. Find the speed v.

y ( x, t )  ym sin[k ( x  vt )] or y ( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t )

 Equation of wave propagation (towards -ve x direction)

y ( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t )

Wavenumber, angular frequency, frequency, wave speed

k
2   2 f
1 
 v
 f
 T T 2 k

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 Wave speed on a Stretched String Example 2
Consider a small segment of length l at the peak. Two strings (String 1 and String 2) have been tied together with a
Let  be the tension in the string. knot and then stretched between two rigid supports.
The strings have linear densities 1 = 1.4  104 kgm1 and 2 =
Vertical component of the force on the element:
both sides small θ 2.8  104 kgm1. Their lengths are L1 = 3 m and L2 = 2 m, and
l String 1 is under a tension of 400 N. Simultaneously, on each
F  2sin    2    , where R is the
R radius of curvature. string a pulse is sent from the rigid support end, towards the knot.
Mass of the segment: m  l Which pulse reaches the knot first?
μ = Δm / Δl = mass per unit length = linear density
2
Centripetal acceleration v
a
in moving reference frame: R
l v2
Using Newton’s second law, F=ma,    l  “stretching = lengthening”
R R  causes an elastic restoring force Analysis  start from simpler case (single string, constant density, same tension);
 speeds, meeting point?
This reduces to v Note that  represents the elastic property of the Different strings  effect due to diff. densities or diff. tensions or diff. lengths?
 stretched string, and  represents its inertial property. Are tensions different?
Approach  calculate wave speeds on both strings, then calculate arrival times at knot.
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Answer of Example 2 Energy and Power of a Travelling String Waves

Kinetic energy
Consider a string element of mass dm.
1
Kinetic energy: dK  dm u 2
2
 Since y(x, t) = ymsin(kx  t),
v1 
1 y
u   ym cos  kx  t 
L1  1.4  10 4 t
t1   L1 1  3  1.77  103 s μ = mass per
v1  400 Since dm = dx, unit length
 1
dK    dx   ym  cos  kx  t 
2
v2  2

2 2 power
L2  2.8  10 4 Rate of kinetic energy transmission:
t2   L2 2  2  1.67  103 s
v2  400 dK 1 dx
  2 ym2 cos2  kx  t 
dt 2 dt
Thus, the pulse on string 2 reaches the knot first.

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Energy and Power of a Travelling String Waves Energy and Power of a Travelling String Waves
Potential energy
Using v = dx/dt,
Potential energy is carried in the string when it is stretched.
dK 1 Stretching is largest when the displacement has the largest gradient.
  v 2 ym2 cos2  kx  t 
dt 2 Hence, the potential energy is also maximum at the y = 0 position
This is different from the harmonic oscillator, in which the energy is
conserved.
Kinetic energy is maximum at the y = 0
position.
Consider the extension s of a string element.

 dx    y ( x  dx, t )  y ( x, t )
2 2
s   dx
dy

 y 
2   y 
2 
 dx 
2
   dx   dx   1     1 dx
 x    x  
slope
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Energy and Power of a Travelling String Waves Energy and Power of a Travelling String Waves
Using power series expansion, ( (1 + a2) ~ 1 + ½ a2 for small a2 ) Since v = dx/dt and k2 = 2/v2 = 2/,

 1  y  2  1  y 
2
dU 1 dK
s  1     1 dx    dx   v 2 ym2 cos2  kx  t  
dt 2 dt
 2  x   2  x 
dE dK dU
The potential energy of the string element is given by the work done in Mechanical energy (power):     v 2 ym2 cos2  kx  t 
extending the string element, use work dW = force τ × distance Δs dt dt dt
2
  y  
dU  dW  s    dx  k 2 ym2 cos2  kx  t  dx Average power of transmission: P 
dE
  v 2 ym2 cos2  kx  t 
2  x  2 dt
Rate of potential energy transmission: , where … represents averaging over time.
power
dU  2 2 dx
 k ym cos2  kx  t  1
dt 2 dt Since cos2(kx  t) = 1/2, average power: P   v 2 ym2
2

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 Energy and Power of a Travelling String Waves
This result can be interpreted in the following way.
Consider the front of a propagating wave along a string.
In a time dt, a string element of length dx = vdt is set into a
simple harmonic motion. Its velocity amplitude is ym.
dm = dx
Example 3
A string has a linear density  of 525 g/m and is stretched with
a tension  of 45 N. A wave whose frequency f and amplitude
ym are 120 Hz and 8.5 mm, respectively, is travelling along the
string. At what average rate is the wave transporting energy
along the string? Simply applying the equations.

1   2f  (2 )(120)  754.0 rads 1

Energy of the string element: dE  dm  ym 
2
from E = ½ mν 2
2  45
v   9.258 ms 1
 0.525
dE 1 dx 1
   ym    v 2 ym2
2
Average power: P  1 1
dt 2 dt 2 P   v 2 ym2    (0.525)(9.258)(754.0) 2 (0.0085) 2  99.8 W
2 2
as before

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Section Summary Principle of Superposition of Waves

  Overlapping waves algebraically
 Wave speed of a stretched string: v add to produce a resultant wave.

Note: not derivative,
 τ  elastic property, tension only sum of waves
 μ  inertial property, linear density (i.e. mass per unit length) y '( x, t )  y1 ( x, t )  y2 ( x, t )
 Kinetic energy is maximum at the y = 0 position.
 Potential energy is also maximum at the y = 0 position.  Overlapping waves do not in any
way alter each other.
1  True for small amplitudes, but
 Average power: P   v 2 ym2
2 tall waves change each other.
e.g. crashing water waves!

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 Interference of Waves Interference of Waves
Suppose we send two sinusoidal waves of the same wavelength Using the trigonometric identity,
and amplitude in the same direction along a stretched string.
       
sin   sin   2sin 
y1 ( x, t )  ym sin  kx  t   2
 cos 
  2 

delay
we obtain
y2 ( x, t )  ym sin  kx  t   
   
y '( x, t )   2 ym cos  sin  kx  t  
 is called the phase difference or phase shift between the two  2  2
waves. amplitude phase shift
as before
Combined displacement: The resultant wave…
(1) is also a travelling wave in the same direction
y '( x, t )  ym sin  kx  t   ym sin  kx  t    (2) has a phase constant of /2
(3) has an amplitude of y’m = 2ymcos(/2)

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Interference of Waves Interference of Waves

double
height

Fully constructive interference If  = 0, y '( x, t )  2 ym sin  kx  t 

(maximum amplitude)
See fig. (d)
Fully destructive interference If  = , y ( x, t )  0
(zero amplitude) See fig. (e)
If  is between 0 and  or between  and 2,
Intermediate interference
the amplitude is intermediate. See fig. (f)
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Example 4 Answers to Example 4
Two identical sinusoidal waves, moving in the same direction   100o 
y 'm  2 ym cos  (2)(9.8 mm) cos    13 mm
(a) 2  2 
along a stretched string, interfere with each other.
The amplitude ym of each wave is 9.8 mm, and the phase 
(b) y 'm  2 ym cos
2
difference  between them is 100°.

4.9  (2)(9.8) cos two possible solutions
(a) What is the amplitude y’m of the resultant wave due to the 2
interference, and what is the type of this interference? 
  2 cos 1 
4.9 
  2.636 rad  2.6 rad
(b) What phase difference, in radians and wavelengths, will give  ( 2)(9.8) 
the resultant wave an amplitude of 4.9 mm?
 = +2.6 rad: The second wave leads (travels ahead of) the first wave.
 = 2.6 rad: The second wave lags (travels behind) the first wave.
2.636
In wavelengths, the phase difference is   0.42 wavelength
2

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Standing Waves Two opposite traveling waves add to

each other, forming a standing wave:
Standing Waves
 Superposition of two waves of equal wavelength and equal amplitude,
travelling in opposite directions
A2 wave 1

wave 2
A1
antinodes
wave sum

nodes
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 Standing Waves Standing Waves
Properties:
Consider two sinusoidal waves of the same wavelength and amplitude travelling (1) The resultant wave is not a travelling wave, but is a standing wave.
in the opposite direction along a stretched string. e.g. the locations of the maxima and minima do not change.
y1 ( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t ) (2) There are positions where the string is permanently at rest.
They are called nodes, and are located at
y2 ( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t )
sin(kx) = 0  kx  n for n  0, 1, 2,
Combined displacement:
n  The nodes are separated
x n for n  0, 1, 2,
y '( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t )  ym sin(kx  t ) k 2 by half wavelength.

Using the trigonometric identity, (3) There are positions where the string has the maximum amplitude.
They are called antinodes, and are located at
       
sin   sin   2 sin   cos  sin(kx) = 1  kx  1  , 3  , 5  ,   n  1  for n  0, 1, 2,
 2   2  2 2 2  2

we obtain  1
x and t are now decoupled! x  n   for n  0, 1, 2,
 2 2
y ' ( x, t )  [2 ym sin kx] cos t  standing wave The antinodes are separated by half wavelength.
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Standing Waves Reflections transverse pulse

at a Boundary
Fixed end:
(1)The fixed end becomes a node.
(2)The reflected wave vibrates in the
start here: K=0 opposite transverse direction.
Free end: wall pulls string pulls
Energy in standing waves: (1)The free end becomes an antinode.
- does not travel string down string down
(2)The reflected wave vibrates in the
- exchanges between kinetic energy K same transverse direction.
and potential energy U At the free end:
At the fixed end: Displacement
Displacement = 0 gradient = 0

See animation
“Reflection of Waves in Physics”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0mZk2vW5rWU

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 Section Summary Standing Waves and Resonance
oscillator oscillator
Two sinusoidal waves of the same wavelength and amplitude along a stretched string:
Circular
    2 loops:
 Travelling in the same direction y '( x, t )   2 ym cos  sin  kx  t   shape:
 still travelling wave  2   2 somewhat
complicated,
special math
Fully constructive interference:  = 0  maximum amplitude functions
Fully destructive interference:  =   zero amplitude 3 loops:
Rectangular
shape:
 Travelling in the opposite direction simpler: like
 standing wave, energy does not travel,
y ' ( x, t )  [2 ym sin kx] cos t two linear
patterns
K.E.  P.E. exchanges 4 loops: superposed
n 
nodes: always at rest  x n for n  0, 1, 2,
k 2
 1 1, 5, 6, 7, …
antinodes: max. amplitude x  n   for n  0, 1, 2, loops also
 2 2
possible
*Fixed end  node  out-of-phase reflection *Free end  antinode  in-phase

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Standing Waves and Resonance Standing Waves and Resonance

See Youtube “Resonance Phenomena in 2D on a Plane” and “Millenium Bridge Opening”.
Consider a string with length L stretched between https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qf0t4qIVWF4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQK21572oSU
two fixed ends.
Case (a): 2 nodes at the ends, 1 antinode in the middle
Boundary condition: nodes at each of the fixed 
ends. L ,   2L.
2
When the string is driven by an external force, at a v v
Resonant frequency: f  .
certain frequency the standing wave will fit this  2L
boundary condition. Case (b): 3 nodes and 2 antinodes

Then this oscillation mode will be excited. L  .

v v
The frequency at which the oscillation mode is Resonant frequency: f  .
excited is called the resonant frequency.  L
Case (c): 4 nodes and 3 antinodes
3 2L
L ,  .
2 3
See animation “Standing Waves Demo” v 3v
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-gr7KmTOrx0 Resonant frequency: f  .
 2L
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 Standing Waves and Resonance Example 5
A string of mass m = 2.5 g and length L = 0.8 m is under tension
In general,
 = 325 N.
n 2L (a) What is the wavelength  of the transverse waves producing
L ,  ,
2 n for n = 1, 2, 3,  the standing-wave pattern in Fig. 16-25, and what is the
harmonic number n?
Resonant frequency: (b) What is the frequency f of the transverse waves and of the
v v oscillations of the moving string elements?
f n , for n = 1, 2, 3,  (c) What is the maximum magnitude of the transverse velocity
 2L
um of the element oscillating at coordinate x = 0.18 m?
n = 1 fundamental mode, or first harmonic (d) At what point during the element’s oscillation is the
n = 2 second harmonic transverse velocity maximum?
n = 3 third harmonic
etc.

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Answers to Example 5 Answers to Example 5 (continued)

we need the waveform for general location x, not a special location like node or antinode
(c) y ' ( x, t )  [2 ym sin kx] cos t where ym = 0.002 m.
L 0 .8
(a)    0. 4 m
2 2
y 
Since there are four loops, n = 4. u ( x, t )   (2 ym sin kx cos t )
t t
 325  2ym sin kx sin t
(b) v   322.5 ms 1
 0.0025 / 0.8
Magnitude: um   2ym sin kx
v 322.5
f    806.2  806 Hz 2 2
 0.4 Here,   2f  (2 )(806.2) k 
 0.4
L = 2
 2 
At x=0.18 m, um   2(2 )(806.2)(0.002) sin  (0.18)  6.26 ms 1
   0 .4 

(d) The transverse velocity is maximum when y = 0.

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Example 6 Answers to Example 6
In the arrangement of Fig. 18-23, a motor sets the string into F
motion at a frequency of 120 Hz. The string has a length of L =   F = μv2 … equation (1)

1.2 m, and its linear mass density is 1.6 g/m. To what value
must the tension be adjusted (by increasing the hanging weight)  
fn  n ( n  1, 2,3,...)  v = 2Lfn/n … equation (2)
to obtain the pattern of motion having four loops? n 2L

To find the tension, we can substitute Eq. (1) into Eq. (2)
and obtain 2 2
4L fn 
this is a resonance mode with 4 loops F
n2
The tension corresponding to n = 4 (for 4 loops) is found to be
4 1.2 m  120 Hz   0.0016 kg/m 
2 2

F  8.3 N
42

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Summary of equations Summary of equations

Travelling waves 1
Transmitted power P   v 2 ym2
y ( x, t )  ym sin[k ( x  vt )] or y ( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t ) 2

Wavenumber Angular frequency Frequency Interference y 'm  2 ym cos
2
2
k   2 1 
f 
 T T 2
Standing wave y ( x, t )  [2 ym sin kx ]cos t
Wave velocity Travelling wave (opposite direction)

v  f y ( x, t )  ym sin(kx  t ) Reflection at fixed end  node, oscillation at opposite transverse direction
k
Reflection at free end  antinode, oscillation at same transverse direction

Stretched string
v v
 Vibrating string (fixed ends) f  n
v
  2L
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